Kempf Notes

1M Fluids
Supplementary Information
Andreas M Kempf
2010-2011
ii
Disclaimer: This document summarises some of the information required for
the 1M Fluids course. It can help you study and prepare, but it is not o-
cially related to the course. The ocial documentation for 1M Fluids is Fox,
McDonald, Pritchard, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics.
Some Notes for 1M Fluids
With contributions by: Bharat Lad, Konstantinos Zarogoulidis
Proofreading and corrections by:
Mark Dean, David Farrell, Marc Hinken, Josef Huwiler, Hassan Joudi, Bharat
Lad, Rolf Lechner, Sam Weeks, David Muller-Wiesner, Francesco Ferroni,
Ailing Wang, Chern Sim, Victor Luzzato, Konstantinos Zarogoulidis, Ruili
Chen, Jianwei Zhang, Mazda Rustomji, ... and many others.
Dr. Andreas M. Kempf
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Imperial College London
Room 642
a.kempf@imperial.ac.uk
Typeset with L
A
T
E
X.
The L
A
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like Linux and Mac OS-X, and as miktex for windows.
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Basic Treatment of Fluid Flow 3
2.1 Continuum Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Denition of a Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Systems vs. Control Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Velocity Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Classication of Fluid Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.7.1 Laminar vs. Turbulent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.7.2 Incompressible vs. Compressible . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7.3 Newtonian vs. non-Newtonian Fluids . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7.4 Single-phase vs. multi-phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7.5 Sub-sonic vs. super-sonic and trans-sonic . . . . . . . 14
2.7.6 Reactive vs. non-reactive ows . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 Fluid Statics 15
3.1 Basic Equation of static uids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Pressure Variation in uids of constant density . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4 Flow Rates 21
5 Basic Laws for Systems and Control-Volumes 25
5.1 Specic conservation principles for systems . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2 General conservation principle for systems . . . . . . . . . . 27
iii
iv CONTENTS
5.3 Relation between Systems and Control Volumes . . . . . . . 28
5.4 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4.1 Conservation of mass for constant density . . . . . . 31
5.5 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume . . . . . . . . . 32
5.6 Conservation of Momentum for a Control Volume . . . . . . 33
6 Specic Laws and Special Cases 35
6.1 Bernoullis Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.1.1 Bernoullis Equation Derived from the Energy Equation 35
6.2 Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.3 Laminar Pipe-Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7 Final notes 41
Chapter 1
Introduction
Recommended Books
The book by Fox, McDonald and Pritchard is the ocial documentation for
the 1M Fluids course.
Fox, McDonald, Pritchard, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Wiley &
Sons 2004, ISBN 0-471-20231-2. This sixth edition may no longer be
available, but any later edition will be suitable.
Hardalupas, Y., Crane, R., Formulas and Tables, Imperial College 2007
Lectures and Tutorials 2010/2011
The tutorial questions given in the following table are recommended for self
study beyond the normal compulsory tutorials. The numbers refer to the sixth
and seventh edition of Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by Fox, McDonald,
Pritchard in both the US and SI editions. Starred questions may have changed
from the sixth edition.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
# Lecture, Topic FMP 6 FMP 7 (US) FMP 7 (SI)
1 What is Fluid Mechanics? 1.5, 1.6, 1.7 1.5, 1.6, 1.7 1.5, 1.6, 1.7
2 Velocity Field. Stresses. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 2.1, 2.2, 2.3
3 Viscosity and Fluid Motion. 2.29, 2.41, 2.42 2.35, 2.51, 2.54 2.34, 2.50, 2.53
4 Hydro Statics. 3.1, 3.5, 3.20 3.1, 3.5, 3.20 3.1, 3.5, 3.20
5 Hydro Static Forces. 3.43, 3.46, 3.48 3.48, 3.51, 3.52 3.48, 3.51, 3.52
6 Examples Class. 3.23, 3.31, 3.55 3.26, 3.34, 3.62 3.48, 3.51, 3.52
7 Fluxes and ow rates. 4.10, 4.20 4.10, 4.20 4.10, 4.20
8 Systems, Control Volumes. 4.13, 4.21 4.13, 4.30 4.13, 4.30
9 Conservation of Mass. 4.19, 4.25, 4.27 4.28, 4.34, 4.36 4.28, 4.34, 4.36
10 Conservation of Energy. 4.183, 4.184 4.198, 4.199 4.198, 4.199
11 Introduction to Fluids Labs. 4.185, 4.189 *, 4.205 *, 4.205
12 Energy, Bernoullis Equation. 6.44, 6.45, 6.46 6.51*, 6.52*, 6.53 6.51*, 6.52*, 6.53
13 Conservation of Momentum. 4.11, 4.13 4.11, 4.13 4.11, 4.13
14 Examples Class. 4.112, 4.115 4.127, 4.130* 4.127, 4.130*
15 Boundary Layers.
16 Laminar Pipe Flows. 8.44, 8.52 8.45, 8.49 8.45, 8.49
17 Losses in Pipe Flows. 8.84, 8.86 8.84, 8.87* 8.84, 8.87*
18 Pipe Flow Problems. 8.141, 8.142 8.154*, 8.153* 8.154*, 8.153*
19 Flow Measurements.
20 Revision. many...
21 Revision for exams. ....more
Chapter 2
Basic Treatment of Fluid
Flow
2.1 Continuum Assumption
Fox et al. [1]: 2-1
Fluids and solids consist of a very large number of small particles, the molecules.
Each molecule is a distinct, individual particle, but taken together, they be-
have like the continuous uids and solids we experience in daily life: they form
a continuum.
In most engineering applications of solid or uid mechanics, we make use
of this continuum assumption, as we are not interested in the behaviour of
individual molecules. (If we could determine the behaviour of each individual
molecule, we would end up with much irrelevant information.)
The continuum assumption implies that the property of a uid remains con-
stant regardless of how much uid we examine. It also implies that a uids
behavior does not change within the local region of any given point. This is
not the case if we were to consider individual particles, where properties at a
point would dier depending on whether it was being occupied by a particle
or not.
3
4 CHAPTER 2. BASIC TREATMENT OF FLUID FLOW
Figure 2.1: Air seen as a group of many individual molecules or as a contin-
uum. If we consider a suciently large number of molecules, only statistical
properties matter (the behaviour of individual molecules can be ignored) and
the material can be treated as a continuum.
2.2 Stresses
Fox et al. [1]: 2-3
In many cases, mechanical forces are distributed over an area. For example,
consider a steel cable carrying a weight. We know that the cable will break if
the force is too large, but a cable with a larger cross-section would support a
greater force.
Figure 2.2: A cable of cross sectional area A undergoing stress due to the
force F.
In the end, it is not the total force F that determines whether a structure will
break, but it is the force per area A of cross section. This force per area of
cross section is called a stress, and we usually use the symbol to refer to
it.
= F/A (2.1)
A similar situation occurs if we consider the force a wheel exerts on a road.
Here, the stresses are important, which we would calculate as the weight W
2.2. STRESSES 5
(per wheel) divided by the contact area A:
= W/A (2.2)
Since the weight force acts normal (perpendicular) to the surface, we call
this a normal stress. If the weight of the vehicle exerts too great a stress,
the surface beneath it can be destroyed. This can be very relevant for large
aircraft, which use many wheels to increase the contact area and thus reduce
stress. But what happens if the vehicle accelerates, for example when braking
or when cornering? The force F required for acceleration acts in a direction
parallel (tangential) to the road, and the load is also taken by the contact
area A. The resulting stress F/A is very dierent from the normal stress , as
F/A acts parallel to the surface. We call such parallel stresses shear stresses
and refer to them as .
Figure 2.3: A wheel supporting the weight W with an accelerating force F
acting on contact area A. These forces lead to normal stresses = W/A
and shear stresses = F/A.
In the example of the stresses in a cable, we did not consider stresses on a
real surface, but just in a cross-section through the cable. We could certainly
consider any cross-section through the cable, even one that is aligned along
the length of the cable: in this plane, we would expect the stresses to be
zero.
To elaborate on normal and shear stresses, consider a solid cube on a at
surface. If we cut the cube in a top and a bottom half, and consider the
forces on the cut surface, a force balance will yield a normal stress that equals
the weight of the cubes top half divided by the cut area. If we cut the cube
into a left and a right half, we will not observe any forces between the two
halves. However, if we cut the cube diagonally, the force-balance will yield
both normal stresses and shear stresses .
Figure 2.4: A solid cube on a at surface, cut in dierent directions. The
only force on the cube is gravity, leading to normal stresses and shear
stresses that depend on the cutting plane.
Therefore, the stresses we see across a cut plane depend on the direction of the
cross sectional area. So for any stress, we have to mention the direction which
the surface faces. As a result it is important to understand the conventional
notation used for normal and shear stresses.
Figure 2.5: Stress notations for normal () and shear () stresses.
Consider three independent directions x, y and z, to which the surfaces are
perpendicular. For each direction, we can encounter a normal stress corre-
sponding to a force that points in the same direction, and two independent
shear stresses pointing parallel to the surface. For example, on the surface
facing the x direction, we can encounter the normal stress
xx
and the shear
stresses
xy
and
xz
, where as on the y surface:
yy
,
yx
and
yz
and on the
2.3. DEFINITION OF A FLUID 7
z surface:
zz
,
zx
and
zy
. Applying the notational convention to the cut
cube we discussed earlier, the stresses on the cut face can be described like
so:
Figure 2.6: Notation of stresses. The rst index denotes the direction normal
to the face, whilst the second index denotes the direction of the stress: "Face
rst, stress second"
All together, we have a total of nine stresses (3 normal and 6 shear), and
we follow the convention that the rst index denotes the direction in which a
surface faces (normal to the surface), whereas the second index refers to the
direction of the force.
"Face rst, stress second."
The stresses for each direction have the property of a vector (3 components
in x, y and z). This means that stresses at a point can be described by "a
vector of vectors", a matrix that is usually called the "stress tensor":
_
_
_
xx

xy

xz
yx

yy

yz
zx

zy

zz
_
_
_ (2.3)
2.3 Denition of a Fluid
Fox et al. [1]: 1-2
We already have an idea of what distinguishes uids (liquids or gases) from
solids. We can dene a uid by relating its behaviour in response to an applied
stress. According to Fox, McDonald and Pritchard [1], we can dene a uid
as:
"A substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear stress
no matter how small the stress may be."
1
2.4 Systems vs. Control Volumes
Fox et al. [1]: 1-5
In mechanics, it is usually necessary to compute the forces acting on an
object in order to understand or predict its response. There are two distinct
approaches for doing this. We could compute the acceleration of a point-mass
due to a force, or we could compute the forces acting on a frame surrounding
the point mass.
In continuum mechanics, we must dene exactly what a force acts on. In
uid mechanics, we will often consider uids that move through or around an
object like a pump, an aeroplane, a blood-vessel or a jet-engine. We can then
dene a volume in physical space through which the uid will ow, and can
do a force-balance for this volume. Such a volume is called a control volume
(CV). The size, location and shape of the CV is up to us, but we would usually
specify it such that the computation will be as simple as possible.
A concept similar to control volumes is often applied in thermo-dynamics: a
system. Here again, we can decide what shall be part of the system, but there
is an important dierence between control volumes and systems: a system
consists of a xed mass, and no mass can cross the system boundaries. A
system can deform, absorb heat, or be accelerated, but it will always consist of
the original material (or of the original molecules). In contrast, mass can cross
the boundaries of a control volume, but the control volume cannot change its
size, shape or location.
2.5. VELOCITY FIELD 9
Figure 2.7: Systems (left) and Control Volumes (right). Systems are dened
as an amount of mass, with no exchange of mass across the system boundaries.
A control volume is a xed volume in space that neither moves nor changes
its shape, but mass can pass through it.
2.5 Velocity Field
Fox et al. [1]: 2-2
In mathematics, functions describe the relations between dierent quantities.
A simple example would be the function f that relates x to y, for exam-
ple y = f(x). f(x) could describe a range of dierent relations including
f(x) = 2x, x
2
or x
3
+2x
2
+3x etc. One common example used in electrical
engineering relates a current I to voltage U over a resistor R by the function
f
r
: I = f
r
(U, R) = U/R
A function that depends on a position in physical space describes a eld. If the
function depends on one coordinate only (e.g. x), the eld is one-dimensional.
If it depends on two coordinates (e.g. x, y), the eld is two-dimensional.
Accordingly the eld is three dimensional if the function depends on all three
coordinates (e.g. x, y, z).
One example of a eld could be a map of the wind-velocity across the UK, as it
is frequently seen in weather-forecasts: This velocity-eld is two dimensional
(Realistically the velocity eld of wind will be 3D however this s simplied
to 2D for the weather forecast). As the wind has magnitude and direction,
it as a vector: in contrast to a scalar-eld (such as temperature which has
magnitude only and no direction), the wind-eld is a vector-eld.
In uid mechanics, we are concerned with the forces on uids and with the
motion of uids. This motion of uids is described by three independent
velocity components u, v, w at each point x, y, z, in the velocity-vector-eld
1
The distinction between uids and solids is not always clear, but for now, and in
many technical applications, we can ignore borderline cases such as toothpaste, sand, solid
emulsion paint, shaving gel, tar, or dough.
V .
2
All three velocity components u, v, w can change at dierent locations
x, y, z, so each component u, v, w of the velocity vector-eld is a function of
x, y, z:
u = u(x, y, z)
v = v(x, y, z) (2.4)
w = w(x, y, z).
In vector notation, we could also write:
V =
_
_
_
u
v
w
_
_
_ =
_
_
_
u(x, y, z)
v(x, y, z)
w(x, y, z)
_
_
_. (2.5)
Writing vector elds in this notation is laborious as we always need three
dierent lines. However, we can use a notation that is based on the unity
vectors
3

i,
j,
k pointing in x, y, z direction respectively.

