Accelerometers Piezoelectric andVibrationPreamplifiers

Handbook Theory andApplication

Briiel&Kiar@.

PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER AilD VIBRATION PREAMPLFIER HAl{DBOOK

by Mark Senldge, BSc and TorbenR. Llcht, MSc

RevislonNovember1987

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CONTENTS

1. V|BRAT|ON iTEASUREMENT............. 1 .1.T NT RO DUC T T ON 1 .2.W HY M E A S U R E VIB R A T T O N ? 1 .3.W HA T t S V |B R AT | ON ? ................ 1.4.V|BRAT|ON PARAMETERS ............. 1.5.THE QUANTIFICATION VIBRATION OF LEVELS Linear amplitudeand frequencyscales Logarithmicamplitudeand frequencyscales 1.6.ANALYSIS VIBRATION OF MEASUREMENTS

................ 1 ...................... 1 ..................... 1 .................. 5 .............. 6 ............ 7 ........................... I ................. I .............. 11

2. THE PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROiIETER

12

' t2 2 .1 .f NT RO DUCTION ..................... 2.2. OPERATTON AN ACCELEROMETER OF ....................... 13 Analyticaltreatmentol accelerometer operation ............................... 14 2.3. FREQUENCY RANGE .........;................ ..................... 18 Upper frequencylimit .......... 19 Lower frequencylimit .......... 20 2.4.PIEZOELECTRIC MATERTALS ................... 20 2.5.PRACTICAL ACCELEROMETER DESIGNS .................... 22

Line-drive accelerometers
Other designs ................... 2.6.ACCELEROMETER SENSITIVITY Charge and voltage sensitivity Uni-Gainosensitlvity Linearityand dynamlc range .......... Transverse sensltlvlty 2.7.PHASE RESPONSE 2.8. TRANSTENT RESPONSE............... Leakageeffects Ringing Zero shift ............................ 25 ............. 25 .................. 26 ............ 28 .......... 28 .......... 29 .............. 30 ............. 33 .................... 33

..................... 35
......... 37

P 3. VIBRA T I O N RE A MP L T F T ER S ...........

............... 38

EE 3 .1 .P RE A M P LT F T D R ST GN N D OP ER AT T ON ....................,.................. A .. 39 3 .2 .CHA RG EA M P L IF IE R S .....,... 39 Char ges ens it i v i ty ................. 40 Lower Limiting Frequency.................. .......44 Capacitiveloading of input by accelerometer cables ....................... 48 Charge attenuation ......,....... 49 Nols e in c har g ea mp l i fi e rs ........................ 50 3.3.VOLTAGE PREAMPLTFTERS ............. ........... 54 Voltagesensitivity ................ 55 Lower Limiting Frequency.................. .......56 Noise in voltage preamplifiers .................. 57 3.4.PREAMPLIFIER OUTPUTCABLES ........... 57 E 3 .5 .L|NE - DRT VS Y S T EMS.................. ............. 58 Br0el&Kjer line-driveaccelerometer and line-drivesupply ........... 61 BrUel &Kjer line-driveamplifier and line-drivesupply ..................... 61 3.6.COMPARISON THE SENSITIVITY DIFFERENT OF OF VIBRATION PREAMPLIFIER SYSTEMSTO E X T E RNA L | SESOU R C ES NO ................... 61 Groundedaccelerometer and charge preamplifier ....................'........ O+ Groundedaccelerometer with charge preamplifier ( " f loat ing"inp u t) .......... ......... 65 Brriel&Kjar line-driveamplifier and power supply (groundedinput) .......... ......... 66 BrUel Kjar line-driveamplifier and power supply & ( " f loat ing"inp u t) .......... ......... 68 Line-drive system based on constant current power s upply ................... ......70 Balancedaccelerometer and differentialcharge am plif ier .......... 69 fnsufatedmountingof the accelerometer ...........-......... 71 3 .7 .S P E CT A L RE AMP L T F T ER T U R ES P F EA ........ .......... .......... 71 fntegrationNetworks ........... 72 F ilt er s . . . . . . . . .. ............................ 76 Overloadlndicator ............... 78 ReferenceOscillator ...-........ 78 P ower S upplie s ..................... 78

ACCELEROMETER PERFORMANCE PRACTTCE tN ................................ 79 4 .1.I NT RO DUCTT ON 4.2. ENVTRONMENTAL EFFECTS Temperature range ........... Temperature transients .................... 79 ..................... 80 ........................... 80 .......82

..'..'........ 84 Acoustic sensitivity 85 ............' ..." .......' . B as e s t r ains .'......-. 85 Humidity 86 ............. Magneticsensitivity .' ...' ... 86 Radiat ion 86 ......................... OF EFFECTS ACCELEROMETERS 4.3.MASS LOADING ................... 88 ........... T 4 .4 .M O UNT T NGH E A C C EL E R OME T ER 89 ........'. .......... Vibrationtest surface finish requirements 89 ......' ..' ....... M ount ingloc a ti o n Determinationof the frequency response of accelerometers ..'..'.90 using different mountingtechniques 90 .......' ..' ...............' S t ud m ount in S................... 93 .......' ...' ....' ..' .." ..' . W ax m ount inS.................. .'..'.......... 95 Magneticmounting .......'97 discs ........... mounting Self-adhesive .....'..98 Adhesives 102 ............ P r obes 105 .......... .................. F 4 .5.M E CHA NI CA L IL T E R S .... 105 Description .....' 106 Operation 107 ................... C 4 .6.A CCE LE RO M E T ERAB L ES 109 .................. P 4 .7.G RO UNDT NGR EC AU T IO N S

111 AND TESTING ................................. CALIBRATION ACCELEROMETER 5 '1 ' lNT RoDUc r lo N " " " " " " " " " 111 113 .......'.Why calibrate an accelerometer? 114 .......................... S O 5 .2 .T HE HI E RA R C H Y F C AL IB R A T IO N T AN DA R D S .'.....114 generalhierarchy The .' ..' ....... 115 a T he hier ar c hy t B& K .................. ......118 The accuracyol calibrationtechniques ................ ......... 119 M 5 .3 .CA LT B RA T I O NET H O D S............... .'......119 Laser Interferometery 121 Other absolutemethods '..........'.......'...... Comparison calibration by the ..". 121 "back-to-back"method FFT-basedback-to-back calibration '-..-123 The use of calibrated vibration exciters .".. 124 for sensitivitychecking .. PARAMETERS 125 OF 5.4. MEASUREMENT OTHERACCELEROMETER .'..".. 125 Transversesensitivity 126 ....'...... Frequencyresponse 128 ......'.........'. Undampednatural frequency 129 .........-...........".. Capacitance

OF OF 5 .5 .DE T E RM I NA T IO N T H E E F F EC T S T H E E N V IR ON ME N T ......... 129 oN THE ACCELEROMETER SPECTETCATTONS ........... 129 transientsensitivity Temperature ..... 129 Temperature sensitivity .......130 Base strain sensitivity ............ 130 A c ous t ics ens i ti v i ty ........... 131 Magneticsensitivity ......................... 131 T em per at ur ei mi ts ............ l ......................... 132 S hoc k lim it s 132 TESTINGOF ACCELEROMETER CABLES...................... 5.6. FACTORY ........ 133 EQ T 5 .7.CA LT B RA T T O N U T PME N............. ................ 133 CalibrationSystemType 9559 ............ 133 Individualcalibrationequipment RELATING THE CALIBRATION TO 5.8. STANDARDS 134 .......................... oF A CCE LE R OME T ER S

. 6. AP P E NDT CE S. ...............

............ 137

138 ................... AP P E NDI X . Con v e rs i o n h a rts A c 141 ............... APPENDIX Vibration nomogram B. ................. 142 C. APPENDIX Vibration standards ................. 142 AP P E NDf X B r U e l & Kj e r V i b ra ti o nL i te ra tu re D. 144 ............................ E AP P E NDI X . S umma ryo f B ru e l & Kj e r P re a m p l i fi ers &Kjar instruments APPENDIX Summaryof BrUel F. ......146 with built-in preamplifiers frequencyand dynamic APPENDIX BrUel&Kjar accelerometer G. ......148 range charts ......................., 150 l AP P E NDI X S um m a ryo f B rU e&K j a r a c c e l e r ometers H.

SYMBOLNOTATION
GeneralQuantities
t f @ j e = Time = Frequency = Angular frequncy = t{4 = Base to the Natural Logarithm X6 Fa (tn I I | m" mo ,"

Accelerometer Dynamics
= Seismic mass = Mass of base = Dlsplacement ol seismic

mass
= Displacement base of = Excitationforce = Naturalresonancefrequency (rads/sec)

General Dynamics
= Dlsplacement = Velocity = Acceleration = Force = Period = Time constant

,^
f.

= Mounted resonance frequency (rads/sec) = Mounted resonance frequency (Hz) =Amptiftcationfactor = Mechanical lmpedance of

x v a F f r

I I I n Z" Z,

structure
= Mechanical lmpedance of accelerometer

General Electrical Quantities

I V A c R Z = Current = Voltage = Charge = Capacitance = Resistance = lmpedance

SYMBOLNOTATION
Accelerometer Electrical Quantities
Va Qu ca Ra So, Sn S,,o Ch = Open circuit accelerometer voltage = charge generated by piezoelectricelements = Capacitanceot accelerometer = Resistanceof accelerometer = Charge sensitivityof accelerometer = Voltagesensitivityof accelerometer (loaded) = Voltagesensitivityof accelerometer (open circuit) = Capacitanceto the housing of a balancedaccelerometer from the output pins Re Ca Ct R' A Vi vo 4 Zt

Preamplifier Electrlcal Quantities

= Preamplifier Input reslstance = Preamplifier input capacitance = Feedbackcapacitance = Feedbackresistance = Gainof operational amplifier = PreamplifierInput voltage = Preamplifieroutput voltage = Feedbackimpedance = Total impedance of accelerometer,cable and preamplifier input = Current from C, = Current through feedback capacitor = Voltage across feedback capacitor = Total capacitanceof accelerometer,cable and preamplifier input = Total resistance of accelerometer, cable and preamplifier input = Resistance of "floating" stage of preamplifier

li l" vc Ct

Cable ElectricalQuantities
C" R" Rb C" = Capacitanceof cable = Series reslstanceof cable = Resistance between centre conductor and screen = Capacitance between screen and inner conductors In balanced accelerometer cable = Capacitance of dielectric in balanced accelerometer cable = Triboelectriccharge noise

Rt

Rloat

Cd

CMRR = Common Mode Rejection Ratio of "floating" operational amplifier en i" Ro = Noise voltage = Noise current = Output resistance ol linedrive amplilier

en

1. VIBRATIONMEASUREMENT

1.1. |NTRODUCTIOI{ Recent years have seen the rise of vibration problems associated with structures which are more delicate and intricate, and machineswhich are faster and more complex. The problems have been coupled with demands for lower running costs and increased efficiency. Concern has also arisen about the effects of noise and vibration on people and on the working lifetime of manufactured items. Consequently, there has been a requirement for a greater understandingof the causes of vibration and the dynamic response of structures to vibratory forces. To gain such an understandingan accurate, reliable and versatile vibration transducer is required. In addition, advanced measurement and analysis equipment is often used. However, both the versatility and capability of such equipment would be wasted without an accurate vibration signal from a reliable vibration transducer. The piezoelectricaccelerometeris the optimum choice ol vibration transducer. The extensive range of high performance measuring equipment now available can fully utilize the very wide frequency range and dynamic range offered by this type of vibration transducer. This handbook is intended primarily as a practical guide to making accurate vibration measurementswith Br0el& Kjer piezoelectric accelerometers.

1.2. WHY MEASURE VIBRATION? Vibration is measuredfor many different reasons. ln general all uncontrolled vibration is an undesirable phenomenon which gives rise to noise, causes mechanicalstress and is a possible cause of structural failure. Four broad areas of vibration measurementcan be defined: 1. Vibration Testing. As part of a general environmentaltest program or as a part of engineering design, vibration testing performs the vital role ol finding out how well a component can endure the vibration environments which it is likely to encounter in a real-life situation.

l)urlng a vibration test, a structure(an aircraft componentfor example)is subjected high vibrationlevelswith a vibrationexciter.The vibrationlevel to ls held constant in defined frequencyregions and the frequencyis swept. This is achievedwith a vibrationexciter controllerand a feedbackaccelerometerwhich providesdata concerningthe acceleration which the structo ture is subjected.With the addition of a second accelerometer attachedto the structure,frequencyresponseinformationis obtained.

Fig. 1.1. Vibration testing of an insulator used in the construction of a high voltage electricity pylon 2

2 . M ac hine Healt h Mo n i to ri n g a n d F a u l t D i a g n o si s In i ts si mpl estform an overall measurementof vibration level on a machine is used to give a war ning of im pe n d i n gp ro b l e m s .H o w e v e r,m o re i nformati oncan be obthe This techniqueinvolvesmeasuring characanalysis. tainedby frequency teristic frequencyspectrumof the vibrationof a machinein good condition a n d m onit or inga n y c h a n g e so f th e s p e c tra lcomponentsusi ng vi brati on measurements over a period ol time. Suchchangesare normallyindications of impendingproblems.Faultdiagnosiscan also be performedusing vibration measurements.

Fig. 1.2. Vibration measurements are used in a machine-health monitoring and fault diagnosis program

ln Industryvibration measurements also form the basis for correctingshaft unbalancein rotating machines.Unbalanceis a cause of high vibration levelswhich often lead to fatigue and bearing failures. 3. Structural Analysis. This is a powerfulexperimental methodfor determining the dynamic behaviour of a structure using vibration measurements. Using a force transducerand an accelerometer, the excitationsignal and vibrationresponseof a structureare measuredsimultaneously using a dual channel analyzer.High speed computation, performed within the analyzer and often in conjunction with a desk-top computer, provides essential informationfor the design verificationand modificationof structuresvarying in size from small turbine blades to large bridges.

Fig. 1.3. The structural analysis of a train carriage using vibration measurements
4

of 4. Human VabrationMeasurement.This area concerns the measurement the vibrationtransmittedto human beings.Thesevibrationscan, lor example, originate from passengervehicles and hand-held power tools. The measuredvibration levels are then related to human comfort and health Standards. criteria by International

Fig. 1.4. Measuring the vibration levels transmitted from the handle ot a chain saw using an accelerometer and a vibration meter 1.3. WHAT IS VIBRATION? Vibration is a dynamic phenomenonobserved as a to-and-fro motion about an equilibrium position. Vibration is caused by the transfer or storage of qnergy within structures, resulting from the action of one or mbre forces. Vibration is often a by-product of an otherwise useful operation and is very diflicult to avoid.

Vlbretlons can be observed in the tirne domain, i.e. the change in the amplitudc of the vibration with time ("time history"). Vlbration time histories can fall Into one of several classes as defined by their'mathematical form or by the rtatlstlcal properties of the motions they contain. Vibrations can also be looked at fn the frequency domain where the vibration is described by its frequency Bpectrum,The two domains are related mathematicallyvia the Fourier Trans/orm. Consult the Br0el& Kjer book "FrequencyAnalysis" which deals with this toplc. Unlike other vibration transducers, piezoelectric accelerometersare used to measure arl types of vibrations regardlessof the nature of the vibration in the time domain or the frequency domain, as long as the accelerometer has the correct frequency and dynamic ranges. Because of the wide frequency and dynamic ranges of piezoelectric accelerometersit is always possible to find a particular type for any vibration measurement.lt is only the analysistechniques which must change according to the type of vibration.