4
V = u(x, y, z)
i + v(x, y, z)
j + w(x, y, z)
k. (2.6)
2.6 Viscosity
Fox et al. [1]: 2-4
So far we have looked at describing uids as continua, what kind of stresses
exist within uids and how we can describe the velocity in terms of a eld
within a volume of uid. In section 2.3 we dened a uid as "a substance
that deforms continuously under the application of a shear stress no matter
how small the stress may be"[1]. However, we have not yet discussed how
quickly it will deform when a stress is applied.
Sir Isaac Newton showed that for many uids, the rate of deformation is pro-
portional to the stress applied. For these uids the constant of proportionality
2
To simplify our life, we usually assume that the velocity component u describes motion
in the x direction, v describes motion in the y direction, and w describes motion in the z
direction.
3
A unity vector is a vector of magnitude one.
4
The unity vectors

i,
j,
k are dened as:

i =
1
0
0
;

j =
0
1
0
;

k =
0
0
1
2.6. VISCOSITY 11
U
top
U
bottom
x
y
Figure 2.8: In between two moving plates, the uid velocity prole will be
linear between the velocities of the upper and bottom plates due to the no-slip
condition.
is viscosity. So the fact that dierent uids (e.g. water, oil or honey) ow
down an inclined surface at very dierent speed is due to the viscosity of the
uid.
Let us consider the example of a uid between two horizontal parallel plates
that slide over each other in the x direction. We introduce a second coordinate
y perpendicular to the surface of the plates. We also dene that at a wall,
uids stick to the surface (this is called the no-slip condition). Therefore
the uid-velocity on the surface of the top-plate equals the velocity of the
top-plate, whereas the velocity on the bottom-plate equals the velocity of the
bottom plate. In between the plates, we just encounter a linear velocity prole
that ranges from the velocity of the bottom plate to the velocity of the top
plate.
We can dene the deformation rate as the change of surface-parallel velocity
u, per unit change of normal distance y i.e.
du
dy
. Sliding the plates over
each other requires a force. This will produce the shear stress
yx
within the
uid. Hence the uid encounters a shear stress
yx
that is proportional to the
deformation rate
du
dy
:
yx

du
dy
(2.7)

yx
= c
du
dy
(2.8)
The proportionality constant determines the magnitude of stress required to
produce a given deformation rate. As explained previously the proportionality
constant is viscosity () and is a property of the uid. Viscosity is a property
of the uid, and Newton discovered its importance. So Newtons famous law
of viscosity is:
yx
=
du
dy
(2.9)
The viscosity of dierent uids varies signicantly, for example, air at 0
C and
atmospheric pressure has a viscosity of only = 1.72 10
5
Nsm
2
, whereas
water at 0
C has a viscosity of = 1.76 10

3
Nsm
2
. This means water
requires a greater shear stress applied than air for a given deformation rate.
We know this to be true from what we experience in our daily life.
2.7 Classication of Fluid Motion
Fox et al. [1]: 2-6
In the next chapter, we will try to solve problems of uid-mechanics math-
ematically. However the equations that accurately describe uid-motion are
generally too complicated to solve directly, even for a computer. But in some
special cases, terms in the equations can be neglected to an extent where even
solutions using pen and paper become viable. To identify situations where we
can neglect certain terms, it is useful to classify the dierent types of uid
motion.
2.7.1 Laminar vs. Turbulent
In the late 19th century, Osborne Reynolds discovered an important change in
the way a uid behaves depending on how fast it ows, its viscosity, its density,
and on the size of the ow-domain (e.g. the diameter of a pipe). For low
velocities, all the uid-particles will move parallel along a highly predictable,
2.7. CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID MOTION 13
smooth path very often even along a straight line. However, if the velocity or
density are suciently high (or if the viscosity is suciently low), an instability
occurs which deects the uid-particles from their simple straight paths
inducing a chaotic helical motion or turbulence. Turbulence can be seen in
the shape of clouds ("cauliower-like"), in the chaotic motion of cigarette
smoke, in large ames and even in a cup when stirring tea and milk. From
observing a turbulent ow it quickly becomes clear that its prediction is much
harder than that of a non-turbulent (i.e. laminar ) ow.
2.7.2 Incompressible vs. Compressible
A uid is incompressible if its density does not change with pressure. In real-
ity, all uids are compressible, but the degree of compressibility varies. When
a change in pressure does not induce a signicant change in density, the uid
can be treated as incompressible (this will introduce only minor errors). The
dierence between an incompressible and compressible uid can be highlighted
by comparing a gas such as air and a liquid such as water. Whereas air can be
compressed with ease, water requires very large pressures for only minor com-
pression. However, even gases can be treated as incompressible if the change
in pressure is so small that the change in volume remains negligible.
5
2.7.3 Newtonian vs. non-Newtonian Fluids
A uid is called "Newtonian" if Newtons law of viscosity (2.9) applies. This
is the case for gases, water, many oils and most solvents. In other uids,
viscosity is no longer constant but changes with the shear rate, for example in
tooth-paste, gels and even in blood. Such uids are called "non-Newtonian"
uids, as their rate of strain is disproportional to the applied stress.
2.7.4 Single-phase vs. multi-phase
In some situations, multi-phase ows occur, where a liquid phase is combined
with a gaseous or solid phase, for example in the case of a water jet in air or
5
We will later see that pressure increases as the velocity of a uid increases. This
means that a uid can be treated as incompressible if the velocity remains low typically
signicantly lower than the speed of sound in this uid.
of sand particles suspended in sea-water. Such multi-phase ows are much
harder to understand and can lead to very interesting phenomena.
2.7.5 Sub-sonic vs. super-sonic and trans-sonic
In super-sonic ows, the uid moves faster than the speed of sound. The uid
is compressed and expanded signicantly and tends to behave very dierently
to sub-sonic ows. If the uid-velocity is close to the speed of sound, one
refers to trans-sonic speeds. Civil aircraft typically cruise at 0.8 times the
speed of sound, close to the transonic region. However, the ow can be
trans-sonic on parts of the airframe.
2.7.6 Reactive vs. non-reactive ows
If a uid undergoes chemical reaction, one refers to a reacting ow. A typical
example would be a ame, where gaseous fuel reacts chemically with an
oxidiser to form combustion-products.
Chapter 3
Fluid Statics
Fox et al. [1]: 3
In section 2.6 we introduced Newtons law of viscosity, according to which
shear stresses in a uid are related to the rate of deformation. The shear
stresses are zero if the uid is at rest if the uid is static. This means that
in static uids, not only we can ignore motion but also the shear stresses.
Furthermore, in static uids, all the normal stresses
xx
,
yy
,
zz
will be the
same, equaling the pressure p, which means that the mechanics of a static
uid will be much simpler
1
. To conclude, in static uids all six shear stresses
are zero and the three normal stresses equal the pressure: the entire stress
eld can be described by the scalar "pressure" only.
Diving, ying or climbing we all have experienced that the air or water pres-
sure drops with increasing altitude and grows with depth. The cause for the
pressure on a submerged surface is the weight of the uid above it. Let us
consider a cube (with sides of 1 m length) supported in water so that the
top-surface is ush with the water surface. If we submerge that cube 1 m
under the water level, the pressure force on the top-surface will increase by
9,810 N, which is precisely the weight of the thousand liters of water above
the cube. One meter under the water surface, the top-surface of the cube
will experience a pressure that is the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the
1
The equality of all three normal stresses can be seen from the following thought-
experiment: Let us assume a static cube of uid could experience the stresses xx = 0,
yy = zz = 0. If we were to consider a cross-section that is not perpendicular to the x
direction, a force-balance would yield non-zero shear-stresses. But according to Newtons
law, the shear stresses are zero if no deformation occurs. This contradiction shows that
the normal stresses in a static uid can not be dierent, they all must be the same.
15
16 CHAPTER 3. FLUID STATICS
Figure 3.1: Submerged cube, experiencing 9,810N pressure force from
shaded region
pressure due to the weight of the water above.
The force from the atmospheric pressure is equal to the weight of the air above
the surface. In this case using an atmospheric pressure value of 1.013 10
5
Nm
2
for a 1m
2
surface, corresponds to 1.013 10
5
N (corresponding to
approximately ten tons of air above each square meter at sea level).
3.1 Basic Equation of static uids
Fox et al. [1]: 3-1
Let us consider the eect of gravity g using a uid element of height dh
density and cross-sectional area A. The change in pressure down the
height of the element due to the weight of the uid will then be dp. This
means that the pressure at the bottom of the uid-element is dp higher than
at the top. We can compute the change in pressure dp for the co-ordinate z
in the vertical direction from the weight W of the uid:
Adp = W = Ag dz
As we are only interested in the pressure, we can discard the area A and
obtain the basic equation of static uids:
dp = gdz (3.1)
3.2. PRESSURE VARIATION IN FLUIDS OF CONSTANT DENSITY 17
Figure 3.2: The change in pressure results from the weight of the uid.
3.2 Pressure Variation in uids of constant den-
sity
Figure 3.3: Integration of the change in pressure
Fox et al. [1]: 3-3
Equation 3.1 can be solved if we know how and g depend on z. For a uid
of constant density and for constant gravity g, we can just integrate eq.
3.1:
_
dp =
_
g dz (3.2)
If we integrate from a reference level z
0
to any level z
1
, and from the reference
pressure p
0
at z
0
to the pressure p
1
at z
1
, we obtain:
p
_
po
dp =
z
_
z
0
g dz
Evaluating the integral leads to the basic equation of hydrostatics for constant
density and gravity:
p
1
= p
0
g(z
1
z
0
) (3.3)
3.3 Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Surfaces
Fox et al. [1]: 3-5
In the introduction to uid statics, we have seen that static uids only excert
normal stresses which are of the same magnitude in each direction (
xx
=
yy
=
zz
= p). This means that the force on any static surface element
d
A = An equals the pressure p on the surface times the surface area A, and
that the force acts in the negative direction of the surface normal unity vector
n:
F = p d
A = np dA (3.4)
The force on a surface A is then the integral of the pressure over the entire
surface A:
F =
_
A
np dA (3.5)
For example, we could compute the total force on a dam. Let us assume the
dams length l is 100 m, its height h is 10 m, and that the reservoir is lled
with water. On the water-surface and on the dry side of the dam we encounter
atmospheric pressure. The horizontal force F
h
on the dam is then:
F
h
=
_
A
p
0
g(z z
0
) dA (3.6)
The atmospheric pressure acting on the water-surface is cancelled by the
atmospheric pressure acting on the dam, so p
0
can be removed from 3.3.
Then, we introduce a co-ordinate system for which z = z
0
= 0 is located at
the surface of the water. The integral hence simplies to
_
A
gz dA. As
the dams length remains constant with depth, dA = l dz. This leads to a
simplied integral for the horizontal force:
F
h
=
_
10m
0
gzl dz (3.7)
(Remember, this equation is only valid for a constant dam-length l, the inte-
gral can easily be evaluated by the reader.)
3.4. BUOYANCY 19
Figure 3.4: A dam of height h = 10 m and length l = 100 m. The pressure
of the water in the reservoir increases linearly with the depth z. Left: Cross-
section through dam. Right: Frontal view of dam
3.4 Buoyancy
Fox et al. [1]: 3-6
Buoyancy is the net vertical force a uid exerts on an immersed object. To
compute the buoyancy force on any object oating in a uid of density
f
,
we can compute the pressure force acting on the top of the object (at z
1
,
pressing the object down) and on the bottom of the object (at z
2
, pressing the
object up). We consider the oating object to be made up of small elements
of a constant cross-section dA and a height h that corresponds to the local
height of the object, as shown in g. 3.5.
The buoyancy force in positive vertical direction on such an element is then
dF
B
=
f
g(z
2
z
1
) dA =
f
gh(x, y) dA (3.8)
where h(x,y) is the height of the element at the coordinates (x,y). We can
integrate this equation over the entire cross-sectional area A of the oating
object to compute the buoyancy force F
B
on the whole object. Here again,
we assume that density and gravity are constant:
F
B
=
_
A
f
gh(x, y) dA = g
_
A
h(x, y)dA (3.9)
Integrating the local height h(x, y) over the cross-sectional area A yields the
volume V of the oating object, and we obtain the equation for the buyancy
Figure 3.5: A three-dimensional object oating under the surface of a uid.
The resulting force will equal the weight of the displaced uid.
force in a uid of density
f
:
F
B
=
f
gV (3.10)
This equation simply expresses that the buoyancy force on a oating object
is as large as the weight of the displaced uid. If the buoyancy force equals
an objects weight, it will stay suspended at the same level, otherwise, it will
rise or sink.
Chapter 4
Flow Rates
In the previous chapter, we looked at the properties of a static uid. In this
chapter we consider uids in motion and dene some of the basic properties
necessary to analyse uid systems. We begin by dening a ow rate.
Flow rate: The rate of a (uid) ow over a given area (control surface).
Flow Rates for Constant Velocity
We will often be interested in the amount of uid ow over an area called the
control surface. For example, we may ask for the volume of air that leaves
the exit-plane of a balloon-noozle every second (m
3
/s). Or we may want to
determine the rate at which water ows into a bucket (kg/s). To calculate the
heat-loss over a chimney, one might be interested in the ow rate of thermal
energy over the chimneys exit plane (kJ/s). And as a nal example, we could
calculate the thrust of a jet-engine as the ow rate of momentum over the
nozzle exit plane (kgm/s
2
= N).
Consider calculating the volume ow rate of air over the exit-plane of an air-
system. If the air-system channel has a cross-section of 1 m2 m, and the
mean ow-speed is 2 m/s, then we know that a volume of V =1 m 2 m 2
m/s 1s = 4 m
3
will leave the channel every second, as illustrated in g. 4.1.
The volume ow rate of air is then F
v
=4 m
3
/s. In general, the volume ow
21
22 CHAPTER 4. FLOW RATES
rate F
v
over an area A at a constant ow-velocity u normal to the area is
simply given as:
F
v
= Au (4.1)
Figure 4.1: Flow rate through the outlet of a channel. The volume indicated
by the dotted line will leave the channel within one second.
For the previous example shown in g. 4.1, we could also calculate the ow
rate of mass (F
m
) from the channel. The mass M of the volume V of air that
leaves the channel per second can be calculated with the density
air
= 1.293
kg/m
3
as M =
air
V = 5.172 kg. Hence, the mass ow rate is F
m
= 5.172
kg/s. Generally, the mass ow rate F
m
over a surface A can be calculated
for a constant density and constant velocity u normal to the surface of area
A according to:
F
m
= Au = F
v
(4.2)
Finally, let us consider F
P
, the ow rate of momentum
1
P from the channel.
The volume indicated in g. 4.1 comprises uid of the mass M =
air
V
moving with the velocity u, so its momentum is P = Mu = 10.344 kgm/s.
This momentum will cross the outow plane every second, so that the mo-
mentum ow rate from the channel is F
P
=10.344 kgm/s
2
=10.344 N. (If
1
Momentum and momentum ow rate are vectors, just like forces. For now, we only
consider the component normal to the control surface, but the next section will consider
the complete vectors.
23
the uid leaving the channel stems from a large pressure vessel, then the sys-
tem would gain a momentum of -10.344 kgm/s every second. This means
that the nozzle would create a thrust T = F
P
=10.344 N.)
In general, the momentum ow rate F
P
normal to a surface A for constant
density and velocity u is given as:
F
P
= Au
2
= uF
v
(4.3)
Flow Rates for Non-Constant Velocity
In general, the velocity will not be constant over the entire control surface, and
in some cases (for example in ames), the density will not even be constant
over the control surface. We will now generalise the equations for volume ow
rate, mass ow rate and momentum ow rate. (This will involve integration
over areas, a mathematical technique you are expected to apply in the end-
of-year exams.)
To calculate the volume ow rate F
v
accross a control surface CS, we can
just integrate the velocity component u normal to the surface over the surface
area A, using surface elements dA:
F
v
=
_
CS
udA (4.4)
The mass ow rate F
m
and the momentum ow rate F
P
are given accord-
ingly:
F
m
=
_
CS
udA (4.5)
F
P
=
_
CS
u
2
dA (4.6)
In many cases, the ow-velocity will not be normal to the control surface, and
we have to calculate the normal component u rst. With the surface normal
24 CHAPTER 4. FLOW RATES
vector n and the velocity vector