1.4. VIBRATIONPARAI'ETERS The piezoelectric accelerometer measures acceleration and this signal can be electronically integrated once to provide the velocity signal and a second time to provide the displacement signal. This is an attractive feature of piezoelectric accelerometers. Fig. 1.5 shows the effect of integrating the acceleration of an electric drill. The vibration is displayed in the lrequency domain. The integrator acts as a low-pass filter and attenuates the high frequency components present before the integration. Using an integration network effectively "throws away" information about the vibration. Obviouslythis is only acceptable if the lost information is not required for the purpose of the measurement. Acceleration should always be used if there is no reason for an integration. For example, an obvious reason for measuring velocity is to obtain the actual vibration velocity magnitude. lt'is also often desirable to minimize the dynamic range requirementsof the measuring instrumentsin the vibration measurement set-up and hence increasethe signal-to-noiseratio of the measurement. This is achieved by using the parameter which gives the flattest frequency spectrum (see Fig.1.5(b)). Only frequency analysis can reveal the frequency composition of a vibration signal. For broad-band (wide frequency content) measurements on rotating machlnesthe velocity parameter is found to be the best in 70o/o all ot cases, accelerationin 30% and displacementis hardly ever used. Displacement parameters are sometimes used for measurements of low frequency and large displacementvibrations often encountered on structures such as ships, buildings and bridges.

a) p o D o tr o o o o o o o o tr o tr o o o tr o o o o o D q o o o t4t o-o Q o-EItr tr tr o tr tr --L o tr tr tr uR.ciitir:-aa tr I m-|ffi fr. sd.-Norm!l-6dr EF:-O.3-ff Lim FG:-l 6Jr
rru.r &Kid , m m ! qu! ?q l- : : q q '- @ rm m & n PM r r m m m

tu tr i p l yF4

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o o Eotr

.:-i-6-u

oo tr otr o

tr tr tr D

fr. W:-Nomal-mds 1 f f i l r m m R i l r l @s@

oD oD tr El tr o

PF

tr o o ootr

SFd:-o3-mn

tr o o

c) .-L

rda Ki.r

tr o o o tr tr tr - -hdilL:--AC tr o o E tr o o o o o tr o o o tr tr o tr tr o trfr.o sod:-Nmal-d. tr tr o.tr Fq.!-Sp.d:-0,3-m o tr o o tr tr tr tr tr -D D-o Q o unFra:-1.6J2 Loo-|ffi

, m @E! ! l?q --:4 -qa Em lm 3m @ Bi l r r m m m

Fig. 1.5. Frequency analysis of the vibration ot an electric drill using the three different measurement parameters-acceleration, velocity and displacement When complex signals such as shocks and impulses are measured integration networks should notbe used becausethey introduce phase errors resulting in serious amplitude measurementerrors.

1.5. THE OUANTIFICATION VIBRATIONLEVELS OF There are several ways of quantifying the vibration amplitude of a signal in the time domain. The actual measurementunits (for example, in/s2, m/s2, g etc) may differ although the descriptors described in this section are widely used.

!E
c o E

{ c

Xrd[ld

(0,6t17)

lGegp

Fig. 1.6. Simple harmonic vibration. The amplitude referred to can be displacement, velocity or acceleration Fig. 1.6 shows the simplest form of vibration time history. lt is representedby a particle oscillating about a referenceposition where exactly equal conditions of motion are encounteredat fixed time intervals.This time interval is called the period, 7i of the vibration. The vibration amplitude varies sinusoidallywith time. It can be shown that the shape and period of the vibration remain the same when displacement,velocity or acceleration amplitude is chosen to represent the motion. Only the relative phases are different. The amplitudeof the vibration signal shown in Fig.1.6 can be describedby using the following descriptors. 1. RllS (Root llean Square) Level: Provides the most useful description of vibration levels. The square root of the integrated time-averaged squared function is related to the vibration energy and hence the vibration's damage potential.The RMS value ot a sine wave is 1lt[2 times the value of the peak level.

PeakLevel:Defines maximum the levelwhichis measured is usefulin and the measurement shortduration of shocks.However, account takenol no is the time historyof the vibration. 3. Peak-to-peak: Although someusein describing of vibration displacements, this descriptoris rarelyused. AverageLevel: Takesthe time history of the vibrationinto accountbut there is no usefulrelatlonshipbetweenthe averagelevel and any physical quantity.fn Fig. 1.6 the averagevalue of lhe rectitiedsine wave is referred to.

5. Crest Factor: Definesthe ratio of the peak value of a signal to the RMS value.From the definitionof RMS above,the crest factor for the sine wave or in Fig. 1.6 is !2. As the vibrationbecomesmore impulsive, more random, the crest factor increases.This simple relationship is easily calculatedwith a simple vibration meter equipped with RMS and peak facilitis. When on making wide-bandmeasurements a machine'sbearing houslng,an increase in a single vibration component caused by a faulty bearlng may be but might be indicated by an inin undetectable the RMS measurement, crease in the crest factor. Hence by monitoring the growth of the crest factor, it is possible to predict a breakdown or element fault. Another example of the utility of crest factors can be found in structural testing techniques.The crest factor of the input signal to the structure can reveal important information about the excitation. lf the crest factor is very high, as can be the case with hammer excitation, the structure may be driven into non-lineardynamic behaviour.A high crest factor also indicates that the input may not contain sufficient energy to obtain a good signal-tonoise ratio. On the other hand, a high crest factor is an indication that the input has a wide frequency range.

1.5.1. Linear Amplitude and Frequency Scales Linear amplitude and frequency scales are used in vibration measurements when a high resolution is needed. A linear frequency scale helps to separate closely spaced frequency components. The linear lrequency scale gives the lurther advantage that equally spaced harmonic components of a vibration signal are easily recognized.

Logarithmic Amplitude and Frequency Scales 1.5.2. Piezoelectric accelerometers are capable of accurate vibration measurements over extremelywide dynamic and frequency ranges. Therefore,to obtain convenient interpretation of results the following are often required: 1. An amplitude scale which can accomodate vibration amplitudes from the lowest detectable amplitudes up to shock amplitudes, and which can also simplify the comparisonof vibration amplitudes. 2. A frequency scale with the same percentageresolutionover the whole width of the recordingchart. The two objectives can be achieved using the followihg:

A drclbel scale. Although more commonly associated with acoustic mealurements the decibel (dB) is equally uselul in vibration measurements.lt is deflned as the ratio of one amplitude to another and it is expressed in a logarithmicform. For vibration amplitude ratios the lollowing relationship exlsts:

N ( dB):10log,s( +\ \ qref
: 2o ro s 1 e (* Where N a Srer )

'

= number of decibels = measured vibration amplitude = reference amPlitude

According to lSO1683 the reference amplitudes are as follows: Acceleration = 10s ms-2 Velocity - 10-em5-1

Displacement= 10-12m For a sine wave of angular frequency or = 1000radians per second (at approximately 159H2) these amplitudes are numerically equivalent. The referenceamplitudes must be referred to when vibration levels are stated in dBs (e.g. "The vibration level was measuredat 110 dB referredto 1O{ ms-2"). However, when vibration amplitudes are compared, the difference in the decibels can be used provided that they are referred to the same reference. For example, it is correct to say that one level is 20dB above another without any further reference. A logarithmic frequency scale. Frequency is sometimes plotted on a logarithmic scale. This type of scale has the effect of expanding the lower frequency ranges and compressing the higher frequency ranges. The result is equal relative resolution over the frequency axis (on a screen or on paper), and the size of the scale is kept to reasonableproportions. Thus a logarithmic lrequency scale is used to cover a wide frequency scale.

10

MEASUREIIENTS 1.6.ANALYSISOF VIBRATION The amount of information that can be obtained from tradltlonal tlme domain analysisis limited although modern time domain analysistechnlquesare becoming more powerful. However,wlth the addition of frequency analyslsequipment, such as analogue and digital frequency analyzers,very useful addltlonal information is obtained. No in-depth coverage of instruments ol thls nature ls given in this handbook. The Br0el&Kiar books "MechanicalVlbratlon and Shock Measurements' and "Frequency Analysis" should be referred to for I solid theoretical background in frequency analysis, while the main and short cataloguesshould be consulted for details of the range of instrumentsavallable from Br0el& Kjar. The complexity of the measuring instrumentationand the analysis of results may vary widely. But in every case the vibratlon transducer is the most critical link in the measurementchain, for without an accurate vibration signal the results of further analysis will not be reliable. The most reliable, versatile and accurate vibration transducer is the piezoelectric accelerometer.

ACCELEROMETER 2. THE PIEZOELECTRIC

2.1.INTRODUCTION The aim of this chapter is to give a basic, and often theoreticalinsight into the operation and the characteristicsof the piezoelectricaccelerometer.Due to the nature of its operation the performance of the vibration preamplifierwill need to be included to a small extent. However for a complete description of the operation and characteristicsof preamplifiers,Chapter 3 "Vibration Preamplitiers" should be consulted. A summary of the complete Br0el& Kjer range of can be found in Appendix H. accelerometers The piezoelectric accelerometer is widely accepted as the best available transducer for the absolute measurementof vibration. This is a direct result of these properties: 1. Usable over very wide frequency ranges. 2. Excellent linearity over a very wide dynamic range. 3. Acceleration signal can be electronicallyintegrated to provide velocity and displacement data. 4. Vibration measurements are possible in a wide range of environmental conditionswhile still maintainingexcellentaccuracy. 5. Self-generatingso no external power supply is required. 6. No moving parts hence extremely durable. 7. Extremely compact plus a high sensitivity to mass ratio. In order to appreciate these advantagesit is worth examining the characteristics of a few other types of vibration transducer and vibration measurement devices. 1. Prorimity probe. A device measuring only relative vibration displacement. It has a response to static displacementsand also a low electrical impedance output. However, the device is not self-generatingand the high frequency performance is poor. In addition the vibrating surface must be electrically conductive. 12

vibrationdisplacement transducer 2. Capacitive probe. A small,non-contact, are, and a wide frequencyrange.The disadvantages with a high sensitivity however, that the vibrating surface must be electrically conductive, the probe's dynamic range is very limited and it is difficult to callbrate. Position potentiometer. A low cost, low impedance device capable ol measuring static displacements. However, the dynamic and lrequency rangesare limited and the device only has a short working lifetimeand low resolution. Piezoresistive transducer. A vibration acceleration transducer which is capable of measuring static accelerations. The measuring frequency and dynamic ranges can be wide. The limited shock handlingcapacity means that this type of transducer is easily damaged. Viscous damping is often used to protect the transducer against shocks. However, this leads to a reduction in the operating temperature range and alters the phase characteristics. 5. Moving coil. A self-generatinglow impedancevibration velocity transducer. It is severely limited in its frequency range and dynamic range, is susceptible to magnetic fields and is affected by its orientation.

2.2. OPERATIONOF AN ACCELEROMETER acceler&Kjer Delta Shear@ Fig.2.1 illustrates simplifiedmodel of a BrUel a ometer showing only the mechanical parts. The active elementsof the accelerometer are the piezoelectric elements. These act as springs connecting the

Fig.2.1. Schematic of a Brhel&Kjar Delta Shear@piezoelectric accelerometer 13

barc ol the accelerometerto the seismic masses via the rigid triangular centre po!t. When the accelerometer is vibrated a force, equal to the product of the tccoleratlon of a seismic mass and its mass, acts on each piezoelectric element. The piezoelectricelements produce a charge proportional to the applied lorce. The seismic masses are constant and consequentlythe elements produce a charge which is proportional to the accelerationof the seismic masses. As the seismic masses accelerate with the same magnitude and phase as the accelerometerbase over a wide frequency range, the output of the accelerometer is proportional to the accelerationol the base and hence to the acceleration of the surtace onto which the accelerometer is mounted. The above model can be simplified as shown in Fi9.2.2.

2.2.1.Analylical Treatment of Accelerometer Operation Fig.2.2 shows a simplified model ol the accelerometerdescribed in the last section and referencedto an inertial system. The two masses are unsupported and connected by an ideal spring. Damping is neglected in this model because BrUel& Kjer accelerometers have very low damping factors.

)q

xb

Fiq.2.2. Simplitied model of an accelerometer

m8 lfl6

total seismicmass mass of the accelerometer base displacement the seismicmass of displacement the accelerometer of base

xs
X6

14

l-

- distance between the seismic mass and the bese when the accelerometer is at rest in the inertial system - equivalent stiffness of the piezoelectric elements = harmonic excitation force = amplitude of excitation force = excitation frequency (radls) = hrf = natural resonancefrequency ol the accelerometer(radls) = mounted resonance frequency of the accelerometer (radls) = mounted resonance lrequency of the accelerometer (Hz) - excitation frequency (Hz)

11 F" Fo (t o)n o)m

f. f

The following expressions describe the forces present in the model F moxo D"f," = k ( X " -x o -L ) (s p ri n gfo rc e )

= F * Fe (force on base) = - F (force on seismic masses)

The equation of motion for the model can be lound

* " - x = - + -ry=o ms fi|6

or 1tt Where 1
It

lL

ry. -xo-q-+ (x" m6

(1)

= -k-+Fssin@t
lfl6

1*1
ms ft16

or ms+ mb p is often referredto as the "reducedmass" and r is the relatlvedisplacement ol the seismicmassto the base 15 '= lll"lf,O

Xs- Xb - L

is Whenthe accelerometer in a free hangingpositionand is not beingexcited by externallorces (Fr= 0) the equation of motion for its free vibration reduces to 1ri = -kr

This simpledifferentialequationcan be solved by assumingthat the displacement of ms relative to rno varies harmonicallywith an amplitude R. In other words r -pRaz sin ot = Fs i n c o f = - kB sin orf

and therefore the resonance frequency of the accelerometer, <rln, can be written directly as
ok
t

It The implicationsof this result can be seen by rewritingthis equation as follows

@12

n-

lf the accelerometeris now mounted wih perfect rigidity onto a structure which is heavier than the total weight of the accelerometerthen mo becomes much larger than m". The resonancefrequencyof the accelerometerbecomes lower.Taken to the limit, if the accelerometer mountedon an infiniteryheavy is structure (mo-ol then the last equation reduces to k ms (3)

= -(+.*)

(2)

This is the natural frequency of the seismic mass-spring system and is defined as the mourted resonance frequency,om, of the accelerometer.The mountedresonancefrequencyis a property ol the accelerometer seismicmassspring system. Later it will be seen that this frequency is used to deline the usetul operating frequency range ol an accelerometer. In practice it is obviously not possible to mount the accelerometeron an infinitefy heavy and stiff structure to measure ils mounted resonance frequency. An approximationis achieved by mountingthe accelerometeron a 1809 steel block and exciting the two together at a constant accelerationover a wide frequency range to measure the mounted resonance frequency. This is examined in Chapter 5. 16

The resonance lrequency when mounted will change if the structure is not mountingtechniqueintroducesan addiinfinitelyrigid or if the accelerometer will split tional compliancebetweenthe base and the structure.The resonance up in two and the lowest resonancefrequency will be lower than the mounted resonancefrequency.This is examined in Chapter 4. The forced vibration of the accelerometer must now be examlned. The must be includedin the analysisalong wlth appliedforce on the accelerometer previouslydefined. The equation of motion the natural resonancefrequency,crrn, for the model (1) now becomes i + on2 r a -J-9- sin crrt= 0 mb of and assumingagain that the displacements the massesvary sinusoidally then + - c , r 2B s in@+ @ n 2 R s i n t,,l f f and therefore R(an2 -@'?)+ -I9-=
lfl6

Fo sin<ot = 0 mb

or
B =F=o = mo (anz- ci2l

At frequencieswell below the natural resonancefrequency of the accelerometer (@<<c;n) the displacement,which is now called Be, is expressed by Ro -FofrtPn2

at The ratio of the displacementat low frequency,Fs, to the displacement high frequency, F, can be expressed as follows Fo mo (ri.r2- ri,2l R
Ro Fo -ffi

the then this ratio as 4 and rearranging expression, and by denoting A

.,-(-v-\"
\t, I

(41

This important result shows that the displacementbetween the base and the seismic masses increaseswhen the forcing frequency becomes comparable to 17

the Consequently force frequencyof the accelerometer. thc naturalresonance elementsand the electricalgutput trom the accelerometer on the plezoelectric elementsused in Bruel& Kjer acceleromeAs alao Increase. the piezoelectric tere exhibit constant force sensitivitythe increasein electricaloutput ol an entirelyto the natufrequencyis attributable near its resonance accelerometer response The of ral resonance the accelerometer. typicalshapeof a frequency errors are (seeFig. 2.3)and amplitudemeasurement curveof an accelerometer relatedto this equation.This is coveredin section 2.3. depends of frequency the accelerometer The free hangingnaturalresonance heavilyon the ratio of the total seismic mass to the mass of the rest of the but transducer primarilyto that of the base.As a generalrule the total seismic the is mass of an accelerometer approximately same as the mass of the base and this gives the relationship mounted resonancefrequency free hanging resonancefrequency 2.3.FrequencyRange The relativechange in electricaloutput from an accelerometeiis shown in Fig.2.3. A frequencyresponsecurve of this kind shows the variation in the electricaloutputwhenit is excitedby a constantvibrationlevel accelerometer's over a wide frequencyrange.To obtain such a frequencyresponsecurve the is accelerometer mountedonto a 1809 exciter head.Hencethe approximation
1

u2

ranges usetul Frequency

o @ o o 6 o t

10% limlt = 0,3 f3 dB limlt 0,5 l.

Maln Axls Chatgs or Voltage Sensltlvlty

1 Prooortion of Mounted R$mme Frequencytm

Fiq.2.3. Relative sensitivityof an accelerometer vs' frequency 18

to the mounted resonancefrequencyof the accelerometercan be found. This frequencyresponsecurve is relatedto equation(4) in the lasl sectlon.However, lhe mounted resonancefrequencycan now be directly substltuted into (4) to obtain A = i1

r-lslc,t\ /

i t(s )

Equation (5) can be used to calculate the deviation between the measured and the actual vibration at any frequencyand to define usefulfrequencyranges.

2.3.1.Upper Frequency Limit Fig.2.3 shows that lhe mounted resonance frequency determines the frequency range over which the accelerometercan be used while a constant electrical output for a constant vibration input is still maintained. The higher the mounted resonancefrequency,the wider the operating frequencyrange. However,in order to have a higher mountedresonancefrequency it is necessaryto have either stiffer piezoelectricelementsor a lower total seismic mass. The stiffnessol the piezoelectricelementsis generallyconstant so a lower seismic mass is required.Such a lower mass would however exert less force on the piezoelectricelement and the accelerometerwould consequently be less sensitive.Thereforeaccelerometerspossessingvery high frequencyperformanceare less sensitive.conversely, high sensitivityaccelerometers do not have very high frequency measurementcapability. several usefullrequencyranges can be definedfrom the frequencyresponse curve of an accelerometer.They are: Frequency Limit is the frequencyat which there is a 5% deviationbetween 5olo the measuredand the actual vibration level applied to the base of the accelerometer. The maximum vibration frequency which can be measuredwith this accuracyis approximatelyone fifth (0,22)of the mounted resonancefrequency of the accelerometer. 10% Frequency Limit is the frequency at which there is a 10% deviation betweenthe measuredand the actual vibration level applied to the base of the The maximumvibration frequencywhich can be measuredwith accelerometer. this accuracy is approximatelyone third (0,30)times the mounted resonance frequency of the accelerometer. 3dB Frequency Limit is the frequency at which there is a 3dB difference betweenthe measuredand the actual vibration level applied to the base of the 19

accelerometer. with The maximumvibrationfrequencywhich can be measured this accuracy is approximately one half (0,54) times the mounted resonance frequency of the accelerometer.

2.3.2.Lower Frequency Limit Piezolelectricaccelerometers are not capable of a true DC response. The piezoefectricelementswill only produce a charge when acted upon by dynamic forces. The actual low frequency limit is determinedby the preamplilier to which the accelerometeris connected as it is the preamplifier which determines the rate at which the charge leaks away from the accelerometer.Measurementsof vibrations at frequenciesdown to 0,003Hz arc possible with BrUel& Kjar accelerometers and preamplifiers. Applicationsrequiring a low frequency limit in the order of fractions of a hertz are very rare and consequently the lack of a true DC response is seldom a drawback. for Chapter3, "VibrationPreamplifiers", shouldbe consulted a descriptionof effects associthe low frequency performance of preamplifiers.Environmental ated with low frequency measurementsare covered in Chapter 4 "Accelerometer Performance in Practice".

2.4. P'EZOELECTRIC MATERIALS A piezoelectric material is one which develops an electrical charge when subjected to a force. Materials which exhibit this property are intrinsic piezoelectric monocrystalssuch as quartz and Rochellesalt, and artificially polarized ferroelectric ceramics which are mixtures of different compounds such as barium titanate, lead zirconate and lead metaniobate. The process by which the ceramics are polarized is analogousto the process by which a piece of soft iron can be magnetised by a magnetic field . A high voltage surge is applied across two ends of the material. The domains within the molecular structure of the material become aligned in such a way that an external force causes deformations of the domains and charges of opposite polarity to form on opposite ends of the material. Fig.2.4. shows a simplified illustrationof this effect. When a piezoelectricaccelerometeris vibrated forces proportional to the applied acceleration act on the piezoelectricelements and the charge generated by them is picked up by the contact. lt is the extremely linear relationshipbetween the applied force and the developed charge, over a very wide dynamic and frequency range, which results in the excellent characteristics of the piezoelectric accelerometer.The sensitivity of a piezoelectric material is given in pC/N. 20

(,
Polarlzation direction

r\

Domains ln undelormed state

ooo,* ro,"" I
A
A v
f.)

/i'\

rn
v

tI

I
Shear deformalion of domains

Compression deformallon of domains

Fig. 2.4. Simple model of the piezoelectric effect within an artificially polarized ceramic. The charge q is collected between the indicated surfaces The piezoelectricelement can undergo both compressionand shear deformation as illustratedin Fig. 2.4. In both cases a charge is developedalong the surfaces on which the forces act. In compression deformation the charge is picked up in the polarization direction. This has the distinctdisadvantage that non-vibration inputs,such as temperature tluctuations,cause charge to be developed in the polarization direction.This charge is also picked-upalong with the vibration inducedcharge and the accelerometeroutput is no longer only related to the vibration input. However,when using shear deformation,the charge is picked up in a direction perpendicularto the polarizationdirection and the extra charge caused by the temperaturefluctuationsis not picked up. This is one of the reasonswhy shear mode accelerometerdesigns give better performance than compression designs.The influenceof temperaturefluctuationsis discussedin further detail in section4.2.2.

Ferroelectricceramics may be produced in any desired shape and their composltlonmay be varied to give them special.properties differentapplifor catlons,With piezoelectric monocrystalline materialssuch as quartz this is not th case as their compositionis fixed and their shapeis restrictedby the size of crystal from which they are cut. Because of this accelerometers which use monocrystalline elementsgenerally have a lower sensitivity and internalcapacitance than those with ferroelectricceramic elements. Piezoelectric materialsused in Br0el&Kjar accelerometers are designated P223, P227, PZ 45 and PZ 100. These have the followingproperties: 1. PZ 23 belongs to the lead titanate, lead zirconate family of ferroelectric ceramics and is artificially polarized. lt may be used at temperaturesup to 250'C (482"F). (approx.300 pClN) and other good Due to its high sensitivity all round propertiesit is used in most Brtiel&Kjer accelerometers. 2. PZ27 is an artificiallypolarizedlead zirconatetitanateelementvery similar lo P723. lt is suitablefor use in miniatureaccelerometers. 3. PZ 45 is a specially formulated artificiallypolarizedferroelectricceramic which has a particularly flat temperature response and may be used at temperatures up to 400'C (752F\. lt is used in Br0el&Kjer differential, of high temperatureand high shock accelerometers. 4. PZ 100 is a carefully selected and prepared quartz crystal. lt may be used at temperaturesup to 250'C (482'F) and has excellent stability with low temperaturetransient sensitivity.lt is used in the BrUel &Kjer Standard Relerence Accelerometer Type 8305 and in the force transducers. The type of the piezoelectric element used in any particular BrUel& Kjer accelerometer can be found in the accelerometer Product Data.

2.5.PRACTICALACCELEROMETER DESIGNS Three different mechanical constructions are used in the design ol BrUel &Kjar accelerometers. The first two designs, Planar Shear and Delta Shearo are shown in Fig.2.5. A CompressionDesign (see Fig.2.6) is also in use. Due to its superior performance the Delta Shear@ design is used in nearly all BrUel&Kj@raccelerometers. 1. Delta Shear@Derign. Three piezoelectric elements and three masses are arranged in a triangular configuration around a triangular centre post. They are held in place using a high tensile clamping ring. No adhesives or bolts are required to hold the assembly together and this ensures optimum performance and reliability.The ring prestressesthe piezoelectricelements to give a high degree of linearity. The charge is collected between the housingand the clamping ring. 22

P M

P M

B B

Planar Shear

Delta Shear@

Fiq.2.5. Planar Shear and Delta Shear@designs. M=Seismic Mass, P=Piezoelectric Element, R=Clamping Ring and B:Base

ratio comparedto designgives a high sensitivity-to-mass The DeltaShear@ other designs and has a relatively high resonance frequency and high isolationfrom base strains and temperaturetransients.The excellentoverall characteristics this design make it ideal for both generalpurposeaccelof erometers and more specializedtypes. 2. Planar Shear. In this design the piezoelectricelement undergoesshear slicesof piezodeformationas in the Delta Shear@ design.Two rectangular electric material are arranged on each side of a rectangularcentre post. Two masses are formed as shown in Fig. 2.5 and held in position using a high tensilestrengthclamping ring performingthe same function as in the Delta Shear@ design. The base and piezoelectricelements are effectively isolatedfrom each other thus giving excellentimmunityto base bendingand temperaturefluctuations.

3. Centre Mounted Compression Design. This traditional,simple construction gives a moderately high sensitivity-to-massratio. The piezoelectric element-mass-spring system is mounted on a cylindrical centre post attached to the base of the accelerometer.However, because the base and centre post effectively act as a spring in parallel with the piezoelectric elements,any dynamic changes in the base such as bending or thermal expansions can cause stresses in the piezoelectric elements and hence erroneous outputs. Even though BrUel&Kjer employ very thick bases to minimize these effects in compression designs, bending and stretching forces can still be transmittedto the piezoelectricelements.This will result in an erroneous non-vibrationrelated output at the frequencyof the vibration. In the previous section it was seen that temperaturefluctuationscan also produce charge in the piezoelectricswhich are picked up in Compression Designs.

23

s
M P

Centre Mounted Compression

Fig. 2.6. Traditional Compression Design. M=Seismic Mass, p=piezoelectric Element, B=Base, and S=Spring

For the reasonsmentionedabove BrUel Kjer only produce compression & design accelerometers high level measurements (i.e. shock measurefor ments)where the erroneousoutput is small compared with the vibration signal. A compressiondesign is also used for the Standard Reference Accelerometer which is used in the controlledenvironment accelerometer of calibration.Here the addition of a berylliumdisc strengthens base and the minimizes the effect of base bending. This accelerometeris inversely mountedin order to measuremore accuratelythe vibration at the base of the accelerometer which is mountedonto it. 2.5,1.Line-drive Accelerometers Theseaccelerometers containa built-inpreamplifier. line-driveacceleromA eter is shownin Fig. 2.7. The accelerometer part of this designis identicalto the Delta Shear@ constructionmentionedabove. The electronicpart utilizesthick film micro-circuitry techniques producea preamplifier to with excellentperformancecharacteristics. Chapter3 includesa descriptionof the operationof the preampliliersection. Line-driveaccelerometers requirean externalpower supplyfor their operation. The built-inpreamplifier suppliedby a constantvoltageand the vibration is signalis transmittedback to the externalsupplyunit in the form of the modulated power supply current.This system is also describedin Chapter 3. Built-in preamplifiersdo however introducetemperatureand shock limitations. To overcomethis Briiel&Kjer also producea separateline-drivepreamplifier for use with accelerometers.

24

Fig.2.7. A Briiel &Kjer line-drive accelerometer with its housing removed to reveal the built-in electronics

2.5.2.Other designs Other designs of accelerometer exist, based around the compression and shear deformation principles.Br0el&Kjer only use the designs mentioned above as these, and in particular the Delta Shear@design, give the most performance uncompromising available. The followinggeneraldesignsmay still be found elsewhere; Annular Shear Designs where the piezoelectric elements and masses are formed into rings and simply glued together. lsolaled Shear (Bolted Shear) is similarto the planarshear designexcept the piezoelectricelements are secured using a bolt.

2.6.ACCELEROMETER SENSITIVITY So far it has been seen that an accelerometer is a self-generatingdevice whose electrical output is proportional to the applied acceleration.In order to assess the accelerometer's role as a measurement device, the relationship betweenits input (acceleration) and output (chargeor voltage) is now examined in more detail.

25

2.t.1. Gharge and Voltage Sensitivity The plezoelectricaccelerometercan be regarded as either a charge source or a voltage source. The piezoelectricelement acts as a capacitor C, in parallel wlth a very high internal leakage resistance,8* which, for practical purposes, can be ignored. lt may be treated either as an ideal charge source, Oain parallel with C, and the cable capacitance Cc or as voltage source V" in series with C, and loaded by C", as shown in Fig. 2.8. The equivalentcircuits for both models according to are shown in Fig.2.8. Both models can be used independently which model yields the easiest calculations.

q
C a+C "

Voltage Equivalent

"=v'

unlt ot acceleietion

Fig. 2.8. Equivalent electrical circuits for piezoelectric accelerometer and connection cable

The choice of accelerometer preamplifier depends on whether we want to detect charge or voltage as the electrical output from the accelerometer. The charge sensitivity, So",of a piezoelectric accelerometer is calibrated in terms of charge (measured in pC) per unit of acceleration: .q = P C -P O n u s -POp e a t
ms-2 tnS-2nus llls-2peax

-qa

in can the Likewise, voltagesensitivity be expressed termsof voltageper unit of acceleration:

src

tV
ms-2

= iY!u!tns-2nus

mVpear
fis-2o""*

26

It can be seen from the simplified diagrams that the voltage producedby the accelerometer divided betweenthe accelerometer is capacitanceand the cable capacitance. Hence a change in the cable capacitance, caused elther by a differenttype of cable and/or a change in the cable length,wlll cause a change in the voltage sensitivity.A sensitivity recalibrationwill therfore be requlred. This is a major disadvantageof using voltage preamplification and ls examlned in greater detail in chapter 3. charge amplifiers are used nearly all the flme nowadays. At low and medium frequencies,within the useful operating frequencyrange of an accelerometer,the voltage sensitivity is independentof frequency.Thls afso appfies to the charge sensitivityof accelerometers using pz 45 and pz 1oo piezoefectricmaterials, but not to those using pZ23 and pz27 piezoelectric malerials. Instead,this piezoelectricmaterial has been designed so that both the charge sensitivity and capacitance decrease by approximalely 2,So/o per decade increasein frequency.The effect of this decreaseis to partially offset the output rise at resonance.Therefore,the maximum deviation between the measuredand actual accelerationsover the useful operating lrequency range of accelerometers employingPZ 23 with mediumto high resonancefrequencies is only + 1voot the accelerationapplied to the base of the accelerometer,as indicatedin Fig.2.9.

50
%

40
o o o o
6

=
UsofulFrequency Range _ 0,3 tn
- -ChargeSensitivity Deviation < r 5% Voltsge Sensitivity Deviarion < + 1096

o CE

Slope - 2,5%/ Frequency

o,q)l 0,01 0,1 Proportlonot MountdResonanc6 Frquency fm

Fig. 2.9. charge and voltage sensitivity versus frequency for an accelerometer using PZ 23 piezoelectric material

2.6.2.Unl.Gelno Senritivity Almoot every BrUel&Kjar accelerometris ot the Uni-Gaino design. This ol mans that their measuredsensitivitieshave been adjusted to within 2o/o a accelerconvenientvalue such as 1; 3,16; 10 or 31,6 po/ms-2. With Uni-Gain@ ometers one accelerometer can be replaced by another of the same type wlthout further adjustmentof any instrumentsetting.Becausethe valuesabove systems are 10dB apart relativeto each other, the calibrationof measurement is very easy. For example,if one accelerometeris exchangedfor and set-ups anotherof a difterenttype, only fixed gain changesof 10dB are requiredon the measurementinstrumentation. by Uni-Gainosensitivitiesare achievedin BrUel&Kjer accelerometers caretully adjusting the mass of the seismic elements.

2.6.3.Linearity and Dynamic Range Linearity is a fundamentalrequirementof any measuringsystem.The ouput from the system must be linearly relatedto the input over as wide a frequency & and dynamic range as ls required.The excellentlinearityof BrUel Kjar accelin erometersis illustrated Fig.2.10.

Upps limit set by AGelerometer

a
o
o 5 u

Lower llmit set by noise trom Preampllfler + cable + envlronmnt

= 160 dB ( 10E: l )

l<--use{ul
Acceleration

Fig. 2.10. Accelerometer output versus acceleration for piezoelectric accelerometerc demonstratlng the linearity and wide dynamic range

28

The piezoelectricaccelerometeris an extremely linear devlce over a very wide dynamic range because of the linear performance ol the plezoelectric ls elementsover a wide dynamicrange.In theory the accelerometer llneardown Howevera practical lower limit is determlnedby the noise to zero acceleration. inherentin the measurementsystem. This noise can have several sources of origin and these are discussedin Chapters 3 and 4. When an accelerometeris taken beyond its maximum acceleratlonllmlt the performance becomes increasinglynon-linear.At levels far in excess of the ring might begin to slip down the piezoelectrlc maximumlimit the preloading elementsand eventuallyshort-circuitwith the base, thus renderingthe accelerometer useless.In practice this will never happen unlessthe accelerometeris subjectedto shock levels well outside its specified operating range.