V , the surface normal velocity component u
is the dot product of

V and n:
u =

V n (4.7)
With this equation, we get the following expressions for the volume and mass
ow rates:
F
v
=
_
CS
V ndA (4.8)
F
m
=
_
CS
V ndA (4.9)
For momentum ow rate, the situation is more complicated, as momentum
is a vector itself, and the ow rate is also a vector. However, the ow rate
results from the velocity component normal to the surface u =

V n and
the specic momentum
V of the uid. Skipping a detailed derivation, the

momentum ow rate is given as:
F
m
=
_
CS
V (
n ) dA (4.10)
Chapter 5
Basic Laws for Systems and
Control-Volumes
In chapters 3 and 4 we looked at dening some fundamental properties of
both static and moving uids. In this section we use these denitions to
dene key properties and laws of uid systems. Fox et al. [1]: 4
We introduced systems in section 2.4 as an entity that consists of a xed
amount of mass. A system is an object, it can deform, absorb heat, be
accelerated, but it will always consist of the original material (or of the original
molecules). This implies that the conservation principles for the following
quantities apply:
Conservation of mass
Conservation of momentum (Newtons second law)
Conservation of angular momentum
Conservation of energy (1st Law of Thermodynamics)
Growth of entropy (2nd Law of Thermodynamics)
The following section will provide the mathematical formulation for these prin-
ciples and show a generalised formulation. For uid mechanics, the conserva-
tion of mass and momentum are most relevant, and students are expected to
know these laws.
25
26CHAPTER 5. BASIC LAWS FOR SYSTEMS AND CONTROL-VOLUMES
5.1 Specic conservation principles for systems
Fox et al. [1]: 4-1
Conservation of mass means that a systems mass M
system
cannot change
which is satised from the denition of a system. We can express this law by
requiring that the time-derivative of the systems mass is zero:
dM
system
dt
= 0 (5.1)
The mass of a system can be computed by integrating over the mass-elements
dm that make up the system mass M(system). This integration is equivalent
to integrating the density over the volume elements dV that make up the
system volume V (system):
M
system
=
_
M(system)
dm =
_
V (system)
dV (5.2)
The momentum

P of a system is also conserved, as the momentum of in-
dividual particles making up the system is also conserved. To change the
momentum of a system, an external force

F is required. To compute the
momentum of the system, we can integrate over the mass-elements dm or
the volume elements dV again:
F =
d
P
system
dt
with: (5.3)
P
system
=
_
M(system)
V dm =
_
V (system)
V dV (5.4)
Similarly to linear momentum

P, angular momentum

H is also conserved
1
,
and angular momentum can only change if a torque

T is applied. The torque
can stem from an individual force

F, from gravity g, or from a shaft.
T =
d
H
system
dt
with: (5.5)
H
system
=
_
M(system)
r
V dm =
_
V (system)
r
V dV (5.6)
and:

T = r

F +
_
M(system)
r g dm +

T
shaft
(5.7)
1
Angular momentum is a vector of which the direction denotes the axis of rotation,
whereas the magnitude denotes the speed of rotation
5.2. GENERAL CONSERVATION PRINCIPLE FOR SYSTEMS 27
The rst law of thermodynamics provides a conservation principle for energy,
which we can formulate for a system. The energy of a system will only change
if heat

Q is added or if the system performs mechanical work

W:
Q

W =
dE
system
dt
with: (5.8)
E
system
=
_
M(system)
e dm =
_
V (system)
e dV (5.9)
And nally, we consider the second law of thermodynamics, according to
which a change in entropy
2
S will be at least as large as the ratio of heat ow
Q over the temperature T of an object:
Q
T

dS
system
dt
with: (5.10)
S
system
=
_
M(system)
s dm =
_
V (system)
s dV (5.11)
5.2 General conservation principle for systems
Fox et al. [1]: 4-1
We have discussed the conservation principles for the most relevant quantities
in thermouids. In general, a conserved property of a system stays constant
unless external forcing triggers a change. This forcing can be due to forces,
moments, heat ow rate, work, etc.
In the previous section, we have also seen absolute values that describe an
entire system globally as opposed to other quantities that describe a prop-
erty locally, usually a eld. We call the global quantities extensive, as they
describe a system as seen from outside, examples being a systems mass M,
its momentum

P, angular momentum

H, energy E or entropy S. In turn
intensive quantities desribe the local state inside the system, as given by the
velocity eld

V , the angular velocity eld r
V , energy e or entropy s. The

relation of an intensive quantity and an extensive quantity N is given by
2
It does not really matter whether you understand what entropy really is. But in the
end, it is a quantity that is useful for calculations of thermodynamic processes, and so we
mention it here.
the following equation:
N
system
=
_
M(system)
dm =
_
V (system)
dV (5.12)
The following table shows extensive properties and the related intensive prop-
erties, and conrms again that intensive properties relate an extensive quan-
tity to the unit mass of 1 kg. An intensive porperty describes the state of a
point in a eld, whereas an extensive property describes the state of an entire
system.
Table 5.1: Extensive properties and related intensive properties
mass momentum angular energy entropy
momentum
Extensive kg kg m/s kg m
2
/s J J/K
Property M

P

H E S
Intensive 1

V r
V e s
Property - m/s m
2
/s J/kg J/K/kg
5.3 Relation between Systems and Control Vol-
umes
Fox et al. [1]: 4-2
A control volume (CV) is a xed volume in physical space through which mass
can ow. The CV shape, volume and position cannot change, but its content
will due to ow rates over its surface. In the previous section, we determined
the change in a systems extensive properties N with time t and have related
it to the intensive properties according to:
dN
system
dt
=
d
dt
_
V (system)
dV (5.13)
To relate the change in a system to the change in a control volume, we need
to consider the distinction between systems and CVs: a system is moving, a
CV is stationary. This means that a system can move through a CV, leading
to ow rates over the system surface.
5.3. RELATION BETWEEN SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES 29
We consider a CV that (at one instant) is collocated with the moving system
and provide the resulting equation:
3
dN
system
dt
=

t
_
CV
dV
. .
accumulation
+
_
CS

V ndA
. .
ux
(5.14)
This equation relates the change in a system to the change in a control
volume. It is arranged such that the terms for the system are on the left
hand side, the terms for the CV are on the right. The accumulation term
describes the change of the CV content, whereas the ow rate term describes
the transport over the control volume surface CS.
Equation (5.14) is a very general equation for the change of an extensive
quantity N for a control volume CV. The equation is of great importance and
is often called "Reynolds Transport Theorem". Unfortunately, eq. (5.14) is
relatively hard to understand, but we will apply it to dierent conservation
principles throughout the following sections to make things clear. So...
Figure 5.1: ...some general advice on uid-mechanics... [2]
3
We do not derive eq. (5.14). Instead, we refer the reader to the textbook by Fox,
McDonald and Pritchard [1] section 4-2.
5.4 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume
In the previous section, 5.3, we said that the Reynolds Transport Theorem eq.
(5.14) can be applied to any extensive quantity. We now apply it to the mass
M, and according to table 5.1, the corresponding intensive quantity is 1. We
know that the mass of the system cannot change, so that dM
system
/(dt) = 0
(see eq. 5.1), and we obtain the following equation:
t
_
CV
dV +
_
CS

V n dA = 0 (5.15)
Equation 5.15 describes the conservation of mass formulated for a control
volume.
This equation is one of the most important equations of uid mechanics, and
we have easily obtained it from Reynolds Transport Theorem. But is there
another way to obtain this equation? A way that is easier to understand?
The next few paragraphs try to outline a simpler derivation.
From daily life, we know that mass cannot be created or destroyed: neutrons,
protons, and electrons cannot just be destroyed or created
4
. This is expressed
in eq. (5.1), according to which the mass of a system cannot change in time.
However, mass can be moved, and it can ow over surfaces into control
volumes and out o control volumes. According to eq. (5.2), the mass in a
control volume CV can be computed as
M
CV
=
_
V
dV (5.16)
so that the change of this mass in time results as:
M
CV
t
=

t
_
V
dV (5.17)
Mass leaving a control volume over its surface will reduce the mass content
of the CV: the reduction of the mass inside the CV must equal the mass ow
rate

M out of the CV, and we obtain:
M
CV
t
=
t
_
V
dV =

M (5.18)
4
This is no longer true for high-energy physics considering velocities close to the speed
of light but such cases are rarely relevant for engineering uid-mechanics.
5.4. CONSERVATION OF MASS FOR A CONTROL VOLUME 31
The mass ow rate over the control volume surface CS is given as:
M =
_
CS

V ndA (5.19)
From equations (5.18, 5.19) we obtain the conservation of mass in control
volume formulation (5.15) again:
t
_
CV
dV
. .
accumulation
+
_
CS

V ndA
. .
ux
= 0
5.4.1 Conservation of mass for constant density
In section 2.7.2 we introduced a distinction between compressible and incom-
pressible uids. Compressible uids can change their density, but for incom-
pressible uids, the density is constant
5
. We will now exploit the fact that
the density is constant to simplify the equation (5.15) for the conservation of
mass.
The equation of mass conservation has an accumulation term (with a volume
integral) and a ow rate term (with a surface integral). If the density eld is
homogenous
6
(i.e. the density is the same everywhere), the mass of the uid
in the control volume cannot change in time, so that the accumulation term
will be zero.
This means that for incompressible ows, the equation of mass-conservation
can be written as:
= const.
_
CS

V ndA = 0 (5.20)
Equation (5.20) expresses that if mass enters a CV at one point, the same
amount of mass must leave the CV at another point.
5
The density of incompressible uids can actually vary if temperature varies, if chemical
reactions occur (e.g. combustion), or if we consider mixtures of dierent uids.
6
A scalar eld is homogeneous if its values are constant in space.
5.5 Conservation of Energy for a Control Vol-
ume
In the previous sections, we applied the Reynolds Transport Theorem eq.
(5.14) to obtain the conservation of mass eq. (5.15). We will now apply
the Reynolds Transport Theorem to obtain the equation for the conserva-
tion of energy. The conservation of energy is identical to the rst law of
Thermodynamics, only now formulated for a control-volume rather than for
a system.
For a system, the rst law of thermodynamics has the form
Q

W =
dE
system
dt
(5.21)
where E denotes the energy,

Q the rate at which heat is added to the system,
and

W the rate at which the system performs work on its environment. With
the specic energy e, we can write eq. (5.21) in terms of the content of the
control volume CV and the ow rate over the control surface CS:
Q

W =

t
_
CV
e dV +
_
CS
e

Vd
A (5.22)
If we specify the work-term

W in greater detail, and expand the specic energy
e according to e = u + V
2
/2 + gz, we obtain:
Q

W
s

W
shear

W
other
= (5.23)
t
_
CV
(u +
V
2
2
+ gz) dV +
_
CS
_
u + p +
V
2
2
+ gz
_
Vd
A (5.24)
In this equation,

W
s
denotes the shaft power that acts on the control volumes
surrounding: in a gas turbine,

W
s
would be positive, in a compressor negative.
The power through shear on the surface of the control volume, and any other
type of work/power, are described as

W
shear
and

W
other
. On the right hand
side of the equation, u, p and v denote the specic internal energy, pressure
and specic volume v = 1/, where u+pv = h is the enthalpy. The equation
also features a kinetic energy term with the velocity V and a potential energy
term gz as known from hydrostatics.
5.6. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM FOR A CONTROL VOLUME 33
5.6 Conservation of Momentum for a Control Vol-
ume
In the previous section, we applied the Reynolds Transport Theorem eq. (5.14)
to the extensive property mass and energy, yielding the equation of conser-
vation for mass and energy. But we can also apply the Reynolds Transport
Theorem to the extensive quantity momentum

P and the related intensive
quantity velocity

V to obtain an equation describing the conservation of mo-
mentum.
F
S
+

F
B
=

t
_
CV
V dV +
_
CS
V

V ndA (5.25)
This equation describes how the momentum content of a control volume
changes with ow rates and due to surface forces

F
S
and volume or body
forces

F
B
. In most situations, volume or body forces comprise gravity, but
sometimes also magnetic or electro-static forces. The forces