2.6.4.Tlansverse Sensitivity has accelerationappliedat right anglesto its mountWhenan accelerometer On ing axis, there will still be some output lrom the accelerometer. the accelerometer calibrationchart the transversesensitivityis quoted as a percentageof the main axis sensitivity.ldeally the transversesensitivityol an accelerometer shouldbe zero, but in practice minute irregularitiesin the piezoelectricelement and in metal parts prevent this. At BrUel&Kjar particular attention is paid to selection of homogenous piezoelectric ceramics and to careful machining, parts.Thus with proper handling and polishing and liningup of accelerometer
30 dB 20 UsefulFrequencyRano - | I -- Mountod Besonance I Frequoncy ,i\ fm /l \

b10
o o
6

io
.0

{,
-zo

0,@ol

0,001

0,01

0,1

10 zmgn

Frequncy Proportlonof MountedRsonance

Fig.2.11. The relative responseof an accelerometerto'main axis and transverse axis vibrations

29

mountlngon a flat, clean surface,the maximum transversesensitivityof most Br0cl&KJar accelerometers can be kept below 4ohot the main axis sensitivity a t 30 Hz ( s eeF ig. 2 .1 1 ). At lrequencies less than one sixth of the main axis mounted resonance lrequency transverse sensitivity can be kept below 10%. At frequenciesjust over one third of the main axis mounted resonancefrequencyit is difficult to specify exact values of transverse sensitivity as transverse resonance occu rs . T his indic at e d n F i g .2 .1 1 . is i As iflustratedin Fig.2.'12, transversesensitivitycan be regardedas the result of the maximum charge and voltage sensitivity axis of the accelerometernot being quite alignedwith the mountingaxis. Becauseof this there are directions of maximum and minimum transversesensitivitywhich are at right angles to one another and to the main sensitivityaxis. lt is thereforethe mo(imum value of transverse sensitivity which is specified on the accelerometercalibration chart. The direction of minimum sensitivity is marked by a red dot on the accelerometer housing.This is a uniquefeatureof BrUel&Kjer accelerometers. It should be noted that the Delta Shear@ design, having constant stiffnessin all transverse directions, has only one transverse resonance. Other shear designs may have two or more transverseresonances.
Axis of maximum 36$irivity

/l

Aceleromet6r mountng axls

< 2 ,3 . et low

I I

neoootI
I r' Axis of maximum

TransrGs sensitivity

cemitivity Tramie (idcrlly zoro tarilitivity rt thc c.librltion f ilqu.nctl

Fig. 2.12. Vectorial representation of transverse sensitivity

30

As the transverse resonance is just outside the useful operatlng frequency range of an accelerometerand with a peak amplitudejust below the main axis sensitivity,it is important that transverse vibrations and shocks are kept well belowthe specifiedmain axis continuous vibrationlimits.Slmllarly, droppingor banging accelerometers can subject them to large transverse shocks well outside practical design limits and permanent damage can be caused to the piezoelectricelements inside the accelerometer. The following precautionscan be taken against severe transversevlbratlons: 1. Align the red dot in the direction of maximum transverseacceleratlon.

S-,/Z/tlZ/ZjZalffN-" s- ,ralralzzz

s$! l'r'tZVzl/-d--=:-N-A s' zvlrtl

S-

oo)
'?

-a
A o

S //Z<r,/r/r'ztxlrr:/t-7tr-N
/a '6 a "tg,
a

o o o
O

; 180"
El

o a

1
a a o

o o o o o

a a a

o o o

o e

o o oo

oo oo

ss

ss

Fig.2.13. Chart for determining the accelerometer transverse sensitivity in any direction when the maximum transverse sensitivity is known

31

2 . Uae a mechanicalfilter to filter off vibrations in dlrections other than the maln axis. 3 . Use the chart in Fig.2.13 to calculatethe sensitivity vibrationsin any to dlrection from the maximum transversesensitivity. Erample. At 60" to the maximumsensitivityaxis of 0' the chart indicatesa transversesensitivity factor of 0,5. (This could also have been calculated from the cosine of the angle).Thereforean accelerometerhaving a maximum transversesensitivityof 2Vo have a transversesensitivityat 60" of: will 0 ,5 x 2 o /o = 1 o /o

2.7. PHASE RESPONSE The phase shift of an accelerometrcorrespondsto the time delay between the mechanical input and the resulting electrical output. lf the phase is not constant at all frequencies in the operating range, the phase relationship betweenvarious frequencycomponentsof a vibration signalwill be alteredwith respect to each other, resulting in an electrical output that is a distorted representation the mechanicalinput. of

30
o

o I E

e o
@

dBB zo &. a roF

q o

Propo.tlonof MountedBesonanceFrequencyfn

Fig. 2.14. Accelerometer amplltude and phase response as a function of frequency 32

The sensitivity and phase responses of an accelerometer are shown in Fig.2.14. At frequenciesbelow the mounted resonancethe phase shift introduced is insignificant. frequencies At very close to the resonance, motion of the the seismic masses lags that of the base and phase distortion ls Introduced. However,with Br0el& Kjar accelerometerssmall resonancedamplng factors ensure thet the frequency range over which resonance occurs ls relatlvely narrow,and thereforethe accelerometer may be operatedwell beyondlts rated useful frequencyrange without introducingphase distortion. Nevertheless,it is also necessary to consider the phase linearity of the charge or voltage preamplifier used, especially if integration networks and other filters are in use. This is especiallyimportant when measuringtransient vibrationsand mechanical shocks.

2.8.TRANSIENTRESPONSE When measuringtransientvibrationsand shocks particularattentionmust be paid to the overall linearity of the system as otherwise the reproducedtransientswill be distorted.Piezoelectric accelerometers extremelylineartransare ducers and wlll reproduce a wide range of transients without problem. The accelerometeris the least frequent source of error when poor measurements are made of transients.More often it is the preamplifier and any associated filters and integrationnetworks which cause the problem. However,to ensure the accuracy ol the measurementit is necessary to consider the following transient phenomena.

2.8.1.Leakage Effects In Fig.2.15,a distortionhas taken place in the waveformof a quasi-static accelerationpulse,such as might be encountered during a rocket launchor in a fast elevator. The distortion is caused by the accelerometerand preamplifier combinationoperating in the incorrect frequencyrange and can be explained as follows: When the accelerometer subjectedto a quasi-staticaccelerationa charge is is developedon the piezoelectricelements.By virtue of the elementscapacitance, this charge is stored in the elementand preventedfrom "leaking away" by the very high leakageresistanceof the accelerometer. However,due to the finite leakagetime constantof the accelerometer and the input impedanceand lower limiting frequencysetting on the preamplifier,some charge leaks away and this resulls in a negativeslope waveform as seen betweenpoints A and B. Whenthe accelerationstops, the charge changesa correspondingamountand drops below the zero level to point C before rising back up to the zero level

33

6 o o o e

Fig. 2.15. The distortion ot a waveform of a quasi-static acceleration input caused by "leakage" associated with the accelerometerand preamplifier againat point D. The rate of exponential changebetween and B and between A C and D is the same and is determinedby the time constant set by the accelerometer and preamplifier. This effect causeserrors in the measurement the peak amplitudeof the of acceleration and is caused by the accelerometer being used with the wrong Lower Limiting Frequencyon the preamplifier.Measurement errors of peak amplitudedue to leakagemay be kept to within 5% by ensuringthat the -3dB Lower LimitingFrequency the preamplifieris less than 0,008/T,whereT is of the period of a square waye transient.For measurements half-sinetranon sientsthe Lower Limiting Frequency must be less than 0,05/T. The frequencybandwidth of the entire measurement system required to measure such transients with specifiedaccuracies can be found from Fig.2.16 whichalso includes upperlrequencyrequirement the because transientsignals have higher frequencycomponentswhich must also be reproducedwithout distortion. The distortlonof the waveformof transients,and in particularquasi-static vibrations,caused by using the accelerometer with the incorrect frequency rangecan appearsimllarto the distortionproducedby other phenomena such as zero shift (see sectlon2.8.3).lt must be understoodthat the causes,and hencesolutions,of the problemsare different.

34

Frequncy R6ponse should be flat witr|in th6e limib

0.1 5

-'-'0.1

0.2

0.5

10

20

50

rm

zfi 6ffio/l

Puls Duration {ms}

Fig. 2.16. Vibration system -3dB lower and upper limiting frequencies required for acceleration measurements of pulses of duration T keeping amplitude measurement errors less than 5 and 10% respectively

2.8.2."Ringing" This term is used to describe the distortion produced by an accelerometer which is being used to measuretransient vibrations outside its usefulfrequency range.An example of the resultingdistorted signal is shown in Fig.2.17.The resonanceol the accelerometeris excited with high frequency vibration componentsand this should be avoided. A first warning of ringing might be given by an overload indication on the preamplifier. "Ringing" causes errors in the measurementol peak vibration amplitude.For 5% peak measurementerror the accelerometermounted resonancefrequency should not be less than'10/T where T is the length of the transient in seconds.

35

Fig. 2.17. Waveform distortion due to "ringing" resonancecan be damped to reducethe ringing and make The accelerometer optimum use of the measurementsystem dynamic range and bandwidth.This may be achievedusing a mechanicalfilter for mountingthe accelerometer(see section 4.5) or by applying the accelerometersignal to a preamplifierincorporating a Iow-passfilter. In the latter case the filter must have a high frequency attenuation slope of 12dBloctave and a -3dB upper limiting frequency f, corresponding to approximately half the accelerometer mounted resonance shownin Fig.2.18' f^(i.e. f, = 0,5 f.).This givesthe systemresponse trequency ing enabf a half-sine wave transient of duration f = 1 | f^ to be measuredwith less than 10% amplitude error.

,/

,\ \.
Acoelerometr respons with Filter

Filter R6ponse Uppcr Limiting Frequency fu = 0,5 f-----lr

.\

\-\\

AttenuatlonSlope = 12 dB/Octave 0,1 0,2 0,5 1

Frequencyf. Proportlonof MountedReeonenc

Fig. 2.18. Low pass filter or preamplifier response required to damp mounted resonance lrequency f. of accelerometer lor measurement of half sine type shock pulses of duratlon T=1/f^ seconds with less than 10% amplltude error 36

2.8.3.Zero Shilt Consider the accelerometeroutput signals in Fig.2.19 resulilng from two identical half sine pulses. In both cases distortion of the waveform has been introduced by the accelerometer.The measurementdynamic levels were very close to the maximum acceleration limit of the accelerometer.

o o o o o o o q
f

o o o o E
f

E o

I o
o
q

Fig. 2.19. Accelerometer and preamplifier output resulting from a hatf-sine pulse of such a high level that "zero shift" has been introduced

lf the piezoelectricelementsare not consideredto be perfectly elastic materials, then when the force on the element is suddenly decreased the molecular domains may not all return to the state they were in before the shear force was applied. Therefore, when the force is removed the elements stilt produce a charge which slowly decays with time as the preamplifier output returns to zero at a rate determined by its Lower Limiting Frequency.This phenomenonoccurs randomly and with random sign. The time taken for the zero shift to disappear may be a factor of 1000 times longer than the length of the original pulse. Therefore, large errors result if integration networks are used. A mechanical filter can often guard against zero shift effects.

REMEMBER: Zero shift, "Leakage" and "Ringing" are only problems when the accelerometer is used outside its useful operating ranges.

37

3. VIBRATION PREAMPLIFIERS

Vibration Preamplifiers perform the essential role of converting the high impedance output of the piezoelectric accelerometerinto a low impedance signalsuitabletor direct transmissionto measuringand analyzinginstrumentation. In addition to this, the preamplifier may also perform some, or all, ot the following roles: 1. Matchingmeasuringinstrumentation input sensitivityto that of the accelerometer output. 2. Amplification of the vibration signal to obtain a desired overall system sensitivity. 3. Integrationof the accelerometer output to obtain velocity and displacement signals. 4. Warning of overload at both the input and output of the preamplifier. 5. Low and high frequencyfiltering to reject unwantedsignals. The complete range ol general purpose Br0el& Kjer vibration preamplifiers can be seen in Fig. 3.1. Br0el&Kjar preamplifiersare availablein the following forms.

Fig. 3.1. The range of vibration preamplifiers available from Br0el&Kjar

1. Stand-alone units which perform most of the roles mentlonedabove.They can be either battery powered or mains powered. A summary of these instrument types is given in Appendix E. As part of the input circuitry of measuringinstrumentssuch as vibration meters or in the form of input modules for tape recorders etc. A summary of these instruments is found in Appendix F. which are considerably differentfrom both (1) and Line-drivepreamplifiers (2). They are miniature devices containing only the "front end" of a convenform which is either built into, mounted in tional preamplifier a miniaturized directly onto, or placed near to the accelerometer.Only one two-conductor or coaxial cable is required for both signal transmission and power supply. Line-drive preamplifiers are fixed gain devices with no controls.

3.1. PREAIIPLIFIER DESIGN AND OPERATION There are two basic types of preamplifierswhich may be used with piezoelectric accelerometers. 1. Charge Preamplifiers.These produce an output voltage proportional to the input charge. They do not amplily charge! 2. Voltage Preamplifiers.These produce an output voltage proportional to the input voltage. Charge preamplifiers are generally used in preferenceto voltage preamplifiers. This is reflected in the current range of Br0el& Kjar preamplifiers where only the Type 2650 offers both a charge and voltage input. This preamplifier is designed for use in accelerometer calibration rather than general vibration measurements.The distinct advantage of charge amplifiers is that both very short and very long cables can be used without changing the overall sensitivity of the system. However,when a voltage preamplilier is used a change in cable length will necessitate a recalibration of the system sensitivity. This is dis. cussed in section 2.6.1

3.2. CHARGE AMPLIFIERS A charge amplifier uses an operational amplifier input stage. The configuration of the operational amplifier with the capacitor in the feedback loop operates as an integration network and integratesthe current at the input. This input current is the result of the charge developed across the high impedance piezoelectricelements inside the accelerometer.The amplifier works to nullily this current and in doing so produces an output voltage proportional to the charge.

39

3 .2 .1 C ht r ge S ens it ivi tY .

conaccelerometer Fig. 3.2. shows an equivalentcircuit for a piezoelectric preamplifier. below refers to this figure. The nomenclature nectedto a charge

Accleromt6r

Pramolifler

Fig. 3.2. An equivalent circuit for an accelerometer and cable connected to a charge amplifier

Q"

ca R, cc Rb cp RP ct
Rl

A vo

= charge generated by the piezoelectric elements (proportional to the applied acceleration) = capacitance of accelerometer = resistance of accelerometer = capacitance of cable and connectors = resistance between cable screen and centre conductor = capacitanceof preamplifierinput = resistanceof preamplifierinput = feedback capacitance = feedback resistance - gain of operationalamPlifier = voltage output of the preamplifier

Normally the resistancesof the accelerometer,preamplifier input and feedthe circuit in Fig.3.2 can be back path can be kept very high. Consequently 40

<__vc

tI
l vo

Fig. 3.3. Simplified equivalent circuit of an accelerometer connected to a charge preamplifier reducedto the one shown in Fig. 3.3 where the total capacitanceand currents flowing are shown Ct I Ir lc Vc = = = = = Ca + C c + C p total current flowing out of the accelerometer current from Ct current in the feedback loop of the operational amplifier voltage across feedback capacitance

The input and output voltages, V,and Voare related by the equation Vo = -AVt

Furthermore V" can easily be calculated since

vc

- v o - vt=vo -+=(r+l tn \ _A

AI

An ideal amplifier has zero input current. Kirchhoff's laws apply to the currentsshown in Fig.3.3. l+ lt + 1" = O These currents can be defined in terms ol other circuit parameters. , is related to the charge produced by the piezoelectricelements. ,,= dQ, dt

tc

= c,+ = (r * I\ \
dt

A,

dt ",!!" 4'l

li '

=- C,

dV,' = ' dt

1 A

C,

dV^ " dt

By substituting these expressions into Kirchhoff's equation the current from the accelerometeris found

e,#-*",# # =-(r.*)
This equation can be solved by integration. Constants correspondingto any DC offset voltage initially present at the amplifier output are assumed to be zero. Such offsets will disappear rapidly as the preamplifier is in use. The solutionto the equationthen becomes
vo =-

(r**) c,*lc, A' A

= -Q"

Q"

(1)

When the magnitudeof A is considered(- 105)the solutioncan be further reduced to the simple expression

v^ -ct

(21

It is clear from this that the output voltage is proportional to the input charge and therefore to the accelerationof the accelerometer.The gain of the preamplifier is determined by the feedback capacitance. The input capacitancehas no effect on the resultingoutput voltage because, in the ideal case (A - *r, the input voltage is zero. vt = -* = o A

Consequently, the finite input resistancehas no effect on the output voltage. This means that only the currents from the accelerometer and the feedback capacitor flow at the input point and these currents are equal in magnitudebut are of opposite polarity. lt now appears that all the charge flows from the accelerometerto the feedback capacitor. So much for the simpler models but what about a more realistic modet which takes in the contributlons of R", Ro and Fo? A model of this kind ls shown in Fig. 3.4 and the combined reslstances,Flnand capacitances,Cn at the input are shown. The circult now incorporates all the elements of Fig.3.2. The equations now become

1111=-+-+_
Rt R" Rb Rp

42

vo

--AVt

vc
l^

= (1 +
Q ,- 1

*)r"

dv^

- dt R,

v^ '

=( 1+*r[ ",#.#)
r' , = - " ,dt ' '- v ' = a f ' 0
Rt AL

L c ,ldt * LfJ Rr

. # =- (1f r1",#. *1",#. #,1El

{-V"-_-.+

Fiq.3.4. Equivalent circuit for an accelerometer connected to a charge preamplitiel

This equation cannot be solved using simple integrationas in the previous model. However,by assumingthat the voltagesand currentsvary harmonically with time a solution can be obtained. Once again the DC terms and initial conditionswhich disappearrapidly can be ignoredin the analysis.The solution becomes 1 rtv .1 1r 7 ia Q . = - (1*T)L iavocl.;,1-71i rro " , * -^ , , ,_1

43

to Thls can be rearranged obtain the output voltage Vo vo

Q"

(' . *)(',*

.;e) ^")*](",

(3)

as that both A and.Fyarevery largethe same relationship Again assuming before is derived

= -Q" v^ "ct
lf R' is finite then the expressioncan be written to include its effect vo
Q"

(4)

(5)

a(r+#)

Hence,with Q, being proportionalto the accelerationof the accelerometer, combination can be the overall sensitivity of the accelerometer/preamplifier controlledby varying Cr. In addition, the final equation shows that by varying the time constant of the feedback loop the low frequency response of the chargeamplifieris controlled.