F
s
acting on
the control surface can be due to shear stresses resulting from deformation
of the uid, and can be introduced through solid surfaces within the control
volume.
Chapter 6
Specic Laws and Special
Cases
6.1 Bernoullis Equation
Bernoullis equation is probably the best-known equation of uid mechanics. It
is very useful in many cases, and at the same time so simple that most people
can apply it. However, this leads to the danger that the equation is used in
many situations where it must not be used, and the following derivations try
to point out where it can be used, and when it must not be used.
6.1.1 Bernoullis Equation Derived from the Energy Equa-
tion
Bernoullis equation can be considered as a simplied energy equation for
a stream-tube
1
. We will derive Bernoullis equation from the energy equa-
tion:
Q
..
1: Heat ux

W
s
..
2: Shaft power

W
shear
. .
3: Shear power

W
other
. .
4: Other power
= (6.1)
t
_
CV
e dV
. .
5: Change in energy content
+
_
CS
_
_
u
..
6: spec. inner energy
+pv +
V
2
2
+ gz
_
_

V d
A
1
A stream-tube is an innitely thin tube of which the axis is dened by a stream line.
35
36 CHAPTER 6. SPECIFIC LAWS AND SPECIAL CASES
If no heat is added to the stream-tube CV, term 1 (heat ow rate) will be
zero. If no drive-shaft performs work in the control-volume, or is driven by the
control volume, term 2 (shaft work) will also be zero. Term 3 (shear power)
will be zero, if the shear forces on the surface of the control volume is zero,
for example if there is no shear or if the viscosity is zero: term 3 (shear power)
can be discarded if there is no friction or if there are no losses. Certainly, if
no other work is performed, term 4 (other power) can also be discarded. For
steady ows, energy cannot accumulate within the control volume, so that
term 5 (change in energy content) will also be zero. Finally, term six can be
neglected if the specic inner energy of the uid cannot change, which is the
case if terms 1 to 5 are all zero and if the uid is also incompressible.
We now have a much simplied energy equation of the form:
_
CS
_
pv +
V
2
2
+ gz
_

V d
A = 0 (6.2)
We will now evaluate this integral for a stream-tube. No ow rate occurs over
the shell of the stream tube, as the shell consists of stream lines. This means
that we only have to evaluate this integral at the control surfaces CS
1
and
CS
2
at the beginning and the end of the stream tube:
_
CS
1
_
pv +
V
2
2
+ gz
_

V d
A =
_
CS
2
_
pv +
V
2
2
+ gz
_

V d
A (6.3)
The diameter of a stream tube is innitesimally small, so that p, v, V, g and z
can be treated as constants over each of the surfaces CS
1
and CS
2
. According
to the equation of conservation of mass, the mass ow rate m =
_
CS

V d
A
over the inow surface CS
1
is equal to the mass ow rate over CS
2
. The spe-
cic volume v equals 1/, and we obtain Bernoullis famous equation:
p +
V
2
2
+ gz = const. (6.4)
However, when using Bernoullis equation, it is most important to remember
the limits of its validity. Bernoullis equation can only be applied if:
1. No heat is added to the ow.
2. No (shaft work) is added to the ow.
3. No shear forces act in the uid (i.e. no friction or no shear).
4. Energy is not added to the CV in any other form.
5. The ow is steady.
6.2. BOUNDARY LAYERS 37
6. The ow is incompressible.
7. The reference points are located on the same streamline.
6.2 Boundary Layers
A uid owing around an obstacle is typically aected in two ways:
(1) The uid is deected around the object, as the uid cannot ow through
the surface of the object. This deection typically alters the pressure eld,
and the change in velocity along a (little curved) streamline can typically be
calculated from Bernoullis equation.
(2) The uid is also decelerated by friction. At the surface of the object, the
uid has zero tangential velocity (the uid sticks to the object, this is often
referred to as the no-slip condition). This friction only decelerates uid that
is close to the surface, the eect of friction is spatially limited.
Let us consider the example of a (innitesimally thin) plate in a laminar ow
as shown in g. 6.1. The plate is so thin that the uid is not deected,
however, friction will still slow it down. At the leading edge of the plate, uid
particles arrive with the constant free stream velocity U
0
. However because
of the no-slip condition the velocity of the uid particles at the plate will be
zero. This leads to very high velocity gradients u/z at the plate surface,
which in turn leads to large shear stresses
zx
. These shear stresses decelerate
the uid particles next to the plate. As uid particles next to the plate slow
down, velocity gradients u/z develop between these uid particles and their
neighbouring uid particles further from the plate surface still travelling at U
0
.
The resulting stresses in turn slows down uid further from the plate, that
has not yet decelerated. This process continues, propagating away from the
plate as the uid travels along the plate. Eventually, a region develops close
to the plate where the uid has been decelerated by friction, this region is
called the boundary layer. Outside the boundary layer, the eect of friction
can be neglected and Bernoullis equation can usually be applied.
x
u(x,r) u(x,r)
u(x,r) u(x,r)
z
U
o
Figure 6.1: Development of the boundary layer along a thin plate.
6.3 Laminar Pipe-Flow
In section 6.2, we have seen how the thickness of a boundary layer grows
along a at plate. Such a growing boundary layer also exists at the inner
surface of a pipe, as illustrated in g. 6.2. Near the inlet, the ow inside
the pipe will hardly be aected by friction, whereas further downstream, the
boundary layer has grown so that even the uid on the centre-line is aected.
Figure 6.2 illustrates this development of axial velocities inside a pipe. Far
downstream of the inow, the velocity prole no longer changes, and we call
such a ow fully developed.
Figure 6.2: Flow at the inlet section of a pipe. The boundary layers grow
until they merge, eventually creating a fully developed pipe-ow.
For a laminar ow, it is relatively easy to calculate the velocity prole u(r)
from a momentum balance. We consider a cylindrical control volume CV of
length dx and radius r that is located inside the pipe of inner radius R, as
illustrated in g. 6.3. The ow is driven by the pressure, and a pressure drop
occurs along the pipe due to the friction.
We start with the conservation of momentum
F =

F
S
+

F
B
=

t
_
CV
U dV +
_
CS
U d
A (6.5)
6.3. LAMINAR PIPE-FLOW 39
Figure 6.3: A cylindrical control volume CV inside a section of a pipe.
but, as we are just interested in the steady pipe-ow with no body forces (e.g.
gravitation), we neglect

F
B
. The transient term is expressed as:
F
S
=
_
CS
U d
A (6.6)
The control surface CS consists of an inow surface S
in
, an outow surface
S
out
and a lateral surface S
l
. For a fully developed pipe-ow, there is no ow
in the radial direction, so that the ow rate over the lateral surface is zero and
we only have to consider the velocity component u in axial direction:
F
S
=
_
CS
u
U d
A =
_
S
in
u
2
dA +
_
Sout
u
2
dA (6.7)
As the u velocity prole is the same over S
in
and S
out
, the ow rates over
both surfaces cancel, and the surface force F
S
in equation (6.7) must be
zero.
The surface force F
S
in equation (6.7) results from (a) the shear stresses
rx
on the lateral surface of area 2r dx and from (b) the pressure forces on the
inow and outow surfaces of area r
2
:
F
S
= p
in
r
2
p
out
r
2
+
rx
2r dx = 0 (6.8)
The pressures p
in
and p
out
for a control volume at the position x can be
calculated by the following linearisation
p
in
= p
p
x
dx
2
; p
out
= p +
p
x
dx
2
(6.9)
that can be inserted into equation 6.8:
F
S
=
p
x
dxr
2
+
rx
2r dx = 0 (6.10)

rx
=
r
2
p
x
(6.11)
Inserting the shear stress
rx
= (du)/(dr) into equation (6.12) leads to a
dierential equation that can be solved for u(r):
du
dr
=
r
2
p
x
(6.12)
du =
r
2
p
x
dr (6.13)
u = C +
r
2
4
p
x
(6.14)
The value of the constant C can be determined from the no-slip condition at
the surface of the pipe, u(R) = 0:
u =
1
4
p
x
(r
2
R
2
) (6.15)
Note that in a pipe-ow in positive x-direction (u > 0), the pressure drops in
x direction, i.e. (p)/(x) < 0.
The total volume ow rate Q in a laminar pipe can be calculated by integration
over the radius r:
Q =
R
4
8
_
p
x
_
(6.16)
The volume ow rate depending on the total pressure drop p in a laminar
pipe of length L and diameter D can then be calculated as:
Q =
p D
4
128L
(6.17)
Chapter 7
Final notes
The reader is reminded that this document is just a draft of notes for the 1M
Fluid Mechanics Course at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Impe-
rial College 2010-2011. The ocial course documentation consists of the book
"Introduction to Fluid Mechanics" [1] by Fox, McDonald and Pritchard. The
present notes are meant to help you study and understand uid-mechanics,
but they cannot provide the depth of information available from the textbook.
Like many drafts, the present document will likely contain errors, please share
them with me and be reminded that the present document is not the ocial
course documentation. Even more welcome than corrections are suggestions
and recommendations for the improvement of the document. I very much
look forward to your input!
I wish you all the best for your studies in uid-mechanics and hope that you
will be successful in the exams!
Andreas Kempf
London, 01/10/2009
a.kempf@imperial.ac.uk
Forum for corrections:
http://moodlepilot.imperial.ac.uk/mod/forum/view.php?id=480
41
Bibliography
[1] R. W. Fox, A. T. McDonald, P. J. Pritchard, Introduction to Fluid Me-
chanics. Wiley & Sons 2004, ISBN 0-471-20231-2
[2] N. Gaiman, Dont Panic: Douglas Adams and the "Hitchhikers Guide to
the Galaxy". Titan Books, 1993, ISBN 1-85286-411-7
43
Hall of Fame
This appendix provides a quick overview over the most important, most basic
equations. By the end of the course, you should have understood these
equations and be able to use them. I would even recommend that you try
to remember these equations so you need not waste time for looking them
up.
Newtons law of viscosity:
yx

du
dy
(1)
The basic equation of uid statics:
dp = gdz (2)
The force on a submerged surface:
F =
_
A
pd
A (3)
The conservation of mass for control volumes CV bounded by a control surface
CS:
t
_
CV
dV +
_
CS

V d
A = 0 (4)
The conservation of momentum for control volumes CV bounded by a control
surface CS. A change in momentum is only possible due to surface forces

F
S
and body forces (volume forces)

F
B
:
F
S
+

F
B
=

t
_
CV
V dV +
_
CS
V

V d
A = 0 (5)
45
46 BIBLIOGRAPHY
The conservation of energy for control volumes CV bounded by a control
surface CS. A change in energy is only possible due to the addition of heat
Q, the work being performed on the environment through a shaft

W
shaft
,
through shear on the control volume surface

W
shear
and through other forms
of work

W
other
:
Q

W
s

W
shear

W
other
= (6)
t
_
CV
e dV +
_
CS
_
u + pv +
V
2
2
+ gz
_

Vd
A (7)
Bernoullis famous equation relates pressure to velocity to height. The equa-
tion is particularly useful, easy to remember, and easy to use.
p +
V
2
2
+ gz = const. (8)
However, when using Bernoullis equation, it is most important to remember
the limits of its validity:
1. No heat is added to the ow.
2. No (shaft work) is added to the ow.
3. No shear forces act in the uid (i.e. no friction or no shear).
4. Energy is not added to the CV in any other form.
5. The ow is steady.
6. The ow is incompressible.
7. The reference points are located on the same streamline.
Of great importance is also the equation for the velocity prole of a laminar
pipe ow that you should be able to derive when given enough time:
u =
1
4
p
x
(r
2
R
2
) (9)
Terminology
Boundary Layer The thin layer of uid close to an obstacle that is aected
by friction. Within the boundary layer, Bernoullis equation does not
hold.
Control Volume A volume in physical space through which a uid will ow
but cannot change its size, shape or location.
Fluid "A uid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application
of a shear stress no matter how small the stress may be." [1]
Homogenous A scalar or vector eld is homogeneous if the scalar or vector
values do not change with space, i.e. they are the same everywhere.
(The values can still change with time, but synchronously everywhere)
Pathline The path along which a particle would travel in a ow. For steady
ow elds, a pathline is identical to a streakline and to a streamline.
Steady Flow A ow whose variables (i.e. velocity, density, pressure, etc.)
do not change in time.
Streakline The line connecting all the particles that started at the same point
in space at dierent times. For steady ows, a streakline is identical to
a streamline or pathline.
Streamline At any given time t, the streamline is the line along which a
particle would travel if the ow-eld was steady.
System Similar to the Control Volume, but no mass can cross its boundaries.
A system can deform, absorb heat, or be accelarated but it will always
consist of the original material.
Unsteady Flow A ow that has some of its variables (i.e. velocity, density,
47
48 BIBLIOGRAPHY
pressure, etc.) change in time.
Tutorial Questions
#1 Fluids, Continua and Scope of Fluid Mechan-
ics
1.1 What are uids: Which of the following substances are uids, and why?
- water, oil, air, methane, tar, surf-wax, glass, honey, grease
1.2 Estimate the mass of air in a car-tire, the cabin of an Airbus A380, an
empty oil-tanker.
Car tyre dimensions vary, taking a rough estimate:
tyre width: 0.25m
outer radius: 0.25m
rim (inner) radius: 0.2m
V = (0.25
2
0.2
2
) 0.25 = 0.02m
3
air
= 1.2kgm
3
M =
air
V = 0.02kg
Fuselage dimensions of Airbus A380 = 3.5m radius 50m length (assume a
circular cross section)
The cabin usually occupies roughly 2/3 the fuselage, with the rest dedicated
to luggage, electrics, landing gear and fuel.
V
cabin
= (3.5m)
2
50m
2
3
= 1280m
3
M
air
= V
air
= 1300m
3
1.2kgm
3
= 1539kg
49
50 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Note that during take o, ight and landing, the cabin pressurise changes so
the mass will also change.
A Very Large Crude Carrier classication oil tanker can hold up to 320,000
tonnes of crude oil
= 820kgm
3
(depending on composition)
V
oil
= V
air
M
oil
oil
=
M
air
air
M
air
= 1.2kgm
3
32010
6
kg
820kgm
3
= 4.68 10
5
kg
1.3 Calculate the mass of air in an empty gas tank (height 50m, diameter
50m) and inside a tutorial room (4m x 8m x 6m).
Answer:
Mass in gas tank: 117,800kg
Mass in tutorial room: 230kg
Working:
air
= 1.2kgm
3
M = V
1.4 Calculate the minimum volume of the hydrogen fuel tank in a bus
that can carry 50 kg of hydrogen. How would you store hydrogen fuel for a
bus and why?
Answer: V = 714m
3
Working:
H
= 0.07kgm
3
V =
M
Ask your tutor to sign o your work. _______