Lower LimitangFlequency 3.2.2.

are self-generatingdevices and thereforehave no true DC Accelerometers response.From the fundamentalsof physics it is obvious that no power is obtainablefrom a device without some power input to that device. A static elementsdoes not provideany input power. force on the piezoelectric To fully understandthe low frequencyperformanceof charge amplifiers(and voltage amplifiers)it is necessaryto understandthe operation of simple RC networks. A capacitor is a charge storage device. lts capacitance is defined as the quantity of charge stored at a unit voltage across the capacitor. The following betweenthe voltage, V, current,{ charge, Q, equationsdefine the relationships 44

and capacitance,C, for an ideal capacitor,or in this case, for the plezoelectric elements.

=-

o
c

=dQ dt
=

^dv v-

dt

lf an ideal capacitor is chargedto a certain voltage, yo the voltageappearing across it will be stored. This is because an ideal capacitor has perfect DC isolation (i.e infinite leakage resistance). However in a real capacitor the isolation resistanceis finite. The stored charge leaks away and the voltage drops exponentially a rate determinedby the time constant z of the system. at This is illustrated Fig.3.5. in

l =r=RC

Fig. 3.5. The exponential decay of the voltage across a capacitor demonstating the concept of the "time constant", r For measurements sinusoidalsignalsthe time constant z has a particular on significance.lt affects the low frequencyperlormanceof the system.Take the charge source (the piezoelectricelements)and load it with several RC networks. This is shown in Fig.3.6.The combinedresistances and capacitances are representedas single components. Using the delinitionsgiven above the circuit equationcan be simply written.

-9 e=!* c 9!
dtR d t 45

Fig. 3.6. Equivalent circuit of an accelerometer loaded by the eguivalent capacitance and resistance of the cable and preampllfler. This model can be used to examine the low frequency performance of preamptiliers Once again if the currents and voltages are assumedto be harmonic functions, the following can be derived

o
t 'l

l' . |u)c
o(r +i l 1
' @t,

It+--:-16 , jrr,

1 t * ,a r) c
DC values and initial conditions have been omitted to make the analysis slmpler. The complex expressionshows that the output has a magnltude I Vl and phase angle { relative to the input given by tanS = 1
@t

t1 r

o lt+* f
tvl
(' . (* )' )"

When 0r7 = 1, tand = 1, Q = 4SoandV= I

12 c

The phaseand amplltuderelatlonshipbetweeninput and output voltagesas a function of arz is shown in Flg. 3.7. The frequencywhen sn = 1 (prfRC = 1) is t = 1= 1 ' 46 2rRC 2rt

I I I
I

E E o

E L

o o

E o E

tr

6 o

AT

Fig.3.7. The phaseand amplituderelationshipbetweeninput and output voltage as a function of ssr This is normally referred to as the Lower Limiting Frequency (LLF) and is characterized by a 3dB drop in the output signal level accompanied by a 45' phase change. To return to charge preamplifiers it is seen from equation (3) In section 3.2.1 that the LLF is determined by the time constant of the feedback circuit l.e. rf ROr. The phase difference between the input and the output is normally and at the LLF it is further delayedby 45o. From (3) it -180'(phase inversion) can also be seen that the resistive input load will not change the LLF until it becomes comparable lo &l A. This means that provided that Cr and Cr are of a slmilar magnitude,the influence ol the load has been reduced by a lactor of A compared to the simple RO-network discussed. Example: ll an LLF of 1Hz is required,what value lor fll is requlred? Assumingthat A is approxlmately105and Cy is about 1nF then
Rl 2trC1

Rt

2zr1 10510-s

= 1 ,6k O

of of the This exampleillustrates immunity the LowerLlmitingFrequency a chargeamplifierto changesin the input load conditions.lt would be very connectors of difficultto makethe combinedresistances the accdlerometer, Even indicatedin this example. input drop to the magnitude and preamplifier in of completeimmersion the accelerometer water wouldnot causethis.
47

BrUel& Kjer Charge Preampliliersoffer LLFs down to fractions of a Hertz. A of low freqgencycapability is necessaryfor the measurement long duration lmpulses and quasi-static vibrations. Such mebsurementshowever are only posslble using Delta Shear@ accelerometersbecause other accelerometerdenoise which will inducedlow frequency slgnsnormallyproduceenvironmentally mask the vibration related output.

3.2.3.Gapacitive Loading of the lnput by Accelerometer Cablee

It has already been shown that the output from a charge preamplifier is determined only by the feedback capacitance, C, and the charge produced by the piezoelectric elements O". In a typical charge amplifier the value of Cr is normallybetween100pF and 10nF but is typically1nF giving an output sensitivity of 1 mV/pC. This will not change unless C, becomes comparablelo AC,. A short example will demonstratethe extent ot the charge amplifier's immunityto changes in cable capacitance. Example What is the maximum cable length that may be used if the charge combination must not change by sensitivity of the accelerometer-preamplifier more than 1%? Assuming C1 and C" are 1nF and A is 105then from equation (1) in section 3.2.1 Q"

vo

11

ct

1t+ o)Q+ oCt = = 0,01 + 1) Cr = 0,01 (1os+ 1nF = 103nF 1pF (A 1)

100pF/m. to corresponds 10000m of cable of capacitance This capacitance Large capacitive loading of the preamplifier input can have a slight effect on its high frequency performance.This is due to the fact that the gain of operational amplifiers decreasesat high frequencies.Consequently,the assumption that A is infinite in the analysisleading to the definition of charge sensitivity,is less accurate. The output of the charge amplifier is reduced as shown by the equation for the output voltage derived earlier vo
Q"

( r . *) (

" , . t *, \ . * (c ,* # )

48

Example:Assumethat the gain A is reducedto 103at highfrequencies that and the feedbackcapacitance is 1nF. An input load of 20nF corresponding Cr to 200m of 100pF/mtransducer cableexists.This load will give a sensitivity drop of 5% in the frequency response this effectwill not normally curveand therefore be of any significance. Fig.3.8 shows how the increasein input capacitance caused by very long cableseffects the high lrequencyresponseof a Bruel& Kjer charge preampllf ler. For specificcases consultthe relevantInstruction Manuals.

ltol .l.l

rF

t
\
o

10

\
t0

,llNi."l
\ \

200

1k

2k

5k

20k

50k
Frequency

l (x)k
Hz

200k
^ffiza

Fig. 3.8. lnfluence of the input load capacitance on the high frequency response of a Br0el&Kjar charge amplifier 3.2.4.Gharge Attenuation Althoughthe addition of a further shunt capacitancewill have negligible influenceon the charge sensitivity,the addition of a series capacitance will reduce the eflective transducer output charge. This is sometimes desirable when measuringhigh level vibrationsusing a high sensitivityaccelerometer. The input to the preamplifiercan be overloadedby the large charge.By adding carefullychosencalibratedcapacitancesin series and parallelwith the accelerometer, the charge at the input can be attenuated.This is shown in Fig. 3.9. Alternativelyready-madecharge attenuatorsare availablefrom BrUel Kjer. & Theseare available underthe numbersW80726'and W80778-which provide 20dB and 12dB of attenuation respectively.
' These items are developmentsof the Brtiel&Kjr Systems EngineeringGroup and are not standard production items. Please contact your local representative

49

v ^C 2

;:--:-;---:=w tr vtr v2

Fig. 3.9. The design of a charge attenuator

3.2.5. Noise in Charge Ampliliers

A modelof the internal noisesources an operational of amplifier shownin is Fig.3.10.This modeldoes not includethe effectsof externalnoisessuch as triboelectric effects,groundloop voltagesand electromagnetic pick-up in cables.Thesewill be examinedin section3.6.

zt zt
en in vo

= = = = =

equivalentimpedanceof the accelerometer and cable equivalent impedance the feedbackpath in noisevoltage noisecurrent outputvoltage

In the highimpedance caseof the piezoelectric sourceand mainlycapacitive feedbackthe currentnoise is negligible. seen in section As 3.2.1there is a virtual ground and no current flowing at the invertinginput of the operational amplifier.Therefore
t= -

-n

e n - Vo

zt vo 50 = ", (1
,Z I\

zt

*z )

Fig. 3.10. Equivalent circuit for an accelerometer connected to a charge preamplifier. All the noise sources inside the preamplifier have been represented by a voltage source and a current gource at the input

To convert this into an expression for the signal at the source it must be divided by the amplification taclor, Zs/ Z,

e s =-v , +
r Z, t enll+ - ! l
.Zt,

In the mid-frequency range the impedances at both the source and at the output are mainly capacitive so zt 4c t where Ct es = C r+ C c + C p = - n (r.* ) - C,

Furthermorethis can be converted lnto an equivalentcharge noise, gr on the source capacitance Cr by multiplying it by Cn Qt = os ' C r= - n (q + C ) 51

E
o
o

lr

Input Source nF Capacitance 12 5 10

[C" + C"] 5(x) ,?o:81

lm 200 50 ?O Cable(90 pF/m) length(m) [o C"] Aeelerometer

Fig. 3.11. Broadband 2 Hz to 100kHz noise from a Brhel & Kiar charge amplitier as a function ol input source capacitance

Fiq.3.12. Third octave analysis of the noise produced by a Br0el&Kier charge amplitier

From this it is seen that although the sensitivity and LLF is not changed significantlyby capacitiveor resistiveloadingof the input the charge noise will increase as C, and Cr increase. Some decrease in signal-to-nolsratio is thereforeinevitablewhen using very long input cables. Fig.3'11 shows the for of dependence the noise levelat the input as a functionof input capacltance a particularBr0el&Kjer charge amplifier.Other types exhibit slmllarclependencies.
PreampllflerNoise

Fig. 3.13. The relationship between input resistance and noise for a charge amplifier 53

As Cydetermines the gain of the preamplifier there will be higher noise at The use of lower gain settingswhich requirea higherfeedbackcapacitance. highgain accelerometers high gain on the preamplifier producebetter and will ratio. signal-to-noise It must be remembered that the cable itself tends to produce noise when exposedto mechanical vibrations. generaltherefore, In BrUel &Kjer mininoise cablesshouldbe used.This is especially true whenlow levelmeasurements are being made.The cables shouldbe fixed securely. Consultsection4.6. (< At low f r equenci e s 1 0 0 H 2 ) th e n o i s e fro m the ampl i fi erw i l l normal l y increasein inverse proportion to the frequency.This is a property of the operational amplifierand can normallybe reducedusing a high pass filter. Fig.3.12showsa third octaveanalysis the noiseproduced a Br0el Kjer of by & chargeamplifier. lf the resistiveload at the input drops to below 10M0 the noise from the chargeamplifier will start to increase with the most significant changesat low frequencies. However,any analysisof the sources of this noise requiresa detailed knowledge the inputcomponents of and theircoupling. Fig.3.13shows preamplifier an experimentally derived relationship betweenthe narrowband noiseand the inputresistance. noiseis expressed volts per squareroot The as of filter bandwidth.

3.3.VOLTAGE PREAMPLIFIERS

A voltagepreamplifier detectsthe vibrationinduced changing voltageacross the accelerometer's capacitance and producesan outputvoltageproportional to this. Voltagepreamplifiers simplerin their designbut sufferoperational are disadvantages when comparedto chargepreamplifiers. BecauseBr0el Kjer & only produceone preamplifier which has the option of a voltage input, the extentof the explanation the operationis accordingly of reducedand outlines are grven.

54

3.3.1.Voltage Sensitivity circuit for an accelerometer connectedto a Fig.3.14 shows the equivalent By voltagepreamplifier. comparingthis circuitwith that shownin Fig. 3.2 it can be seen that they are identical except for the connection of the operational amplifieris connected a voltagebuffer as In amplifier. this casethe operational is by with a gain of 1 (yo = Vl.The very high input impedance represented Co and Ro.The nomenclatureis the same as in Fig. 3.2 and Fig. 3.3. In Fig. 2.8 it was shown that when the accelerometeris not loaded by a cable and preamplifier it produces an output voltage, V" equivalentto
Va=^ Q"
lJa

F, is a very high parallel resistance and can therefore be ignored. From section 3.2.2 the voltage at the preamplifier input can be written directly V', - Q ' and therefore
Vo = Vi= V"- - : v "+ - v "*

C a + C c + Go ca
Co

This expression can be expressed in terms of the charge sensitivity Sqa [pclms-2] and voltage sensitivity Sn"[mV/ms-2]
c=Sot

C " + C .+ C D

c' - s", (ooqZ;m

Accolrometer

Ceble

Proampllflet

Fig. 3.14. Equivalent citcuit of a voltage amplilier using a piezoelectric accelerometer es a voltage source

Where Snroorn, the open circuit (unloaded) is accelerometer voltage sensitivIty. BecauseSo4 the charge sensitivityand C" are accelerometer constantsthe voltagesensitivity,Sn"is.dependent the cable capacitance. on This is obviously an undesirablesltuation because an accelerometer can only be used with the cable with which it was factory calibrated if quoted voltage sensitivitiesand voltage preamplifiersare used. lf the cable is changed then a recalibrationis required.A short example will help to illustratethis. Erample. While taking a vibratlon measurement requirement a has arisenfor a longer, strongercable. The existing cable is a standardBr0el&Kjar 1,2m cable AO0038and a suitablereplacementis the 3m reinforcedcable AO0122. Calculatethe new voltage sensitivityfor this combination: Typicalcapacitance cable AO0038 = 110pF of (including Capacitance accelerometer of cable) = 1117pF Charge sensitivity = 9,8pClms-2 Voltage sensitivity = 8,76mV/ms-2 From this the capacitance of the piezoelectricelement alone C, can be calculated c' = 1007 PF

The typical capacitanceof accessoriescable AO0122,C" is 260pF. Hence the new voltage sensitivity is easily calculated

sn

9,8 . 10-12

( 1 0 0 7 . 1 0 -1 1+ (2 6 0 . 1 O n 2 ) = 7,73mY/ms-2

The voltage sensitivityhas dropped 11% simply by changingthe cable. This dependenceof sensitivity on input capacitance is not only extremely inconvenient when different cables are used but it also meansthat the signalto-noise ratio is reducedwith longer cables.With extremelylong cables only a small fraction of the unloaded voltage will be present at the input of the amplifier.

3.3.2.Lower Limiling Frequency The treatment of low frequency performancegiven in section3.2.2 can be used again to show that the Lower Limiting Frequency(-3dB point) is expressed by 56

2rR,C, where ct
'l Rt

= Ca + C c + C p 1 = -+ 11
R8 Rb Rp

To ensurethat the LLF is low enoughto provide usefuloperation at frequencies down to 1 Hz or less the RC product must be very large.Theoretically there are two ways of doing this; 1. Make the total capacitanceas large as possible.As C, is an accelerometer constant then C" must be increased by adding more cable. This is not a practical solution as this will result in a decreasein the voltage sensitivity and a loss in dynamicrange. 2. Design a preamplifier with a high input resistance.This is the approach taken with voltage preampllfiers. Howbver,if the input resistanceis reduced for any reason then the LLF will increase. This can happen if moisture penetratesthe output connector of an accelerometer.The leakage resistance is loweredand this shunt resistanceacross the input lowers the input resistance.

3.3.3.Noige in V6ltage Preamplifiers Unlikethe noise producedby a charge preamplifier,the noise producedby a voltage preamplifier is independentof input capacitanceand hence the gain setting and cable length do not change the noise at the input. Howeverthis is not a real advantageas the signal-to-noiselevelworsens as the voltage sensitivity decreaseswlth increasingcable length.

3.4. PREAMPLIFIER OUTPUTCABLES In the case of both charge and voltage amplifiersit is importantthat they are capableof providingsufficientoutput current to drive a measuringinstrument. The voltage necessaryto produce this drive current is derived at the output of the operationalamplifier and is developedacross the impedanceof the cable. When high capacitanceloading is presentat the output of the preamplifiera limitationto the maximumoutput voltage swing can occur. This will only cause a problemwhen very long cablesand high frequencyperformanceare required. For example,at 10kHz this limitationwill arise when the load exceeds20nF (corresponding 200m of 100pF/m cable) for the preamplifiershown below. to

In somecasesthe limitation directly is causedby a maximum outputcapability on the preamplifier. the maximumoutputc.urrent 8mA (typical) lf is and the load is 20nF then an impedance approximately of 7960 at 10kHz is obtained and a peak voltage of 6,37V results.Thereforeif the combinationof vibration level, accelerometersdnsitivity and preamplifier sensitivityshould produce a larger output than this, attenuationoccurs. The effect of output cable capacitance on the high lrequencyresponseof a BrUel&Kjer charge amplifier is shown in Fig.3.15.
+5 dB 0 -c
t E

\ \ \
x) n F

\ \ \
,nl \

-10 -15 -20

t\

il

-30 -35 -40

nl

\
2k

,l ")
20k

t0

nF

t\

2(n

lk

5k

10k

50k l (nk Frequercy Hz

2mk 76uN

Fig. 3.1S.Typicalinlluence of output load capacitance on the high frequency rcsponse of a Brriel&Kjer Charge Preamplilier

3.5 LINE-DRIVESYSTEMS A line-drive amplitier is essentiallythe "front-end" of a charge or voltage amplifierwhich can be built into an accelerometer. range of Bruel The &Kjar line-drive accelerometers be seen in Fig.3.16. separate can A line-drive amplifier can also be attacheddirectly to a conventionalaccelerometer placed a or short distancefrom it. Remoteusage of the Type 2644 has the advantagethat higher levels of vibration can be measured,and at higher temperatures,compared to the line-driveaccelerometer built into or mountedon the accelerometer. The Br0el&Kjar Line-drive AmplifierType 2644can be seen in Fig.3.'t7. The power for a line-drivesystem must be derivedfrom an externalline-drive power supply. For driving the BrUel&Kjer line-drive accelerometers and preamplifier the Line-drive Supply Type 2813 is used. This is a battery powered instrumntwith the capabllityof powering up to two line-driveaccelerometers simultaneously. Type 2813can be seen in Fig.3.18.The voltageoutput of The 58

Fig.3.16.Bruel &Kjar Line-drive accelerometers. (From lett to right) Types 4390,8317and 8318.The photographsare scaled 1:1,1:1,and 1:2 respectively

Fi9.3.17. Attaching the Line-drive Amplitier Type 2644 to the top of an accelerometer

Ext. Power 10- 15

{,r:\

""".r t wfth f#; ,r Onry

Rachrtgcaua 8ttt..br

Fiq.3.18.2 channel Line-drive supply Type 2813 and analysisequipment.A the Type 2813 is used as an input into measurement &Kjer vibration and similar line-drivesupply is also built into several BrUel signal analyzers. is The practice of building the preamplifierinto an accelerometer by no means recent. The first such systems were designed with the objective of improvingthe performanceol very low capacitanceand low sensitivityaccelerometers which used quartz as the piezoelectricelement.Such accelerometers were very sensitive to noise generated by the cable (triboelectric noise) and noise picked up by the cable (electromagneticnoise). ceramicsand low-noise usingpiezoelectric Althoughmodernaccelerometers cables can solve most of the earlier problems,it can still be advantransducer preampliliers mountedclose or tageousto use built-inpreamplifiers, line-drive lineConsequently in to the accelerometer potentially"noisy" environments. Here they have drive preamplifiersare often used in industrial measurements. the advantageol driving low impedancesignals along extraordinarilylong and inexpensive cables.The sensitivityof such a systemto a combinationof ground loop voltages and cable noise is lower compared to any other configurationof This will be shown in section3.6. vibrationpreamplifier. Some line-drive designs have suffered poor performancedue to the inadequacies of the built-in electroniccircuitry. Howeverwith the advancesin thick&KJer, high qualityand high perforemployedat BrUel film circuittechniques preamplifiers in to Br0el&Kjar accelerometers. are built mance The addition of electronicsinto an accelerometerdoes however restrict the temperatureand dynamic range of the accelerometerinto which they are built. This also applies to line-drive preamplifiersmounted onto an accelerometer. The added mass of this preamplifier must also be considered when making measurements light panelsor similar structures. on 60

Different line-drive designs have been used but today almost all systems use a two-conductorcable which links the preamplifierto the power supply and carries both the power and the vibration signal. The power supply ls either a constant current or constant voltage source. The two systems are nof interchangeable.The Br0el& Kjar line-drive system uses a constant voltage source and power supply current modulationis used to transmit the vibratlon signal. This system will be shown to perform better than the constant current source system. 3.5.1.Brtlel&Kjer Line-drive Accelerometer and Line-drive Supply The sensitivity of a line-drive accelerometer is expressed in terms of the current sensitivity (pAlms-2) at the output of its built-in line-drive amplifier. The linal sensitivity the output of the power supplyis simplyobtainedby multiplyat ing this sensitivity by the power supply sensitivity (mV/pA) to obtain mV/ms-2 For example, a line-driveaccelerometerwith a sensitivityof 3,16pAlms-2 connected to a Line-drive Supply Type 2813 gives an overall sensitivity of 3,16mV/ms-2. 3.5.2.Br0el&Kjar Line-drive Amplifier and Line-drive Supply The charge sensitivityof the accelerometer(pO/ms-2)is first converted into a current sensitivity(pAlms-2) at the output of the Type 2644via the sensitivity of the 2644(1tAlpOl. Then the process continues as in the last section by multiplying the output of the Type 2644 by the power supply sensitivity to obtain mv/ms-2. For example, an accelerometerof sensitivity 3,16pO/ms-2when used with a Type 2644 and 2813 gives the same sensitivity as in the last example, i.e. 3,16mV/ms-2.

3.6. COiIPARISON OF THE SENSITIVITYOF DIFFERENTVIBRATION PREATIPLIFIER SYSTEMS TO EXTERNALNOISE SOURCES ln multichannel measurementset-ups where ground loops and long cables are often a problem, it is important to know the comparative sensitivity of the measurementsystem to external noise and to select the best system for that environment. The following systems will be compared. 1. Normal grounded (i.e non-insulated)accelerometerwith a charge preamplifier. 61

2. Groundedaccelerometer using a charge amplifierwith a ,,floating'input. 3. Brriel &Kjer line-drivesystem using constant voltage supply and current modulation. 4. Br0el&Kjer line-drivesystemusing constantvoltagesupply,currentmodulation and a "floating" input. 5. voltage line-drive system using constant current diode supply (not supplied by Bruel&Kj@r). 6. Balanced accelerometer using a differential charge preamplifier. In addition to these systems the benefit of using an insulated mounting technique(i.e. mica washer)'oran accelerometer with an electrically insulated base will be examined. In the followinganalysisthe noise at the input is assumedto be causedby a combination of two effects. 1. Triboelectric Elfect. All coaxial cables will generate a iharge if their mechanical movement is not restricted. For the purpose of comparing the results in the analysis,this effect will give rise to a charge noise q, of 100pc in the cable in each of the cases below. The triboelectric effect can be ' modelledas a perfect charge source in the analysis.This phenomenon will become more apparent if the cable is not clamped down onto the vibrating surface and low noise cables are not used. Note: A triboelectric charge of 100pc is an extreme case and is only used here as a means of comparison between the systems. 2. Ground-loops. In large machines there is always the possibilitythat the machineryhousing may not be at earth potential. consequenily the accelerometer case and cable screen will not be at earth potential and a voltage drop will exist along the cable. For the purpose of comparing the results obtained in the analysis,this voltage, en will be assumedto be 1V.

capacitanceto the ground llne exists from a high voltage system,this will give a direct input signal. Line-drive systems are less sensitiveto this kind of EMI than charge systems at the normal power line frequencies. 62

Inductivecoupling is often possible wheneveraccelerometercables are near to cables carrying high AO-currents.The coupling increasesas the frequency increases. Current "spikes" trom fast switching-circuits and other high frequency currents are common causes of electromagnetic interference. Magnetic shielding can be used to minimize its effects. Twisted-pair cables are more insensitiveto this effect because the total flux is close to zero. In practice, coaxial cables give adequate protection. Noise from electromagneticinterferenceis normally not of comparablemagnitudeto the noise from ground-loops.Typicalcoupling parametersare difficult to define.Consequently, is only ground-loop it and triboelectricnoise that we will consider in the cases which follow.
Relatave Sensilivity lo erternal noise with the addition ol an insulated base on the accelerometer (dB) Ground loop noise Triboelectric noise

Acceleromeler + Prcamplifier Description

Relative Senoilivaty lo external noise (dB) Ground loop noise Triboelectric noise

Normalaccelerometer groundedinput charge amplifier Normalaccelerometer 'floating" input charge amplilier Broel& Kjer line-drive accelerometer Bruel& Kjer line-drive power supply Bruel& Kj@rline-drlve accelerometer "floating" input Br0el& Kj@r Line-drivepower supply Line-driveaccelerometer constantcurrent line-drive supply- (non-Br0el Kjer) & Balancedaccelerometer Differential ChargeAmplltier

0 (ret. pClV) 1000 -70

0 (ref. pc) 100 0

-130

-80

-26

-80

-154

-80

-70

-80

- 134

-80

-80
0

- 130 -60

-80 0
TottffiBl

-60

Table 3.1. Comparlson of the immunity of several accelerometer/preamplifier

systemsto externalnoise

63

In all cases the noise is referred to the input of the final instrumentin the charge for a charge preamplifier, chaln in the appropriateunits (i.e. equivalent equivalentcurrent for a constant voltage line-drive power supply and equivalent voltage for a constant current line-drive supply). These values can then be converted into an overall noise sensitivityby multiplyingby the sensitivityof the final instrument. The results of the following analysisare first presentedhere in tabular form to simplity comparison of these systems. The sensitivitiesare expressed in decibels relative to the case of a non-insulated accelerometer connected to an ordinary charge preamplifier. Consequently a negative sign indicates a less sensitive system offering greater immunity to external noise. See Table3.1. Two reference levels are given in the table. One is for ground loop noise sensitivity and the other one is for tribolelectric noise sensitivity. Sensitivity comparisonsare only calculatedbetween noise sources of the same origin. The reference levels are given in the table.

3.6.1.Grounded Accelerometer and Charge Preamplilier Fig.3.19.shows an equivalent circuit for this set-up in which the charge and voltage noise sources have been introduced. By using the basic relationships between charge, voltage and capacitance, Ohms Law and the assumptions of noise levels from the last section, it is a relativelysimple matter to express the equivalentcharge noise at the input to the preamplifier. Each noise source is considered independently.

Flg. 3.19.Simplitied equivalentcircuit of normal grounded accelerometerconnected to a normal grounded lnput charge amplifier 64

Ground Loop Noise This is simply the product of the noise voltage and the accelerometercapacita n ce (C" = 1nF ) , i. e. 1 0 0 0 p C /V. Triboelectric Noise This has been defined as 100pC lor the sake of comparison with other examples. The noise due to the ground loop is much larger than the noise due to the triboelectricnoise.

3.6.2.Grounded Accelerometer with Charge Amplifier ("Floating" Input) The Type 2651 Charge Amplifier has the option of a so-called "floating" input as opposedto the "grounded"input in the last example.A "grounded"input of this kind is used on all Br0el& Kjer preamplifiers.The analysis becomes a little more complicated as a second operational amplifier is switched in to the input circuitry of the preamplifier.The equivalentcircuit of this set-up is shown in Fi g .3 .2 0.

Acc6l6romter

wlth 'Floating' Input

conFiq.3.20.Simplitiedequivalentcircuit of normal groundedaccelerometer nected to a chargeamplifier with a "floating"rinput

65

Ground Loop Noise The calculation of the ground loop noise inyolves the use of the Common Mode RejectionRatio (CMRR)of the second operational amplifier. In this case the CMRR is approximately70 dB (a factor of 0,3 10-3).The noise f rom the cable is voltage divided between the cable's series resistanceR" and the combined h.ighresistanceto earth, F7o"nbefore the second amplifier. Nearly all of this voftage falls across Bto"u A typical value for R" is 0,05O/m. The equivalent charge corresponding to the output of the "floating" amplifier is found by dividing by 1mV/pC, which is the charge amplilier sensitivity. The equivalent charge noise at the input now becomes CMRR Rto", en e, - @ 4' &b". + 4 Substituting the relevant values into this equation and assuming there is 200m of cable then the ground loop noise sensitivity becomes 0,301pC/V. Triboelectric Noise This is unaffected by the second operational amplifier and therefore it remains 100pC at the input. In this case it has been seen that using a "floating" input effectively eliminates the effects of the noise due to ground loops. Triboelectric noise is the more important consideration. Rc u" -Brrru

3.6.3.BrUel& Kjer Line-drive Amplifier and Power Supply (Grounded Inpul) Fig. 3.21 shows an equivalentcircuit for a line-drive amplifier or accelerometer connected to a line-drive supply such as the Type 2813 or a Brtiel&Kjar Analyzer.The equivalentcurrent noise at the input to the power supply must be expressed. The sensitivity of the line-drive amplifier is fixed at 1 pAlpO. The output impedance of the line-drive amplifier is set at 20k0.

Ground Loop Noise o= = en R o 1 t6 1 A/p C 1

The division by lA/pOl simply converts this value from an equivalentcurrent noise at the input of the power supply to an equivalentcharge noise at the input of the line-drive ampllfier. Thls results in an equivalent noise sensltivity of 50pC/V.

66

qn = qno slnol

R"

Fi7.3.21. Simplified equivalent circuit of grounded Br0el&Kiar line-drive accelerometer connected to Brfiel&Kjar llne-drive supply Triboelectric Noise The current i flowing clueto the triboelectric effect may be assumedto be an varying quantity if it is derived from low frequency harmonic harmonically mechanicalexcitation of the cable. The noise current input into the power supply is then expressed by ,n i^ =fu = ro ro " o " r, dt

When the sensitivity of the power supply is taken into account this gives a with noisesensitivity 10-2pCat 16Hz (co= 100)which increases of triboelectric frequency. In order to have the same triboelectric noise sensitivity as the normal charge amplifier of section 3.6.1 the excitation frequency of the cable the line-drivesystem offers a vast would have to be 160kHz. Consequently improvementon triboelectric noise performance when compared to a normal charge amplifier. It can also be seen that the noise originatingfrom ground loop interferenceis many thousand times greater than that originating from triboelectric effects. The line-drive system shows a greater immunity to overall noise when compared to the ordinary charge amplifier. Even in the case of the "floating" charge systemto overallnoiseis still superiorif amplifierthe immunityof the line-drive high triboelectric noise is present.