BIBLIOGRAPHY 51
#2 Velocity Field and Stresses
2.1 Homogeneous elds: Which of the following vector elds are homoge-
neous?
a)

V = 2
i, b)

V = 2
ix, c)

V =
1
2
j +

k, d)

V = 2
jx 3
kx, e)
V = (4x
i)x + 3
k (2x)
2
i 1/3
j
Answer: a, c, e
Reason:
Homogeneous elds are independant of the location (x, y, z) .
2.2 Dimensionality: Which of the following vector elds are one-dimensional
(1D), two-dimensional (2D), or three dimensional (3D) - and which ones are
steady or unsteady?
V = 2
ix,

V = 2
jx 3
kx + t,

V = 2
i + 3x
j 2x
k,
V =
1
2
x
i2y
j4e
zt
k,

V = (2+x)(
i2
j),

V = (2y+x)(
3i)
Answer:
V = 2
ix, - 1D steady
V = 2
jx 3
kx + t, - 1D unsteady
V = 2
i + 3x
j 2x
k, - 1D steady
V =
1
2
x
i 2y
j 4e
zt
k, - 3D unsteady
V = (2 + x)(
i 2
j), - 1D steady
V = (2y + x)(
3i) - 2D steady
The dimension depends on how many of the 3 co-ordinates x, y, z the eld
relies on. If the eld depends on time t, it is unsteady.
2.3 The velocity eld between two plates (vertical spacing d = 0.1 mm) is
given as

V =
1
d
U
s
z
i . The top plate slides in the x direction with velocity U

s
.
What are the dimensions of this velocity eld? How does the uid behave
on the surface of the top and bottom plates? Does this behavior appear
realistic?
52 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Answer:
The velocity vectors only depend on the z coordinate, the eld is one dimen-
sional
at z = 0 (surface of the bottom plate),

V = 0
at z = d (surface of the top plate),

V = U
s
This is realistic because, we expect a uids velocity to match the velocity of
the respective surface (known as the no slip condition).
2.4 Calculate the (vertical) normal stress in a rope (diameter D = 10mm)
that supports a weight of 1.0 t (metric ton).
Answer: 125MPa
Working:
F = Mg = 1000kg 9.81ms
2
= 9810N
A = ( D
2
)/4 = 7.85 10
5
m
2
= F/A = 125MPa
2.5 Calculate the shear stress between tarmac and the front wheel of a
motor-bike for a contact area A = 50 cm
2
and a brake-force F = 1 kN.
Answer: 200kNm
2
Working:
A = 50cm
2
= 5 10
3
m
2
= F/A = 200kNm
2
2.6 Calculate the shear stress between an object and an inclined surface on
which the object rests. (Contact area A=1 m
2
, weight w=1 MN, inclination
of 45)
Answer = 0.7MN
Working:
BIBLIOGRAPHY 53
F = 1 sin(45
) = 0.7MN
= F/A = 0.7MNm
2
45
1MN
#3 Fluid Motion, Viscosity
3.1 The velocity eld between two plates (vertical spacing d) is given
as

V =
1
d
U
s
z
i . The top plate slides in x direction with the velocity U

s
.
Calculate the shear stress at the top-plate as a function of d, U
s
and the
viscosity . Calculate the shear stress at the top-plate for the case d=0.01
mm, U
s
=1 m/s,
oil
=0.1 Ns/m
2
. Calculate the shear stress at the bottom
plate for the same case.
z
x
Us
d
Answer: 10.0kPa
Working:
V =
1
d
U
s
z
i u =
1
d
U
s
z
u
z
=
1
d
U
s
=
u
z
= 10.0kN/m
2
54 BIBLIOGRAPHY
As
u
z
is independent of z for this case, the shear stress is the same at the
top and bottom plate.
3.2 The velocity eld near the wall of a pipe can (almost) be approximated
as

V = U
0
z
1
7
i , where z is the distance from the wall. Calculate the shear

stress at the wall. Is this realistic?
Calculate the shear stress at z = 0.1 m forU
s
=1 m/s, =0.1 Ns/m
2
.
Answer: = 0.1Nm
2
Working:
V = U
0
z
1
7
u = U
0
z
1
7
u
z
=
1
7
U
0
z
6
7
=
u
z
=
1
7
U
0
z
6
7
At the wall, z 0; which is certainly not realistic, the assumed
velocity prole can therefore not be correct right next to the wall.
At z = 0.1m, U
0
= 1m/s, = 0.1Ns/m
2
:
= 0.1Nm
2
3.3 The drive-shaft (d=1 m) of a container ship rotates (60 RPM ) inside
a journal bearing (length l=1 m). The gap between the bearing and the shaft
has a width of w = 1 mm and is lled with oil (=0.2 Ns/m
2
). Calculate
the torque that the bearing excerts on the shaft. (The torque is the moment
about the shaft centre-line.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY 55
Answer: 987Nm
Working:
Shaft spins at 60RPM=1RPS
Circumferential velocity of shaft= 2r/t = ms
1
du
dr
=
ms
1
0.001m
shear stress =
du
dr
= 0.2kgsm
2
ms
1
0.001m
= 200Nm
2
A = 2r w = d w = m
2
F = A = 200
2
N
T = r F = 100
2
= 987Nm
56 BIBLIOGRAPHY
#4 Hydro Statics
4.1 The Airbus A380 has a fuselage diameter of D=7.14 m. At cruise al-
titude, the cabin pressure is approximately 85 KPa, while the outside pressure
is 15 KPa. Assume that the pressure cabin is a cylindrical pressure vessel of a
length of 60 m, with a constant wall-thickness of 4 mm. Calculate the mass
of air inside the cabin during cruise. Calculate the biggest normal stress in the
wall (i.e.
, where is the coordinate in circumferential direction).

Answer: 2426.4kg, 62.5MNm
2
Working:
Cabin temperature = 293
K, Universal gas constant for air: 287.05Jkg

1
K
1
c
=
P
RT
=
85000Pa
287.05Jkg
1
K
1
293K
= 1.01kgm
3
V
c
=
D
2
l
4
= 2402.36m
3
m =
c
V
c
= 2426.4kg
Normal stress:
Calculate Force acting normal to cut plane shown above:
F = P A = (85kPa 15kPa) 7.14m60m = 30MN
Area subjected to stress:
A = 2 l t = 2 60m4 10
3
m = 0.48m
2
BIBLIOGRAPHY 57
=
F
A
= 62.5MNm
2
4.2 A oatation device (cube, 0.2m x 0.2 m x 0.2 m) of styro-foam (density
100 kg/m
3
) is held partially submerged in a swimming pool. Calculate the
hydro-static force on the top and on the bottom surfaces of the cube, if the
cubes bottom is [0.1 m, 0.2 m, 1.0 m] beneath the water surface. Calculate
the static lift experienced by the cube. A large quantity of oil is added to the
water, forming an oil-layer (thickness: 1 m, density: 800 kg/m
3
). Calculate
the static lift force that the oatation device can supply if its top is 1.0 m
below the uid surface.
Answer:
Submerged cube:
d = 0.1m; F
top
= 0N, F
bottom
= 39.24N
d = 0.2m; F
top
= 0N, F
bottom
= 78.48N
d = 1.0m; F
top
= 313.92N, F
bottom
= 392.40N
F
lift
= 70.63N
Working:
Excluding the atmospheric pressure in the followin work, the hydrostatic pres-
sure experienced at a point is given by:
P = gh
So, for the bottom surfaces, at the three depths given, the hydrostatic force
of water is:
F
0.1
= P
0.1
A = ghA = 1000kgm
3
9.81ms
2
0.1m0.04m
2
F
0.1
= 39.24N
F
0.2
= P
0.2
A = ghA = 1000kgm
3
9.81ms
2
0.2m0.04m
2
F
0.2
= 78.48N
F
1.0
= P
1.0
A = ghA = 1000kgm
3
9.81ms
2
1.0m0.04m
2
F
1.0
= 392.40N
58 BIBLIOGRAPHY
the hydrostatic force on the top surface is 0N unless the top surface is sub-
merged, this occurs only at d = 1.0m:
F
1.0
= ghA = 1000kgm
3
9.81ms
2
(1.0 0.2)m0.04m
2
F
1.0
= 313.92N
The static lift force will be the resultant force acting on the cube:
W =
c
V g = 100kgm
3
0.2
3
m
3
9.81ms
2
= 7.85N
F
top
=
oil
gh = 800kgm
3
9.81ms
2
1.0m0.2
2
m
2
= 313.92N
F
bottom
= F
top
+
w
gh
w
A
F
bottom
= 313.92N+1000kgm
3
9.81ms
2
0.2m0.04m
2
= 392.4N
F
lift
= 392.4N 313.92N 7.85N = 70.63N
4.3 The tube shown is lled with mercury at 20
C. Calculate the force

applied to the piston. (question based on FMP 3.5)
Answer:
F = 47.9N (book case)
F = 377kN (given case)
Working:
Without the piston weight, the mercury level would be the same on both
sides of the tube. The piston weight alone displaces the mercury level by 1
inch. Application of a further force increases the the diplacement by 7 inches.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 59
We can use the hydrostatic pressure equation to calculate the displacement
caused by the force:
P = gh = 13550kgm
3
9.81ms
2
(7in.0.0254) = 23634.15Nm
2
Multiply by the contact area of the piston:
F = P A = 23634.15kgm
3
0.25 (2in. 0.0254)
2
= 47.9N
Following the same working for the given case:
P = gh = 13550kgm
3
9.81ms
2
0.9m = 120kNm
2
F = P A = 120kNm
2
0.25 (2m)
2
= 377kN
#5 Hydro Static Forces on Submerged Surfaces
5.1 A door 1m wide and 1.5m high is located in a plane vertical wall of
a water tank. The door is hinged along its upper edge, which is 1m below
the water surface. Atmospheric pressure acts on the outer surface of the door
and at the water surface. (a) Determine the magnitude and line of action of
the total resultant force from all uids acting on the door. (b) If the water
surface gage pressure is raised to 0.3 atm, what is the resultant force and
where is its line of action? (c) Plot the ratios F/F
0
and y
/y
c
for dierent
values of the surface pressure ratio P
s
/P
atm
. (F
0
is the resultant force when
P
s
= P
atm
). (Question from FMP 3.44)
Answer:
F=25.7kN
line of action =1.86m
with surface presure added:
F=71.3kN
60 BIBLIOGRAPHY
line of action=1.79m
5.2 A triangular access port must be provided in the side of a form contain-
ing curing concrete. Using the coordinates and dimensions shown, determine
the resultant force that acts on the port and its point of application. Do the
same for b = [0.1 m, 0.2 m, 0.4 m, 0.5 m]. (Question based on FMP 3.45).
Answer:
Force = 376N
line of action = 0.3m
For the various values of b:
F
0.1
= 125.6N
F
0.2
= 251.1N
F
0.3
= 376.7N
F
0.4
= 502.3N
F
0.5
= 627.8N
Working:
F =
_
A
P dA =
_
h
0
gzw(z) dz
BIBLIOGRAPHY 61
The width of the triangle is dependent on the position (z) from the top of
the access ports, using simple trigonometry the width at z is given by:
w = 2z tan(20.556
) = 0.75z
F =
_
h
0
2400 9.8 0.75 z
2
dz = 5880z
3
0.4
0
= 376.3N
The moment arm of this force can then be found by:
M = F d
The resultant moment of the hydrostatic pressure from the concrete can be
calculated using:
M =
_
A
Pz dA =
_
h
0
gz
2
w(z) dz
M =
_
h
0
2400 9.8 0.75 z
3
dz = 4410z
4
0.4
0
0.4
= 112.9Nm
Hence the moment arm is given by:
d = M/F = 113.32Nm/376.90N = 0.3m
For the dierent width of access port tan changes accordingly:
F =
_
A
P dA =
_
h
0
gzw(z) dz
and as tan =
b
2
w = z
b
F =
_
h
0
g
b
z
2
dz =
1
3
g
b
z
3
0
= 1255.7b
The various moments can be calculated in a similar way:
M =
_
h
0
gz
2
w(z) dz =
_
h
0
g
b
h
z
3
dz = 0.25gh
3
b = 376.3b
Hence the moment arm for each is:
d =
M
F
=
376.3b
1254.4b
= 0.3m
and remains constant.
so the force for various values of b:
F
0.1
= 125.6N
F
0.2
= 251.1N
F
0.3
= 376.7N
62 BIBLIOGRAPHY
F
0.4
= 502.3N
F
0.5
= 627.8N
#6 Revisions
Use the time to understand tutorial questions you struggled with before. Try
to solve the recommended questions in FMP.
#7 Flow Rates
7.1 In the days before the credit crunch, a bored, drunk hedge-fund
manager throws 20 notes from a roof-top bar, on average one note every
3.21 s. Calculate the average cash-ow rate. Calculate the average mass-ow
rate if a 20 note has a weight of 0.9 g.
Answer:
Cash ow rate : 6.23/s
mass ow rate : 0.28g/s
Working:
cash ow rate : unit cash rate of dispense: 20
1
3.21
= 6.23s
1
mass ow rate : unit mass rate of dispense: 0.9
1
3.21
= 0.28gs
1
7.2 The circular opening of a wind-sock has a diameter of 1m. Calculate
the volume ow rate, mass ow rate and momentum ow rate of air through
the windsock if the wind-speed is 10 m/s. (Assume that the air is not slowed
down inside the wind-sock)
Answer:
Volume ow rate: 7.85m
3
s
1
BIBLIOGRAPHY 63
mass ow rate: 9.62kgs
1
momentum ow rate: 96.2N
Working:
A = D
2
/4 = 0.785m
2
Volume ow rate: u A = 7.85m
3
s
1
mass ow rate: uA = 9.62kgs
1
momentum ow rate: u
2
A = 96.2N
7.3 The xture of the wind-sock from question 7.2 gets jammed, so that
the wind blows into the wind-sock at an angle of 45. Calculate the air
volume ow rate, mass ow rate and momentum ow rate normal to the
surface.
Answer:
volume ow rate: 5.6m
3
s
1
1
Working:
A = D
2
/4 = 0.785m
2
consider only the velocity normal to the wind sock:
u = 10cos(45
)ms
1
Volume ow rate: u A = 5.6m
3
s
1
1
momentum ow rate: u
2
A = 48.1N
7.4 On a rainy day, every cubic meter of air contains 2 g of rain water.
Calculate the water volume ow rate, mass ow rate and momentum ow
rate through the wind-sock assuming that the droplets are suspended in the
air.
64 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Answer:
volume ow rate: 1.57 10
5
m
3
s
1
mass ow rate: 1.57 10
2
kgs
1
Working:
volume of water per cubic metre of air:
m
= 2 10
6
m
3
Volume ow rate: u AV
ratio
= 1.57 10
5
m
3
s
1
mass ow rate:
w
uAV
ratio
= 1.57 10
2
kgs
1
momentum ow rate:
w
u
2
AV
ratio
= 0.157N
#8 Systems and Control Volumes
8.1 Wind is blowing through a football goal (height 2.44 m, width 7.32 m)
in normal direction. At the ground, the air is at rest, but with growing distance
z from the ground, the wind-speed U increases according to U =