67

Brtiel&Kjer Line-drive Amplilier 3.0.4. and Power Supply ("Floating" Input) It is possibleto "lloat" the input of the line-drivesupply in a similar way to the charge amplifier in section 3.6.2.This facility is availableon the Type 2813.The equivalentcircuit is shown in Fig. 3.22. This is the same as in the last case (-20kO) exists. This is except that an equivalent lloating resistance Rno", producedby an operationalamplifief in the Type 2813.The ground loop voltage Type 2813 has a CMRB of 70dB and -isagain divided betweenR" and Rno",.The the cable is assumed to be 200m long.
Equivalentcur.enl nolse

il
i " =S
Ro

20 ko

o" = 0"" )
Rc

",n.,
lfiet

(+Line-drlve accelerometer or accelrometr + llne-drlvo ampllllr

Line-drive supPry

F19.3.22.Simplifled equivalent circuit of grounded Brilel&KJer line-drive ac' celerometer connected to a Br0el& Kiar line-drive supply with a "floating" input Ground Loop Noiee
o R" 'n Rnott Qn

en lVl CMRR 1 lmV/pOl

F, tr410-6 lA/pcl

This gives a sensitivityto ground loop voltages of only 0,325pC/V which is comparableto the normal charge ampllfier using a "floating" input. Triboelectric Noise The addition of a floating input condltion will not change the sensitivity to triboelectric noise and the same results are obtained as in the last section. 68

3.6.5.Line-drive System Based on Constanl Currenl Power Supply This system is not used by Br0el& Kjer. The power supply is simplerthan the constant-voltage current-modulation supply used in the Type 2813.lt shouldbe stressed that cable noise can be induced by electromagneticfields. This is especiallytrue if cheap two conductor cablesare used. lt will now be seen that power supply is not as immune a line-drivesystembasedon a constant-current to cable noise as the BrUel&Kjer system.Regardless the type of line-drive of systemused it is recommended use coaxial cableswhen severeelectromagto netic fields are present.Thesepoints are importantbecausethe main benefit of line-driveaccelerometers should be the suppressionof the effects of electromagnetic fields and the possibility of using cheap two-conductor cables. An equivalentdiagram for a constant current system is shown in Fig.3.23.
, Equlvelentvoltags nois

.d o \" dr f o" = q* sin,t

1kQ Ro

n
;l
Llne drive accl6rometer I Cable

I I Constentcurrent dlod supply

Fig. 3.23. Slmplified equivalent circuit of a line-drive system based on a constant current power supply Ground Loop Noise The ground loop voltage is fully developed across the input to the power supply.lf the line-driveamplifigrhas a sensitivity 1mV/pC then the noise of sensitivityis 1000pC/V.This is not as good as the Br0el&Kjar line-drive design and offers no improvementon the conventionalcharge amplifier. Triboelectric Gharge Noise

69

' tl m V / P C I excitation of 16Hz the triboelectric charge noise is approximately At an design. line-drive which is the same as the Br0el&Kj@r 10-2pC 3.6.6.Balanced Accelerometer and Dilferential Charge Amplilier from the elementsare insulated the In a balancedaccelerometer piezoelectric circdit diagramis shown in Fig. 3.24.A capacitancec; housing.The equivalent exists between each charge pick-up point and the accelerometerhousing. There will be an unbalancein these capacitancesunder operatingconditions by and this is represented A C6. The capacitance between the outer screen and the two inner screens is representedby c" and is shown equally divided betweenboth inner capacitances. The capacitanceol the dielectric surroundingthe two conductorsis represented by C4 and the unbalancerepresentedby AC4

Ro < o Qr o QQsu t

Difierential

ch + Ach

Balancsd acclromoler

Charge preamplltier

Fig.3.24. Simplitied equivatent circuit of a balanced accelerometer connected to a ditterentlal charge amPilfiel

The triboelectric charges,gnr ?od qn2a(e uncorrelatedsourcesand will not balanceout. With an unbalance 1pF betweenthe pick-up points on the piezoelectric of insidethe accelerometer elements L,C6= 1pF, the equivalent chargenoise is 1 p C /V . Due to the large impedanceratio at 50Hz betweenC" and F", the unbalance of the cable is about 108times smallerthan the transducer unbalance and can be ignored. The uncorrelatedtriboelectric charges still introduce the same amount of chargenoise at the input to the chargeamplifieras the normalaccelerometer and charge preamplifiercombination.

3.6.7.Eflect ol Insulated Mounting of lhe Accelerometer on Noise. An accelerometer can be electricallyinsulatedfrom the surfaceonto which it is mounted(see section4.4). This is achievedeither by using a mica washer under the accelerometer using an accelerometer or which has been made with an insulatedbase. lmprovementson ground loop noise can be obtained in all casesexcept the balancedaccelerometer and the normal charge amplifierwith a "floating" input. No improvementis obtainablein these two cases. Obviouslythe triboelectricnoise generatedby the cable is independent the of insulatdd mounting of the accelerometerand the sensitivity to triboelectric noise remainsunchanged. Withoutgoing throughthe complexcircuitanalysis the noise sensitivitiesshown in Table 3.2 can be obtained.
lnrulated Accelerometer and Preamplifier Description Normalaccelerometer and chargepreamplifier Br0el& Kjer line-driveaccelerometer and supply (grounded input) Broel& Kjar line-driveaccelerometer and supply ("floating"input) Line-drivesystembasedon constantcurrentsupply Ground loop noise Sensilivity PC/v

Table 3.2. Comparison of sensitivitles of several accelerometer/preamplifier systems to ground loop noise when the accelerometer is insulated from the structure

71

FEATURES 3.7.SPECIAL PREAMPLIFIER Some of the followingfacilitiesare availableon Brtiel&Kjer ChargeAmplifiers and vibration measurement equipmentfitted with preamplifierinputs. The of & arrangement thesefeatureswithin a BrUel Kjer preampliliercan be seen in Fig. 3.25. For more details on the different types consult AppendixE for condensed specilicationtables..

Transducar Sensitivitv External to

Batttry 4,5 V

Fig. 3.25. Block diagram showing the arrangement inside a Brilel& Kjar charge amplifier

3.7.1Integration Networks The integrationof acceleration data slgnalsto give velocityand displacement is one of the distinct advantagesol using accelerometers the transducerin as The choice of measurementparameterwas disany vibratlon measurement. cussed In Chapter 1 and now the integrationof these signalswill be examined. For harmonic signals,relationships exist betweenthe parametersacceleration, velocityand displacement. Their integrationis a simple matter of dividing by a factor proportionalto the frequency.

72

Let the accelerationsignal be representedby a sine wave expressedby a where a 8s (t = accelerationat time f = acclerationamplitude = frequency in radlans per second. = ao s in c o t

The first integration wlll yield velocity y

= | adt u,
= = -"n -COS@I (, Vo COS@f

where
V6

- 8s (r)

It can be seen that the constant of integrationhas been taken as zero. This is not true when transient signals are Integrated. The second integration yields the displacementsignal, x , = | v dt t " -"o sin crrf (t)' ^ = x ; s in@ f where xo = ---^
@'

-2n

Fiq.3.26. A simple RC integration network

73

Thls simple analysishas demonstratedthat integrationls achievedby dividIng the aceeleration a factor proportionalto.the frequencyto obtain velocity, by and by a factor proportionalto the square of the frequencyto obtain displacement. Electronicintegration,at its most basic level can be achievedusing a electronic network similar to that shown in Fig 3.26. When the voltage V,nlrom the accelerometerand preamplifierls applied to the input, the voltage across the capacitor Vou can be shown to be
Vin Vou,

1 + j@RC

>> when crrRO v^,o

1 then 1 jRC Vi, o)

By comparingthis expressionwith the previousintegrationanalysisit can be seen that an electronic integration has taken place. The factor 1/RC can be taken care of in the internal calibration.A double integration is achieved by using a second integration network to yield displacementinformation. ll the absolutevalue ol the last expressionis plotted againstfrequencythen a responsesimllar to Fig. 3.27 is obtained. lt can be seen that a low frequency

Fiq.3.27. The quallty of the lntegrated signal as a functlon of frequency

74

Intlgr.tlon Nltrcrtr -Actiw - - -Po$iv! Int grltion Nm.kt

I c

I
/---\o lso r a ce m m r - $ _
'2\\\\\ -attra .t --aa----tt-

o t

I
t

\\
Dispraffir= +1..

-s

v"r*rv =l\ -

1 2 5 102080 Fquoncy .latlw to Integratlon network lower

Fig. 3.28.Frequency response characteristicsof an electronic integrator limit cos existsbelowwhichno true integration takesplace.Between and <rlr @r only partialintegration takesplace.only signals greaterthan with frequencies @7 truly integrated. 8r Theintegration rangeof the filter is extended amplifying signalbefore by the it is appliedto the integrator. This also improvesthe dynamicrange ol the integrator. integrator this kind is termed"active"and maybe foundin the An of Brtiel Kjer preamplif whichhaveintegration & iers options. Thetypicalresponse of an integrat[rcan be seenin Fig.3.28.Noticethe existence a peak in the of filter. Integration networksmust be used with cautionwhen measuring transient vibration signals. Thelow frequency contentof a transient mayexcitethe peak of the lilter andcause integration the network "ring' anddistortthe measureto ment. ln additionthe phase responseol the integratorwill cause transient distortion. 3.29showsthe effectof electronic Fig. integrailon two sinusoidal on acceleration transients 1 and 10ms duration.The electronic ol integration is comparedto the true integration. The low frequencycontentof the longer transient Causes errorsin the measurement the peak values. of

75

Accclelation

f+loms{
Velocity_

- -------

ldeal integrator Real integrator (Cut-off frGquency 10 Hz)

_A_i3p!q94!

F19.3.29.comparison between electronic and theoreticat integration ol two acceleration pulses 3.7.2.Filters It is often desirableto limit the frequencyrange in a vibrationmeasurement. For example, when making vibration measurements rotating machinery on containinggears,frequencycomponentsabove the band of interestcan have appreciably higher levelsthan the vibrationsof interest.ff these high frequencles are not filteredout at this stage they will be clippedby amplifieroverloads and create differencefreguencieslying in the desired frequencyband where theyare no longerseparable from the requiredsignalcomponents. Filteringof a vibratign signal can optimize the dynamic range of the instrumentaflon as describedin section1.4. A high pass filter can be used to removethe spuriouslow frequencynoise resultingfrom non-vibrational inputs such as temperature transientsand base bending.In generalthese are only a problemwhen accelerometers other than the Delta Shear@ type are used. Several Br0el&Kjer preamplifiersare equipped wlth active low and high pass filters whose-3dB points are selectable. detailson the varioustypes For consult Appendices and F. E 76

Fig. 3.30. Phase characteristics of a Br0el & Kjer charge amplifier for different filter settings

As far as the measurement periodic signals is concerned,phase nonof linearities associated with tilters will have no influence on their RMS values althoughphase must be taken into account when measuringtransients.ll the frequencycontent of the signal is known it is possible to select the frequency rangewhich introduces the minimumamountof phasedistortion. This can be achievedby referringto a diagram similar to that in Fig3.30which is taken directly lrom the InstructionManual of a charge amplifier. When two charge amplifiers are used together as in mechanicalimpedance measurementsor in calibration the maximum phase difference, AO, can be determinedfrom the following relationship:
f "'r f"n fcz f",

a0

= tan-1

- . f c ' r' f.z ' t"r' Where f"' and f", are the individual lower limiting frequencies for each preamplifier and fcn is the frequency for which the maximum difference is required. This relationship holds true for preamplifiers containing 6dB/octave (20dB/decade) filters.lf the filter slope is 12dBloctave(40dB/decade) then the phase angle is twice as big and the expressionabove becomes

77

1", Ad = 2tan4
f"n

fcz l"n

.t+ f" r' !" 2

f"r'

3.7.3Overload Indicator An essentialand unique feature of Br0el& Kjar preamplifiersis the overload warningfacility. This effectivelyeliminatesthe possibilltyof making misleading measurements monitoringthe signal levelsat the output of the input amplifiby er, the output ol the filter and the output of the output amplifier (see Fig. 3.25). Only this arrangementcan ensure that overloadedsignals are not masked by filtering. Overload conditions are indicated by a small lamp. The overload circuitry can respond to peak overloads as short as 20ps. A 20dB from overload indicator is also a very uselul feature.The input and output gains can be adjusteduntil this light comes on. This meansthat the dynamic range of this part of the system is optimized.

3.7.4.Reference Oscillator This facillty is for use in system calibration and checking. lt is particularly usefulwhen making measurements the field using portabletape recorders.A in referencesignal can be recordedon to the tape along with the vibration signals and later used to help calibrate the recordlngs.lt can also be used to define levels when using level recorders and measuringamplifiers.

3.7.5.Power Supplies Br0el&Kjer preamplifiers can be poweredin severalways.Consultthe tables in AppendicesE and F. Wheneverpossible a dual polarity power supply should be used because in this way there is greater suppressionof common mode signals and power supply noise.This is particularlyusefulin large multichannel vibration measurement setups. Battery power supplies make the instrumentfully portable and also reduce systemnoise.Both of these featuresare particularlyusefulin outdoor measurements. Up to twelve dual polarity suppliesare avallablefrom the Powel SupplyType 2805 which is also capable of providing 12 single polarity supplies.

78

IN PERFORMANCE PRACTICE 4. ACCELEROiIETER

4.1. TNTRODUCTION This chapter provides guidelines for the correct use of the piezoelectric Figure 4.1 illustrates accelerometerto obtain accurate vibration measurements. the many different extraneous inputs which may be present during a vibration measurement. The Delta Shearo accelerometer is designed to minimize the contribution of all these phenomenato ensure that the output is related only to the vibration input. Two general areas are considered: 1. The environment.A vibration transducer which is totally immune to environmental ellects does not exlst. However, it will be shown that the Delta Shear@accelerometer offers excellent performance in extreme environments. The sensitivity to environmental effects is very low and is well delined.
Magnetlc flelds

F r+

Transverse vibrations Output telaled only to vibratlon

Fig.4.1.A selection of the many extraneousinputs which can result in nonvibration related outputs ln a poorly designed vibratlon transducer
79

2. Mounting. The mounting technique can alter the frequency response and dynamic ranges of the accelerometer.In addition, considerationmust be glven to the accelerometer mass as well'as its mounting location. The guidelinesset out In this chapter must be followed if optimum performance is to be obtained.

4.2. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS pften need to be made in environments Vibration measurements which place special demands on the accelerometer.To make reliable measurementsit is importantto deslgn a transducerwith maximumsuppressionof a// environmental influences.To this end, there have been numerousaccelerometerdesigns. None,however,have been able to match the Delta Shear@ design in suppressing environmentaletfects. lts low sensitivityto extreme environmentsis well defined and the effect of, lor example, an excessivelyhigh temperatureor a strong magnetic field, can be calculated and its contribution to the overall measuredvibration level can be estimated. Each BrUel Kjer accelerometeris suppliedwith very comprehensive & specifications relating to the sensitivity to environmentaleffects. The methods of measuringthese effects are describedin InternationalStandardsand in particular to ISO 5347,"Methods lor the Calibrationof Shock and Vibration Pickups" and also the American standard ANSI S2.11-1969. "The Selection of Calibrations and Tests for Electrical Transducers Used for Measuring Shock and Vibration".

4.2.1.Temperature Range The piezoelectricaqcelerometer capableof vibration measurements is over a wide temperaturerange. However,due to the propertiesof piezoelectricmaterials, variations of both voltage and charge sensitivitiesas well as impedance will occur when the accelerometeris operated at temperaturesother than the reference. As an example,Fig. 4.2 shows the variation in capacitance, charge sensitlvity and voltage sensitivityof piezoelectricmaterialPZ23 which is the materialused in nearly all Br0el&Kjar accelerometers.tncluded on the calibration chart supplied with each accelerometeris a similar diagram contalning information on the type of piezoelectricmaterialused in that accelerometer. Thesechanges in sensltivity are well defined and no permanent change occurs when the temperatureis returnedto the calibrationtemperature.When using the accelerometer at hlgh temperatures lts actual sensitivity, taklng into account the change in sensltlvlty due to the Increased operating temperature, can be determlned using such a diagram. 80

+5 dB 2
o E t o E o o o ar

Vo +26

s
1

12 0

qt tt

: =
d c o

1l 21
\ | PZ 23 Voltage

o o E

29 ('C) Temperature

Fig. 4-2. The temperature dependency of the capacitance, charge sensitivity and voltage sensitivity of piezoelectric material PZ23

The time required for the sensitivity to return to the one stated on the calibration chart is not easy to determine but it will partly depend on the temperature to which the accelerometerwas taken. lf the ambient temperature changes slowly then the sensitivity of the accelerometer will follow the curve shown in Fig.4.2. However,for rapid temperaturechanges the piezoelectric exhibits a hysterisis-type effect and the accelerometer will take some time to stabilizeat the sensitivity indicated on the chart. In general a period of 24 hours is required for an accelerometerto return to the calibrated sensitvity when it is suddenly returned to room temperature from a temperature close to its maximum operating temperature. Each accelerometerhas a specified maximum operating temperature above which the piezoelectricelement will begin to depolarize and cause a permanent change in sensitivity. This is 250" C for those accelerometers using PZ 23 piezoelectricmaterial. At temperaturesup to 50oC above the specified limit the loss is gradual.lf it is any higherthen rapid depolarization takes place and the accelerometer is ruined. For high temperature work above 250" C the Industrial Accelerometer Type 8310can be used.This has been designedlor use up to 400'C. lt is possibleto thermally isolate the base of a general purpose accelerometertrom the vibrating surface using a screen made of a metal with high thermal conductivity such 81

es that shownin Fi9.4.3. This increases rate of heattransferawayfrom the the accelerometer. Sucha screenenables measurements be madeon surfaces to wlth temperatures to 350"C. lf a streamof coolingair is alsodirected the up at accelerometer is possible measure surfaces to 450"C. However, it to on up it pointof the acceleromemustbe remembered the stiffness the mounting that at ter may be alteredby such a fixtureand this in turn will lowerthe resonance frequency the accelerometer of when mountedand decrease the usefulfrequencyrange.The associated measuring instruments in generalhave a will lower temperature capabilityand may need to be mountedat some distance from the accelerometer. Thelowertemperature for mostBr0el&Kjer accelerometers specified limit is as -74oC. Speciflcations have not been definedat temperatures below this purpose although is stillpossible usegeneral lt to accelerometers evenlower at temperatures. Usinggeneralpurpose accelerometers, vibrationmeasurements on structures (-196"C). havebeen madeat liquid nitrogentemperatures