zc.
Calculate the volume and mass-ow rate of air through the goal. Calculate
the mass-ow rate if c = 5
m/s.
Answer:
Volume ow rate: 93m
3
s
1
mass ow rate: 114kgs
1
Working:
Volume ow rate:
_
A
udA =
_
2.44
0
uwdz
=
_
2.44
0
cwz
1/2
dz =
2
3
cwz
3/2
2.44
0
= 93m
3
s
1
BIBLIOGRAPHY 65
mass ow rate:
_
A
udA = 114kgs
1
8.2 The wind-direction changes with altitude. Calculate the mass-ow
rate through the goal of question 8.1 if the wind-eld is given as

V =
az cos(z)
i + bz sin(z)
j where

i is the direction normal to the goal and

j
is parallel to the crossbar (a = 2 m/s, b = 0.2 m/s).
Hint:
_
xcos(x)dx = cos(x)+xsin(x),
_
xsin(x)dx = sin(x)xcos(x).
Answer: 3.32kgs
1
Working:
we are concerned only with the velocity normal to the goal posts u = az cos (z):
mass ow rate:
_
A
udA =
_
2.44
0
uwdz =
_
2.44
0
awzcos(z) dz
mass ow rate: aw[cos(z) +zsin(z)]
2.44
0
= 3.32kgs
1
8.3 A wind turbine with rotor diameter D (50 m) converts kinetic energy
of the air into mechanical energy (torque on the shaft) and eventually into
electricity. Calculate the power output of a hypothetical wind-turbine that
converts half of the kinetic energy of the air owing through the rotor disk.
The air ows at U = 20 m/s.
Answer: 0.24MW
Working:
A = 0.D
2
/4 = 1963.5m
2
Power: kinetic enery transferred per second =
1
2
U
2
U A
where is the eciency.
P = 4.8MW
8.4 The velocity distribution for laminar ow in a long circular tube of
radius R is given by the one-dimenional expression,
V = u
i = u
max
_
1
_
r
R
_
2
_
i
66 BIBLIOGRAPHY
For this prole obtain expressions for the volume ow rate and the momentum
ow rate through a section normal to the pipe axis. (Question from FMP 4.14)
Answer:
Volume ow rate:
1
2
u
max
R
2
Momentum ow rate:
1
3
R
2
u
2
max
Working:
Volume ow :
_
A
udA =
_
R
0
u2r dr
=
_
R
2u
max
_
r
r
3
R
2
_
dr = u
max
_
r
2
r
4
2R
2
_
R
0
= u
max
_
R
2
R
4
2R
2
_
= u
max
_
R
2
1
2
R
2
=
1
2
u
max
R
2
mass ow rate=
_
A
u
2
dA =
_
R
0
u
2
2r dr
=
_
R
2u
2
max
r
_
1
r
2
R
2
_
2
dr =
_
R
2u
2
max
_
r 2
r
3
R
2
+
r
5
R
4
_
dr
= 2u
2
max
_
1
2
r
2
r
4
2R
2
+
r
6
6R
4
_
R
0
= u
2
max
2
_
1
2
R
2
1
2
R
2
+
1
6
R
2
=
1
3
R
2
u
2
max
#9 Conservation of Mass
9.1 Consider steady, incompressible ow through the device shown. De-
termine the magnitude and direction of the volume ow through the de-
vice shown. Determine the magnitude and direction of the volume ow rate
through port 3. (Question from FMP 4.17)
BIBLIOGRAPHY 67
Answer:

V
3
A
3
= |V
1
A
1
| |V
2
A
2
|, V
3
= 25m/s owing into the vol-
ume
Working:
sum all ow rates:
|V
1
A
1
| +|V
2
A
2
| +|V
3
A
3
| = 0
V
1
ows into the control volume, therefore it has a negative sign. So:
V
3
A
3
= |V
1
A
1
| |V
2
A
2
| = 5m
3
/s
V
3
= 25m/s
9.2 Fluid with 1050Kg/m
3
density is owing steadily through the rectan-
gular box shown.
Given A
1
= 0.05m
2
, A
2
= 0.01m
2
,A
3
= 0.06m
2
,

V
1
= 4
im/s, and

V
2
=
8
jm/s, determine velocity

V
3
. (Question based on FMP 4.18)
68 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Answer: 4.04
i 2.33
jms
1
Working:
Sum all ows into control volume:
|V
1
A
1
| +|V
2
A
2
| +
V
3
A
3
= 0
V
1
and V
2
ow into the ow rate, so have negative signs:
V
3
A
3
= |V
1
A
1
| +|V
2
A
2
|
V
3
= 4.67ms
1
V
3
= V
3
Sin(60)
i + V
3
Cos(60)
V
3
= 4.04
i 2.33
j ms
1
9.3 The velocity prole for laminar ow in an annulus is given by
u(r) =
p
4L
_
R
2
o
r
2
+
R
2
o
R
2
i
ln(R
i
/Ro)
ln
Ro
r
_
where p/L = 10kPa/m is the pressure gradient, is the viscosity (SAE
10 oil at 20
C), and R
o
= 5mm and R
i
= 1mm are the outer and inner radii.
Find the volume ow rate, the average velocity, and the maximum velocity.
Plot the velocity distribution. (Question from FMP 4.24)
Answer:
Q = 10.45 10
6
m
3
s
1
BIBLIOGRAPHY 69
U = 0.139ms
1
U
max
= 0.213ms
1
Working:
Q =
_
Ro
R
i
2ru(r) dr
Q =
2p
4L
_
Ro
R
i
R
2
o
r r
3
+
_
R
2
o
R
2
i
ln(R
i
/Ro)
_
rln
_
Ro
r
_
dr
Q =
2p
4L
_
1
2
R
2
o
r
2
1
4
r
4
Ro
R
i
2p
4L
_
R
2
o
R
2
i
ln(R
i
/Ro)
_
_
Ro
R
i
rln
_
Ro
r
_
dr
Q =
2p
4L
_
1
4
R
4
o
1
2
R
2
o
R
2
i
+
1
4
R
4
i
_
2p
4L
_
R
2
o
R
2
i
ln(R
i
/Ro)
_
_
Ro
R
i
rln
_
Ro
r
_
dr
Evaluate
_
Ro
R
i
rln
_
Ro
r
_
dr by parts:
u = ln
_
Ro
r
_
, dv = r dr
du
dr
=
du
da

da
dr
, where a =
Ro
r
du
dr
=
1
a

Ro
r
2
=
r
Ro
Ro
r
2
=
1
r
du =
1
r
dr
v =
1
2
r
2
_
Ro
R
i
rln
_
Ro
r
_
dr = uv
_
v du
_
Ro
R
i
rln
_
Ro
r
_
dr =
1
2
r
2
ln
_
Ro
r
_
Ro
R
i
+
_
Ro
R
i
1
2
r dr
_
Ro
R
i
rln
_
Ro
r
_
dr =
_
1
2
R
2
o
ln(1) +
1
4
R
2
o
_
_
1
2
R
2
i
ln
_
Ro
R
i
_
+
1
4
R
2
i
_
Q =
2p
4L
_
1
4
R
4
o
1
2
R
2
o
R
2
i
+
1
4
R
4
i
_
2p
4L
_
R
2
o
R
2
i
ln(R
i
/Ro)
__
1
4
R
2
o
_
1
2
R
2
i
ln
_
Ro
R
i
_
+
1
4
R
2
i
__
= 0.1Nms
1
Q = 10.45 10
6
m
3
s
1
U =
Q
A
=
Q
(R
2
o
R
2
i
)
= 0.139ms
1
70 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Find position of max velocity:
u(r) =
p
4L
_
R
2
o
r
2
+
R
2
o
R
2
i
ln(R
i
/Ro)
ln
Ro
r
_
u(r)
r
=
p
4L
_
2r
R
2
o
R
2
i
ln(R
i
/Ro)
1
r
_
= 0
2r
2
=
R
2
o
R
2
i
ln(R
i
/Ro)
r = 2.73 10
3
m
U
max
= U(0.00273) = 0.00273R
2
o
0.00273
2
+
_
R
2
0
R
2
i
ln(Ro/R
i
)
_
ln
_
Ro
0.00273
_
U
max
= 0.213ms
1
#10,11 Conservation of Energy
X.1 Air at standard conditions enters a compressor at 75m/s and leaves at
an absolute pressure and temperature of 200kPa and 345K, respectively, and
speed V = 125m/s. The ow rate is 1kg/s. The cooling water circulating
around the compressor casing removes 18kJ/kg of air. Determine the power
required by the compressor.(Question from FMP 4.183)
Answer:

W
in
= 80.23kW
Working:
Starting from the rst law of thermodynamics, noting that enthalpy h =
u + pv:
Q

W
S

W
Shear

W
other
=

t
_
CV
e dV +
_
CS
_
h +
V
2
2
+ gz
_
V d
Q

W
S
=
_
h +
V
2
2
_
m
_
h +
V
2
2
_
m
1
where, h = C
P
T, C
P
= 1004Jkg
1
K
1
enter the properties given:
V
1
= 75ms
1
, V
2
= 125ms
1
m
1
= m
2
= m = 1kgs
1
BIBLIOGRAPHY 71
T
1
= 288
K, T
2
= 345
Q

W
S
=
_
h +
V
2
2
_
m
_
h +
V
2
2
_
m
1
= mC
p
(T
2
T
1
)+
1
2
(V
2
2
V
2
1
) =
62kW

W
s
= 18kJkg
1
1kg/s 62kW = 80kW
negative sign represents rate of work input to the system, hence

W
in
=
80kW
X.2 Compressed air is stored in a pressure bottle with a volume of 10ft
3
,
at 3000psia and 140
F. At a certain instant a valve is opened and mass

ows from the bottle at m = 0.105lbm/s. Find the rate of change of tem-
perature in the bottle at this instant - Provide an equation only no values
needed.(Question based on FMP 4.184)
Answer:

t
T =
P m
V C
V

2
Working:
Starting from the rst law of thermodynamics:
Q

W =

t
_
CV
_
u +
V
2
2
+gz
_
dV +
_
CS
_
h +
V
2
2
+ gz
_
V d
A
0 =

t
_
CV
u dV +
_
CS
h
V d
A
0 =

t
mu + h m = m

t
u + u

t
m + h m
where, u = C
V
T and h = u + pv. To simplify the equation, consider the
continuity:
t
_
CV
dV +
_
CS

n dA = 0

t
m + m = 0
Using this, we can write:
0 = m

t
u + h mu m
m

t
u = u m(u + pv) m
where u = C
V
T
72 BIBLIOGRAPHY
t
T =
pv m
C
V
m
.
The specic volume v =
1
and mass m = V :
t
T =
p m
2
C
V
V
.
X.3 A centrifugal water pump with a 4in. diameter inlet and a 4in. diam-
eter discharge pipe has a ow rate of 300gpm. The inlet pressure in 8in. Hg
vacuum and the exit pressure is 35psig. The inlet and outlet sections are lo-
cated at the same elevation. The measured power input is 9.1hp. Determine
the pump eciency - Provide an equation only no values needed.(Question
based on FMP 4.185)
Answer: =
Q(P
2
P
1
)
P
in
Working:
Q

W =

t
_
CV
_
u +
V
2
2
+ gz
_
dV +
_
CS
_
h +
V
2
2
+ gz
_
V d

W = pv m|
2
pv m|
1
= (p
2
p
1
)
m
=

W
P
in
=
Q(p
2
p
1
)
P
in
X.4 A pump draws water from a reservoir through a 150mm diameter
suction pipe and delivers it to a 75mm diameter discharge pipe. The end of
the suction pipe is 2m below the free surface of the reservoir. The pressure
gage on the discharge pipe (2m above the reservoir surface) reads 170kPa.
The average speed in the discharge pipe is 3m/s. If the pump eciency is
75%, determine the power required to drive it. (Question from FMP 4.189)
Answer: W
actual
= 3.43kW
Working:
Q

W =

t
_
CV
_
u +
V
2
2
+ gz
_
dV +
_
CS
_
h +
V
2
2
+ gz
_
V d
A
BIBLIOGRAPHY 73

W =
_
pv +
V
2
2
+ gz
_
m
2
(pv + gz) m|
1
where pv|
1
= g|z|
1
= g|z|

W =
_
pv +
V
2
2
+ gz
_
m
2
m = V A|
2
= 13.25kgs
1
W
ideal
= 2572W
Considering the eciency of the pump:
W
actual
=

W
in
= 3.4kW
Happy Holidays!
#12 Energy and Bernoullis Equation
12.1 Water ows in a cirular duct. At one section the diameter in 0.3m,
the static pressure is 260kPa (gage), the velocity is 3m/s, and the elevation
is 10m above ground level. At a section downstream at ground level, the
duct diameter is 0.15m. Find the gage pressure at the downstream section if
frictional eects may be neglected. (Question from FMP 6.43)
Answer: P = 291kPa (gage)
Working:
Start from Bernoullis equation:
p +
V
2
2
+ gz
1
= p +
V
2
2
+ gz
2
p
2
= p
1
+
V
2
1
V
2
2
2
+ g (z
1
z
2
)
V
2
can be found from mass conservation:
m
2
= m
1
V
2
=
V
1
A
1
A
2
=
V
1
d
2
1
d
2
2
= 12ms
1
74 BIBLIOGRAPHY
p
2
= 291kPa
12.2 A re nozzle is coupled to the end of a hose with inside diameter
D = 75mm. The nozzle is contoured smoothly and has outlet diameter
d = 25mm. The design inlet pressure for the nozzle is P
1
= 689kPa (gage).
Evaluate the maximum ow rate the nozzle could deliver. (Question from
FMP 6.49)
Answer: Q = 66m
3
hr
1
Working:
p +
V
2
2
+ gz
1
= p +
V
2
2
+ gz
2
Assume no change in height and P
2
= 0Pa (gage).
m
1
= m
2
, V
1
=
V
2
A
2
A
1
p
1
+
1
2
V
2
2
_
A
2
A
1
_
2
=
V
2
2
2
1
2
V
2
2
_
1
_
A
2
A
1
_
2
_
= p
1
V
2
=
p
1
1
2
A
2
A
1
= 39.37ms
1
Q = A
2
V
2
=
d
2
4
V
2
= 0.0183m
3
s
1
= 1.1m
3
min
1
= 66m
3
hr
1
12.3 An Indianapolis racing car travels at 98.3 m/s along a straightaway.
The team engineer wishes to locate an air inlet on the body of the car to obtain
cooling air for the drivers suit. The plan is to place the inlet at a location
where the air speed is 25.5 m/s along the surface of the car. Calculate the
static pressure at the proposed inlet location. Express the pressure rise above
ambient as a fraction of the freestream dynamic pressure.(Question from FMP
6.51)
BIBLIOGRAPHY 75
1
2
Answer:
p = 5.54kPa
p
p
d2
= 0.93
Working:
p +
V
2
2
+ gz
1
= p +
V
2
2
+ gz
2
where 1 is on the car surface and 2 in the free stream
p +
V
2
2
1
= p +
V
2
2
2
p
1
=

2
_
V
2
2
V
2
1
_
= 5.54kPa (gage)
using mass conservation:
m
1
= m
2
A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
A
2
A
1
=
V
1
V
2
= 0.26
V
1
=
A
2
V
2
A
1
= 0.26V
2
p
1
p
a
=

2
_
V
2
2
V
2
1
_
=

2
_
V
2
2
(0.26V
2
)
2
_
= 0.93
_
1
2
V
2
2
_
p
p
d2
= 0.93
76 BIBLIOGRAPHY
#13 Conservation of Momentum
13.1 Wings create lift by deecting air downwards. An Airbus A380
requires 5 MN of lift in ight. Assume (falsely) that the wing deects all
the air travelling through a cross-section of 70 m width (wingspan) and 10 m
height (value without any basis). Calculate the vertical velocity component
of the deected air and the deection angle for steady ight at sea level,
at speeds of 100 m/s and 200 m/s. How does lift (for constant deection
angles) depend on air-speed? (Bear in mind that this is an over-simplied
estimate only, your answers may well deviate by 10%.)
Answer:
For 100m/s:
v
2
60ms
1
33
For 200m/s:
v
2
30ms
1
8
F
y
A
1
V
2
1
sin A
1
V
2
1
tan
Bear in mind that this is an over-simplied estimate only, your answers may
well deviate by 10%.
Working:
Start with the conservation of momentum:
BIBLIOGRAPHY 77
F =

t
_
CV

V dV +
_
CS
V
V dA
For the vertical component of force:
F
y
= v
2
V A|
2
v
1
V A|
1
v
1
= 0ms
1
V
2
= V
1
(assuming there is no loss to friction over the wing surface)
v
2
= V
1
sin
From mass conservation:
V
2
A
2
= A
1
V
1
F
y
= (A
1
V
1
) V
1
tan
Using dierent assumptions, you may end up with:
F
y
= (A
1
V
1
) V
1
tan
13.2 Consider incompressible steady ow of standard air in a boundary
layer on the length of porous surface shown. Asume the boundary layer at
the downstream end of the surface has an approximately parabolic veloc-
ity prole u/U
= 2(y/) (y/)
2
. Uniform suction is applied along the
porous surface, as shown. Calculate the volume ow rate across surface cd,
through the porous suction surface, and across surface bc. (Question from
FMP 4.41)
Answer:
Q
cd
= 4.5 10
3
m
3
s
1
78 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Q
bc
= 1.65 10
3
m
3
s
1
Working:
Q
cd
= U
cd
A
cd
= w
_
0
u dy
U
cd
= U
_
2
y

_
y
_
2
_
Q
cd
=
wU
0
2y
y
2
dy =
wU
_
y
2
1
3
y
3
0
Q
cd
=
wU
1
3
=
2
3
U
w = 4.5 10
3
m
3
s
1
Q
ad
= U
ad
A
ad
= 6 10
4
m
3
s
1
Q
bc
= Q
ab
Q
ad
Q
cd
= 3 1.5 1.5 10
3
m
3
s
1
0.6 10
3
m
3
s
1
4.5 10
3
m
3
s
1
Q
bc
= 1.65 10
3
m
3
s
1
13.3 A farmer purchases 675kg of bulk grain from the local co-op. The
grain is loaded into his pickup truck from a hopper with an outlet diameter of
0.3m. The loading operator determines th payload by observing the indicated
gross mass of the truck as a function of time. The grain ow from the hopper
( m = 40kg/s) is terminated when the indicated scale reading reaches the
desired gross mass. If the grain density is 600kg/m
3
, determine the true
payload. (Question from FMP 4.55)
Answer: m
actual
= 671.15kg
Working:
The reading on the scale w is given by:
m
reading
g = m
actual
g +u
2
A = m
actual
g + mu
m
actual
=
m
reading
g mu
g
u =
m
A
= 0.9431ms
1
m
actual
= 671.15kg
BIBLIOGRAPHY 79
13.4 The Euroghter Typhoon aircraft is powered by two EJ200 engines,
providing 90 kN of thrust each (with reheat). The reheat outlet temperature
is 1500C, the outlet diameter is 0.8 m, and you can assume that the thrust
equals the momentum ow rate from the outlet. Calculate the jet-velocity
at the outlet. Calculate the volume ow rate and the mass ow rate at
the outlet. Calculate the total fuel mass ow rate into both engines for an
assumed air/fuel [mass] ratio of 20:1. For how long can reheat be engaged
based on a maximum fuel capacity of 4,000kg?
Answer:
outlet velocity: 948.7ms
1
volume ow rate: 474.34m
3
s
1
1
total fuel mass ow rate: 9.5kgs
1
Time: 7min. 2sec.
Working:
area of engine outlet: 0.25D
2
= 0.5m
2
outlet temperature: 1773.15
K
density of air at outlet:
P
RT
=
1.0132510
5
N/m
2
287Jkg
1
K
1
1773.15
K
= 0.2kgm
3
Thrust = momentum ow rate
u
2
A = 90 10
3
u =
_
9010
3
A
= 948.7ms
1
volume ow rate: uA = 474.34m
3
s
1
1
mass ow rate for both engines: 189.7kgs
1
fuel mass ow rate: 189.7kgs
1
/20 = 9.5kgs
1
Tank capacity of the Euroghter: 4, 000kg
Time:
4000kg
9.5kgs
1
= 420s = 7min2s.
80 BIBLIOGRAPHY
#14 Examples Class
14.1 A water jet pump has jet area 0.01m
2
and jet speed 30m/s. The jet
is within a secondary stream of water having speed V
s
= 3m/s. The total
area of the duct (the sum of the jet and secondary stream areas) is 0.075m
2
.
The water is thoroughly mixed and leaves the jet pump in a uniform stream.
The pressure of the jet and secondary stream are the same at the pump inlet.
Determine the speed at the pump exit and the pressure rise p
2
p
1
. (Question
from FMP 4.72)
Answer:
V
2
= 6.6ms
1
p = 84.2kPa
Working:
Mass conservation:
m
s
+ m
j
= m
2
V
2
=
V
j
A
j
+Vs(AsA
j
)
As
= 6.6ms
1
Apply the conservation of momentum:
F =

t
_
CV

V dV +
_
CS
V
V dA
F =
_
V
2
2
A
2
V
2
1
A
1
_
=
_
V
2
2
A
2
V
2
j
A
j
V
2
s
(A
s
A
j
)
_
p
1
A
1
p
2
A
2
= 6.318kN
A
1
= A
2
= A
s
BIBLIOGRAPHY 81
p
2
p
1
= 84.2kPa
14.2 A reducer in a piping system is shown. The internal volume of the
reducer is 0.2m
3
and its mass is 25kg. Evaluate the total force that must
be provided by the surrounding pipes to spport the reducer. The uid is
gasoline.(Question from FMP 4.71)
Answer:

F = 4.69kN
i + 1.66kN
j
Working:
Vertical force:
w
r
+ w
gas
= g (m
r
+
gas
V
r
) = 1.66kN
where
gas
= 720kgm
3
Horizontal force, apply the conservation of momentum, considering dierence
in static pressure:
F = p
2
A
2
p
1
A
1
+

t
_
CV

V dV +
_
CS
V
V dA
F = p
2
A
2
p
1
A
1
+
_
V
2
2
A
2
V
2
1
A
1
_
= 7.13kN + 2.44kN
Note that p
2
is an absolute pressure reading, so the ambient pressure must
be accounted for.
F = 4.69kN
i + 1.66kN
j
14.3 The circular dish, whose cross section is shown, has an outside diam-
82 BIBLIOGRAPHY
eter of 0.20m. A water jet with speed 35 m/s strikes the dish concentrically.
The dish moves to the left at 15 m/s. The jet diameter is 20 mm. The dish
has a hole at its center that allows a stream of water 10 mm in diameter
to pass through without resistance. The remainder of the jet is deected
and ows along the dish. Calculate the force required to maintain the dish
motion.(Question from FMP 4.111)
Answer: F = 167N
Working:
m
in
= U
r
D
2
4
= (V U)
D
2
4
= 6.284kgs
1
m
out
= U
r
d
2
4
= 1.57kgs
1
m
deflect
= m
in
m
out
= 4.713kgs
1
Total force:
F
total
= F
in
+ F
out
+ F
deflect
F
total
= m
in
U
r
+ m
out
U
r
m
deflect
U
deflect
cos (40
)
Assume that no loss occurs from friction between the deected stream and
dish. Hence U
deflect
= U
r
= (V U) = 20ms
1
F
total
= 167N
BIBLIOGRAPHY 83
#15 Boundary Layers
15.1 Air at standard conditions ows along a at plate. The undisturbed
free stream speed is U
0
= 10m/s. At L = 145mm downstream from the
leading edge of the plate, the boundary-layer thickness is = 2.3mm. The
velocity prole at this location is
u
U
0
=
3
2
y

1
2
_
y
3
Calculate the horizontal componet of force per unit witdh required to hold
the plate stationary. (Question from FMP 4.85)
Answer:
F
w
= 0.04Nm
1
Working:
Apply the conservation of momentum:
F =

t
_
CV

u dV +
_
CS
u
u dA
F =
_
u
2
3
A
3
+ u
2
2
A
2
u
2
1
A
1
_
Calculate mass ow rate at 3:
m
3
= m
1
m
2
m
1
= U
0
w = 0.0283w kgs
1
m
2
= w
_
0
u dy = w
_
0
U
0
_
3
2
y

1
2
_
y
_
3
_
dy
m
2
= wU
0
1
_
3
4
y
2
1
8
y
4
2
_
0
= 0.625wU
0
m
2
= 0.0177w kgs
1
84 BIBLIOGRAPHY
m
3
= 0.0106w kgs
1
Calculate momentum ow rate at 2:
m
2
u
2
= w
_
0
u
2
dy = wU
2
0
_
0
_
3
2
y

1
2
_
y
_
3
_
2
dy
m
2
u
2
= wU
2
0
_
0
_
9
4
_
y
_
2
3
2
_
y
_
4
+
1
4
_
y
_
6
_
dy
m
2
u
2
= wU
2
0
_
9
12
_
y
3
2
_
3
10
_
y
5
4
_
+
1
28
_
y
7
6
__
0
= 0.486wU
2
0
m
2
u
2
= 0.137w N
F = m
3
u
3
+ m
2
u
2
m
1
u
1
= 0.04wN
So the plate will require an opposite force per unit width of the same magni-
tude:
F
plate
w
= 0.04Nm
1
15.2 A viscous oil ows steaily between stationary parallel plates. The
ow is laminar and fully developed. The total gap width between the plates
is h = 5mm. The oil viscosity is 0.5N s/m
2
and the pressure gradient is
1000N/m
2
/m. Find the magnitude and direction of the shear stress on
the upper plate and the volume ow rate through the channel, per meter of
width. (Question from FMP 8.8)
Answer:
yx
= 2.5Nm
2
Q
w
= 2.08 10
5
m
2
s
1
Working:
yx
y
=
p
x
integrate and evaluate for bottom plate:
yx
=
_
h/2
0
p
x
dy =
p
x
h
2
= 2.5Nm
2
yx
=
u
y
u =
_
yx
dy
BIBLIOGRAPHY 85
from above;
yx
=
p
x
y + c
1
so u =
_
1
p
x
y +
1
c
1
dy
u =
1
2
p
x
y
2
+
1
c
1
y + c
2
nd c
1
and c
2
:
at y = 0, u = 0 so c
2
= 0
u =
1
2
p
x
y
2
+
1
c
1
y
at y = h, u = 0 so
c
1
=
h
2
p
x
u =
1
2
p
x
y
2
h
2
p
x
y
Q = w
_
h
0
udy = w
_
h
0
1
2
p
x
y
2
h
2
p
x
y dy
Q = w
1
p
x
_
1
6
y
3
h
4
y
2
h
0
= 2.08 10
5
wm
3
s
1
Q
w
= 2.08 10
5
m
2
s
1
#16 Laminar Pipe Flows
16.1 A viscosity measurement setup for an undergraduate uid mechanics
laboratory is to be made from exible plastic tubing; the uid is to be water.
Assume the tubing diameter is D = 2.5 mm 0.2 mm and the length is l =
20 m. Evaluate the maximum volume low rate at which laminar ow would
be expected and the corresponding pressure drop. Estimate the experimental
uncertainty in viscosity measured using this apparatus. How could the setup
be improved? (Question based on FMP 8.47)
Answer:
Q
max
= 5.57 10
6
m
3
s
1
86 BIBLIOGRAPHY
p = 97.36kPa
Working:
Q = uA
Re =
uD
=
u4D
2
4D
=
4Q
D
Q =
ReD
4
Q
max
=
23001.1410
3
2.710
3
4999
= 5.57 10
6
m
3
s
1
p =
128L
D
4
Q = 97.36kPa
uncertainty analysis:
=
pD
4
128 LQ
u
=
_
_
p
p
u
p
_
2
+
_
D
D
u
D
_
2
+
_
L
L
u
L
_
2
+
_
Q
Q
u
Q
_
2
_
1
/2
p
p
=
p
D
4
128 LQ
= 1
D
D
=
D
4D
3
128 LQ
= 4
L
L
=
L
(1)
D
4
128 L
2
Q
= 1
Q
Q
=
Q
(1)
D
4
128 LQ
2
= 1
Hence,
u
=
_
u
2
p
+ (4u
D
)
2
+ (u
L
)
2
+ (u
Q
)
2
_
1
/2
since
u
d
=
D
D
=
0.2
2.5
= 8%
u
4u
d
= 32%
The setup could be therefore be improved by reducing the uncertainty in
the tube diameter by using a larger diameter or a more uniform-diameter
tube.
16.2 Consider fully devloped laminar ow in a circular pipe. Use a cylindri-
cal control volume as shown. Indicate the forces acting on the control volume.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 87
Using the momentum equation, develop an expression for the velocity distri-
bution. (Question from FMP 8.51)
Answer: u =
1
4
p
x
_
r
2
R
2
_
Working:
Form expressions for the pressure and shear stresses acting on the control
volume:
Pressure force on left face:
F
P
L
=
_
p
p
x

x
2
_
r
2
Pressure force on right face:
F
P
R
=
_
p +
p
x

x
2
_
r
2
Shear stress at pipe center:
F
0
= 0
Shear stress at r:
F
r
=
rx
r
2
x
Sum all forces
F
P
L
+F
P
R
+ F
r
+ F
0
=
p
x
xr
2
+
rx
r
x2r = 0

rx
=
1
2
r
p
x
substitute
rx
=
u
r
:
u
r
=
1
2
p
x
r
integrate over r:
u(r) =
1
4
p
x
r
2
+ C
1
Solve for C
1
with boundary condition:
u(R) = 0
C
1
=
R
2
4
p
x
88 BIBLIOGRAPHY
u =
1
4
p
x
_
r
2
R
2
_
16.3 The velocity prole for fully developed ow between stationary parallel
plates is given by u = a(h
2
/4 y
2
), where a is a constant, h is the total gap
width between plates, and y is the distance measured from the center of the
gap. Determine the ratio V /u
max
. (Question from FMP 8.6)
Answer:
V
umax
=
2
3
Working:
maximum velocity will be at mid-distance between the plates:
u
max
= u(0) = a
h
2
4
mean velocity:
V =
Q
A
=
1
A
_
udA =
1
wh
_
h/2
h/2
uwdy =
1
h
_
h/2
h/2
a
_
h
2
4
y
2
_
dy =
a
h
_
h
2
4
y y
3
_
h/2
h/2
V =
1
6
ah
2
V
umax
=
2
3
#17 Losses in Pipe Flows
17.1 Water is pumped at the rate of 0.6m
3
/s from a reservoir 6m above
a pump to a free discharge 27m above the pump. The pressure on the
intake side of the pump is 34kPa and the pressure on the discharge side is
0.3MPa. all pipes are commercial steel of 15cm diamter. Determine a) the
head supplied by the pump and (b) the total head loss between the pump and
the point of free dischrge. (Question from FMP 8.77)
BIBLIOGRAPHY 89
Answer:
h
pump
= 266.3Jkg
1
h
lt
= 35.43Jkg
1
Working:
h
pump
=

W
in
m
=
__
p
3
+
V
2
3
2
+ gz
3
_
_
p
2
+
V
2
2
2
+ gz
2
__
V
3
= V
2
(mass conservation)
z
2
= z
3
(negligible)
h
pump
=
1
(p
3
p
2
) = 266.27Jkg
1
Head loss:
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
3
=
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
4
+ h
lt
p
4
= 0Pa (gage)
V
3
= V
4
(mass conservation)
z
3
= 0m
h
lt
=
p
3
gz
4
= 35.4Jkg
1
17.2 A small-diameter capillary tube made from drawn aluminium is used
in place of an expansion valve in a home refrigerator. The inside diameter
is 0.5mm. Calculate the corresponding relative roughness. Comment on
90 BIBLIOGRAPHY
whether this tube may be considered smooth with regard to uid ow.
(Question from FMP 8.79)
Answer:
e
D
= 3 10
3
Working:
e (for drawn tubing) = 1.5
6
m
e
D
=
1.510
6
0.510
3
= 3 10
3
Looking at the Moody diagram, it is clear that this tube cannot be considered
smooth for turbulent ow through the tube. For laminar ow (Re<2300) the
relative roughbess has no eect.
17.3 A smooth, 75mm diameter pipe carries water (65
c) horizontally.
When the mass ow rate is 0.075kg/s, the pressure drop is measured to be
7.4Pa per 100m of pipe. Based on these measurements, what is the friction
factor? What is the Reynolds number? Does this Reynolds number generally
indicate laminar or turbulent ow? Is the ow actually laminar or turbulent?
(Question from FMP 8.80)
Answer:
f = 0.039
Re 3000 - indicates turbulent ow
Working:
= 980kgm
3
A = 4.42 10
3
m
2
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
1
=
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
2
+ h
lt
p
= h
lt
= f
L
D
V
2
2
f =
p
D
L
2
V
2
=
p
D
L
2
_
A
m
_
2
f = 0.038
BIBLIOGRAPHY 91
V =
m
A
= 0.0173ms
1
Re =
V D
=
9800.01730.075
4.3110
4
3000
indicating turbulent ow.
#18 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems
18.1 Two reservoirs are connected by three clean cast-iron pipes in series,
L
2
= 600m, D
2
= 0.3m, L
3
= 900m, D
3
= 0.4m, L
4
= 1500m, and
D
4
= 0.45m. When the discharge is 0.11m
3
/s of water at 15
C, determine
the dierence in elevation between the reservoirs. (Question from FMP 8.112)
L =600m
L =900m
L =1500m
D =0.3m
D =0.4m
D =0.45m
2
2
3
3
4
4
1
2
z
2
z
Answer: z = 8.21m
Working:
= 1.1 10
3
Pa s
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
1
=
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
2
+ h
lt
gz = f
2
L
2
D
2
V
2
2
2
+ f
3
L
3
D
3
V
2
3
2
+ f
4
L
4
D
4
V
2
4
2
V
3
A
3
= V
2
A
2
V
3
= V
2
A
2
A
3
=
9
16
V
2
V
4
A
4
= V
2
A
2
V
4
= V
2
A
2
A
4
=
4
9
V
2
92 BIBLIOGRAPHY
V
2
=
Q
A
2
= 1.56ms
1
: Re
2
= 4.25 10
5
:
e
D
= 8.67 10
4
V
3
= 0.875ms
1
: Re
3
= 3.18 10
5
:
e
D
= 6.5 10
4
V
4
= 0.69ms
1
: Re
4
= 2.83 10
5
:
e
D
= 5.78 10
4
f
2
= 0.02 : f
3
= 0.019 : f
4
= 0.0188
z =
1
g
_
f
2
2
L
2
D
2
+ f
3
L
3
D
3
0.32
2
+ f
4
L
4
D
4
0.2
2
_
V
2
2
z = 9.81
1
[20 + 6.84 + 6.27] 1.56
2
= 8.21m
18.2 Water, at volume ow rate Q = 20L/s, is delivered by a re hose
and nozzle assembly. The hose (L = 80m, D = 75mm, and e/D = 0.004)
is mae up of four 20m sections joined by couplings. The entrance is square-
edged; the minor loss coecient for each coupling is K
c
= 0.5, based on
mean velocity through the hose. The nozzle loss coecient is K
n
= 0.02,
based on velocity in the exit jet, of d = 25mm diameter. Estimate the supply
pressure required at this ow rate.(Question from FMP 8.113)
Answer: p
1
= 1166kPa
Working:
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
1
=
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
2
+ h
lt
z = 0m : V
1
= 0ms
1
: P
2
= 0Pa (gage)
p
1
=
V
2
3
2
+ h
lt
=
V
2
3
2
+ [h
le
+ 4h
lc
+ h
ln
+ h
l
]
p
1
=
V
2
3
2
+
_
1
2
k
e
V
2
2
+ 2k
c
V
2
2
+ 0.01V
2
3
+ f
L
D
V
2
2
2
_
V
3
A
3
= V
2
A
2
: V
3
= V
2
A
2
A
3
= 9V
2
p
1
=
81V
2
2
2
+
_
1
2
k
e
V
2
2
+ 2k
c
V
2
2
+ 0.01V
2
2
81 + f
L
D
V
2
2
2
_
BIBLIOGRAPHY 93
p
1
=
_
81
2
+
1
2
k
e
+ 2k
c
+ 0.01 81 + f
L
D
1
2
V
2
2
k
e
= 0.5
V
2
=
Q
A
2
= 4.53ms
1
Re = 3.39 10
5
Calculate f from:
1
f
0.5
= 2log
_
e/D
3.7
+
2.51
Ref
0.5
_
f = 0.0287
p
1
=
_
81
2
+ 0.25 + 1 + 0.81 + 15.3
4.53
2
p
1
= 1166kPa
18.3 Gasoline ows in a long, underground pipline at a constant temperature
of 15
C. Two pumping stations at the same elevation are located 13km

apart. the pressure drop between the sections is 1.4MPa. The pipeline is
made from 0.6m diameter pipe. Although the pipe is made from commercial
steel, age and corrosion have raised the pipe roughness to approximately that
for galvnized iron. Compute the volume ow rate. (Question from FMP
8.118)
Answer: Q = 1m
3
s
1
Working:
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
1
=
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
2
+ h
lt
p = h
lt
= f
L
D
V
2
2
2
V
2
=
_
2Dp
fL
:
1
f
0.5
= 2log
_
e/D
3.7
+
2.51
Ref
0.5
_
Begin with an approximate value of f and V
2
, say 0.004 and 1ms
1
- Calculate R
e
based on approximate V
2
- Calculate f for approximate R
e
- Calculate V
2
for next iteration
Repeat process until values of f and V
2
converge.
94 BIBLIOGRAPHY
f = 0.014 : V
2
= 3.498ms
1
Q = 1m
3
s
1
#19 Flow Measurements
18.1 You are asked to size a pump for installation in the water supply of the
Sears Tower in Chicago. The system requires 100gpm of water pumped to a
reservoir at the top of the tower 340m above the street. City water pressure
at the street-level pump inlet is 400kPa (gage). Piping is to be commercial
steel. Determine the minimum diameter required to keep the average velocity
below 3.5m/s in the pipe. Calculate the pressure rise required across the
pump. Estimate the minimum power needed to drive the pump. (Question
from FMP 8.144)
Answer:
D = 0.048m
p = 3.84MPa
w = 24.2kW
Working:
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
1
=
p
+
V
2
2
+ gz
2
+ h
lt
p
2
= 0Pa (gage)
BIBLIOGRAPHY 95
V
1
= V
2
= 3.5ms
1
A =
Q
V
D =
_
4Q
V
= 0.048m
e
D
=
4.610
5
0.048
= 9.6 10
4
Re = 1.68 10
5
1
f
0.5
= 2log
_
e/D
3.7
+
2.51
Ref
0.5
_
f = 0.021
p
1
= [gz + h
l
] =
_
gz + f
L
D
V
2
2
_
= 4.243MPa
p = p
1
p
0
= 4.243MPa 400kPa = 3.84MPa
w = mp = 6.3 10
3
m
3
s
1
3.84MPa = 24.2kW
18.2 A venturi meter with a 75mm diameter throat is placed in a 150mm
diameter line carrying water at 25
C. The pressure drop between the up-

stream tap and the venturi throat is 300mm of mercury. compute the rate
of ow. (Question from FMP 8.161)
Answer: Q = 0.04m
3
s
1
Working:
m
actual
=
CAt
1
4
2p
=
75
150
= 0.5 : C = 0.99 : A
t
=
(0.075)
2
4
= 4.42 10
3
m
2
p =
Hg
gh = 39.88kPa
m
actual
= 40.36kgs
1
Q =
m
actual
= 0.04m
3
s
1
#20 Revision
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1M Fluids

k pointing in x, y, z direction respectively.

k are dened as:

C has a viscosity of = 1.76 10

V of the uid. Skipping a detailed derivation, the

Q over the temperature T of an object:

V , energy e or entropy s. The

Q, the work being performed on the environment through a shaft

Ask your tutor to sign o your work. _______

i . The top plate slides in the x direction with velocity U

i . The top plate slides in x direction with the velocity U

i , where z is the distance from the wall. Calculate the shear

, where is the coordinate in circumferential direction).

K, Universal gas constant for air: 287.05Jkg

C. Calculate the force

jm/s, determine velocity

F. At a certain instant a valve is opened and mass

C. Two pumping stations at the same elevation are located 13km

C. The pressure drop between the up-

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