Fi9.4.3.Mounting an 'accelerometeron a hot surface using an aluminium screento lncreasethe heat dissipation Temperature 4.2.2. Transients Fairly' rapid fluctuations the ambienttemperature (due to draughtsand in thermal ourrents, example) for duringa vibrationmeasurement give rise to can a low frequency noisesignalfrom the accelerometer. signafis due to two This effects. 1. The Pyroelectric piezoelectric Ellect. Thisis a phenomenon whereby crystals and ferroelectrlc ceramlcs,becomechargedby temperature inequalpolarized itiesandtemperature In changes. artificially ceramics charge this is bullt up on the surtaces perpendicularto the polarizationdirectlon. Therefore whenthevlbration induced is charge pickedup perpendicularlylo 82

Pyroelectriccharge not picked up in sheer dslgn

\{--t
I Polarization

/ .l l-l
I Piezoelectric I

direaion

erement

a + pickd up between thse

pyrorecrric chare

I
Temperature fluctuatlons

,*.1

- ::rJ,l"J"in compresston

Fiq.4.4. Theimmunityto temperature fluctuations a piezoelectric of materiatin shear mode compared to compressionmode. The charge shown is caused by the pyroelectric ettect and is not correlated with the vibration the polarizationdirection,as in compression designs,this pyroelectric chargeis also pickedup and erroneous outputsresult.However, a shear in design this extracharge not pickedup as the chargepick up pointsareon is the surfacesparallelto the polarization direction.This is illustratedin Fig.4.4. As a direct resultof this, sheartypes are theoretically insensitive temto perature transients. practicetheyare approxlmately timeslesssensiIn 100 tive to temperature transientsthan compression types. At Br0el&Kjar carefulchoiceof piezoelectric elements also helpsto minimize this effect. 2. Non-unilormthermal expansion. Thisis possible whenpartsof the accelerometer structure expandor contractat different ratesor the accelerometer is subjected a heatdifferential to acrosslts case.Bothphenomena result in forceson the piezoelectric element and a resultant output.Compression constructions more susceptible theseeffectsthan shearconstrucare to tions. Theseeffects will only becomenoticeable when low level, low frequency vibrations measured. the caseof outdoormeasurements largestrucare In on turessuchas buildings, bridgesor shipswherethe prevailing wind may cause sudden coolingeffectsit is vital to use an accelerometer designed give low to sensitivity these effects.Many industrialenvironments to may also present potentialtemperature fluctuationproblemsbut as most measurements are madeat high vibrationlevelsthe effectsare not so serious.

The typical temperature transient sensitivity for each accelerometertype can be lound on the calibration chart supplied lvith each accelerometer. lt is possible to reduce or even eliminate the low frequency noise caused by these temperature fluctuations using one or more of the following methods. 1. Correct Ghoice. The most important of all the factors concerning the reduction of temperature transient effects is the correct choice of accelerdesign is lar superior to compression design' ometer design. Delta Shear@ 2. High Pa$ Filters. lf a compression type is used it may be necessaryto use a high-pass filter to remove the spurious low frequency output. Such filters are included on most of the Briiel & Kjar preamplifiers used for vibration measurements.Lower limiting frequencies are selectable and are typically 0,3 Hz up to 30 Hz. A lower limiting frequency of greater than 3 Hz is neces' sary when using compressiondesign accelerometersin environmentswhere the temperature is fluctuating. Line-Drive amplifiers such as the Type 2644 or those built in to AccelerometerTypes 4390,8317 and 8318 have specified lower frequency limits which minimize these effects. For details of the individual preamplifiers and Line-Drive Types consult the Product Data Sheets available on these products. 3. Shielding. ln some cases it may be possible to attach a screen or light thermal insulator around the accelerometer. A microphone windshield is often suitable lor this purpose. Alternativelyone can be constructed lrom a light polystyrene material.

4.2.3.Acoustic Sensitivity Most vibrations are associated with an acoustic output. Vibration measurements are often made in environmentswhere there is a high sound pressure level. BrUel&Kjer Delta Shear@accelerometers have been designed so that high sound pressure levels (SPL) do not interfere with the vibration measurement. This is achieved by using a rigid mechanicallyisolated design. The typical accelerometer is in the range 0,0001 to acoustic sensitivity of a Delta Shear@ for 0,004ms-2 an SPL of 154dB in the 2 to 100H2 ranger. Other constructions have cdnsiderably higher sensitivities than this. Older compression type designs effectively acted like microphones because there was no mechanical isolation between the case and the piezoelectric discs. In many cases the acoustically induced vlbration of the test structure will be a more important lactor to consider.

in 1 The acousticsensitlvltyls measured this rangebut is probablyconstantuP to higherfrequencies. See sectlon5.5.4. 84

4.2.4.Base Strains This is more easily understood if it is referred to as "base bendlng". Whenever an accelerometer is mounted on a vibrating structure th base will be subjected to bending forces and a resultant charge will be measured. The frequency of this charge will always be at the frequency of the vlbration. consequently, it is at low frequencieswhere displacements,and henc strains, are large that this effect is noticeable. Low base strain sensitivlty is particularly important in the design of a feedback compressor clrcuit for vibration testing set-ups. The accelerometer providing the feedback signal may be subjected to large base strains and the excitation signal to the vlbration exciter will be distorted. Bruel&Kjer accelerometers are designed to have low sensitivity to these eflects by utilizing the Delta shear@ design. ln thls design the piezoelectric elements are effectively isolated from all deformations of the base. lt is not necessaryto employ a very thick, and hence excessively heavy base to minimize thls etfect as is necessary in all compression designs. The BrUel&Kjar Type 8305 ReferenceAccelerometer is a compression design and utilises a beryllium disc to isolate the piezoelectric discs from base bending effects. Under the controlled conditions of calibration base bending is not a problem for this accelerometer. Typical base strain sensitivityfor a general purpose Delta Shear@ accelerometer 0,02ms-2lp.c a base strain of 250pte.The typical value for each type is al included on the calibration chart supplied with each accelerometer.

4.2.5.Humidity Eflects All Br0el& Kjar accelerometers are of a sealed construction with either a welded or epoxy sealed housing, effectively isolating the accelerometer from the effects of humidity. when they or uSd in wet or extremely humid conditions it is important that the accelerometer cable and screw connector are completelysealed. otherwise there will be a decrease in the leakage resistance of the accelerometerand a change in the low frequency response.This can be achievedusing a sealing agent such as Dow Cornings RTVTgg,3M Scotch Clad strip coating 2253 or similar compounds. Bruel&Kjar accelerometer cable sleeves are generally made of moisture impervious pTFE or pFA (Teflon)and can be completely immersed in liquids.

85

4.2.6.Magnetic Sensitivity Br0el&Kj@r accelerometers are very insensitive to magnetic fields. The sensitivity lies between 0,5 and 30 ms-2per Tesla (0,005and 0,3 g per k Gauss) which is a worst case situation with the magnetic flux flowing in the direction of the maximum sensitivity.

4.2.7.Radaation Ellects With the exception ot line-drive designs, all Brriel& Kjer accelerometersmay be used undergamma radiationconditions(100Gy/h,6MeV)up to accumulated doses ol 20kGy (1 Gy=1991"d). Tests indicate that these accelerometersshow less than 10% sensitivity change after such exposure. Normal types of accelerometer cable may be used but special cables are recommendedfor accumulated doses exceeding 1kGy. The IndustrialAccelerometerType 8310 shows less than 3% change in sensitivity at these doses and can be used under very high radiation conditions. With accumulated doses of l MGy and 1018 neutrons per square centimetre(10kGy/h, 1 to 5MeV and a thermal neutron flux of 1012 neutrons per square centimetre per second) a sensitivity change of approximately 5% is obtained. For further details consult the Product Data for Industrial Accelerometers.

4.3. MASS LOADINGEFFECTS OF ACCELEROMETERS When an accelerometeris mounted onto a vibrating specimen the increase in overall mass, combined with a change in the local stiffness,will inevitably alter the dynamic properties of the structure. These changes are only significant if the accelerometer introduces an additional mechanical impedance of similar magnitude to that possessed by the structure before the addition of the accelerometer.The mechanicalimpedance, .Z",presented to the structure by the accelerometercan be expressed in terms of its mass m,

za

@ fr a

This is validat frequencies to 0,9timesits mounted up resonance frequency. Withinthisfrequency rangethe acceleration the part of the structure of nearthe accelerometer modifiedaccording the followingrelationship; is to

am =""z3T - "";I
86

where am as Z" ms = acceleration measured the accelerometer by = acceleration the structurewhen the accelerometer of is not present = mechanical impedance the unloaded of structure = 'mass" of the structure.In many cases the mechanical impedance mainlythe mass of the structurenear the is accelerometer

Therewill also be a reduction the resonance in frequencies the structure of according thls relationship to

rm
where fm

=1",fE
V m s + ma = any resonance frequency ot the structure with the influ_ ence of the accelerometer mass = any resonancefrequencyof the structure without the influ_ ence of the accelerometer mass

fs

These relationshipsshow that if accelerometermass, and hence mechanical impedance, are kept small compared to the mass of the structure then any changesin the vibrationwill only be small.A generalrule is to ensurethat the accelerometer mass is less than one tenth of the mass of the structure.
E

o o

o o o a q
o

E o

E E
f

Plate thlcknss

Fig.4.5. Theoretically derived retationship between accelerometer mass and change in vibration ot thin aluminium and steel plates 87

between required the acderivedrelationship Fig.4.5showsa theoretically mass and the thickness a plate for a specifiedchangein the of celerometer level over a definedfrequencyrange. This can be used when acceleration vibration lightaluminium steelplates. on and measuring 4.4.MOUNTING THE ACCELEROilETER vibrationaccurately one must ensurethat; To measure and dynamicrangesare not limitedby poor acceler1. The usefulfrequency ometermounting. characmassdoesnot alterthe vibration 2. Theaddition the accelerometer of teristicsof the test object. point can be exactlylocatedrepeatedly thus ensuring 3. The measurement repeatable measurements. affect can The selection the correct mountingarrangement significantly of range beenseenthat the usefulfrequency eachol thesecriteria.lt has already quoted frequency is resonance by of the accelerometer determined its mounted The resocalibration chart for eachaccelerometer. mounted on the individual is under optimummountingconditionsusing the nancefrequency measured standardmountingstuds on a 1809 steel block whose surfaceshave been in finished the standard to defined Fig.4.6.

Fiq.4.6. Recommended tolerances for the mounting surface and tapped fixing. hole. Dimensions and symbols in accordance with lSO1101 88

4.4.1.Vibralion Test Specimen Surface Finish Requirementr It is very important that the surface of the test specimen is as clean and smooth as practically possible in order to have a high mounted resonance frequency.lf possible,the surface should have the finish defined in Fig. 4.6. The hole for the accelerometerstud must also be tapped according to the standards set out in Fig.4.6. Unwantedgrease can be removed by using commercially available solvents such as acetone.

4.4.2.Mounting Location In many cases the accelerometermounting location is fairly obvious and will be dictated by the reason for measuring the vibration. The accelerometer should be mounted with its main sensitivity axis aligned with the desired measurementdirection. However, it has already been mentioned that the accelerometerresponds to vibrationsin directionsother than the main sensitivity axis. The red dot on B & K accelerometerscan be aligned with the direction of maximum transversevibration and consequently their effects will be minimized. chose a locationwhich providesa short and rigid vibrationtransmission path to the vibration source avoiding any compliance and damping elementspresent in the structure such as gaskets. For example, when measuring vibrations on rotating machinery, bearing housings are often good places to mount the accelerometer. There is often valuableinformationto be found in directionsother than the one in which we mount the accelerometer. The use of a triaxial accelerometer can provide simultaneous data concerningvibration in three mutuallyperpendicular axes at the same point. The dynamic response of many structures can be very complicated and only slight diflerences in mounting locations can cause large differences in the particularlyat high frequencies. a generalrule, never make measurement, As measurements at a node point. To identify the location of the nodes and antinodes on a structure it may be necessaryto perform a quick vibration surveyover the structureby using a "quick test" methodwith a hand-held probe similar to that describedin section 4.4.9. Perhaps one of the most difficult areas of vibration to measure meaningfully is the area of vibrationsapplied to humans.This can cover both whole body vibrationand hand-armvibration.Both requirespecialcohsiderations transof ducer type, frequencyrange,dynamicrange,mountingtechniqueand mounting location. 89

4.4.3.Determination ol the Frequency Response ol Accelerometers With Dilfelent Mounting Technigues The following sections contain advice on mounting techniques and their influenceon the frequency range and dynamic performanceof accelerometers. Most feasible techniques are covered. The lrequency response measurements are made with a small permanent magnet exciter to drive a moving table of 1809 onto which is mounted the accelerometer.The accelerationof the table is kept constant over a wide frequency range using an electronic feedback circuit (compressor loop). To simplify comparison the same general purpose accelerometer is used in aff the measurements.Fig.4.7 compares the most important of the frequency responsesobtained by using the mounting techniquescovered in this section.

Fr6quency

Fig. 4.7. Comparison of frequency response curves obtained using several accelerometer mounting techniques

4.4.4.Stud llounting llethod: 1 . Prepare the surface of the test object to the tolerances shown in Fig.4.6. The accelerometerbase should also be as clean and as smooth as possible.

2. Drill and tap the requlred slze flxing hole in the test object. This will depend
on the tlpe ol accelerometer.The hole must be deep enough to accept the accelerometerstud. For miniature accelerometersuse the QA 0041 Tap for

90

M3 lhread and the 8mm (0,25)inch long steel stud YQ2007.For general purpose accelerometersuse the Q40029 tap and 10-32UNF mounting studs YQ2960and YQ2962which are 12mm and 8mm (0,5and 0,312lnches) long respectively.For Type 8318 Accelerometeruse the M8 tap QA0141and stud YQ9335. 3. Screw the stud into the hole and then the accelerometer onto the stud. Check that the stud does not bottom in the accelerometer and use a spanner to tighten the accelerometer,taking care not to overtighten it. See Fig. 4. 8.

Fig.4.8. The use of a stud to mount an accelerometer. The accelerometer on the right is mountedusing the insulatingstud and mica washer

Applications: vibrationmeasurements requiringthe highestpossible 1. High frequency mountedresonance frequency. 2. Permanent vibration monitoring. Advantages: performance. method This shouldbe usedwhenev1. Optimum accelerometer er possible. rangeof the accelerometer. 2. The mounting does not limit the temperature at 3. Operation very high vibrationlevels.
91

Diradvantages: 1. lt may take some time to preparethe surfa0eof the test object and to drill and tap the hole. Notes: 1. A thln layer of siliconegrease applied betweenthe accelerometer base and the test surface will improve the high frequencyperformanceespeciallyif the surface is not completelysmooth. 2. The recommended torque with which to mount the accelerometer depends on the size of stud beingused and is 1,8Nmfor the normal10-32UNFstud and 0,60Nm for the smaller M3 steel mounting stud. .,Fingertight"may at first appear barely sufficient (=0,3Nm) although actual differencesin the measured frequencyresponseof the accelerometer very slight provided are that the accelerometer tightenedwith a strong grip. Onlywhen the highest is frequenciesare under investigationis it necessaryto use a spanner to tighten the accelerometer. See Fig. 4.9. 3. Take care not to use excessivetorque when using a spanner as the stud may break or the thread may be pulledout of the accelerometer. This makes it very dilficult to remove from the accelerometeror test surface. The accelerometercan be ruined. 4. The stud should not bottom on the end of the accelerometer thread. lf the accelerometer base is not in contact with the vibratingsurface,large errors can occur.

Frequency

Fiq.4.9. The frequency response of a stud-mounted generat purpose accelerometer using slightly different mounting technigues 92

Becauseground loops can arise in vibration measurements,particularywith multi-pointset-upson large machines,it is sometimesnecessary etectrito cally insulate the accelerometer from the test surface. This is achieved by either using an accelerometer with an insulated base or uslng the Mica Washer YO0534 or YO0746 together with an InsulatingStud yp01S0. The addition of the mica washer does however lower the mounted resonance lrequency particulary at temperatures over 80. C when creeping can occur in the stud. Try to use the thinest possible slice of mica to obtain good mechanicalcoupling. 6. The miniature accelerometerType 4374is not designed to be stud-mounted and an alternative method must be used. 7. The shock accelerometer Type 8309 has an M5 integral stud. 8. The Industrial Accelerometers are mounted with screws.

4.4.5.Wax ilounling llethod: 1 . Ensure that the mounting surfaceis as smoothas possible. Alsoensure that

the accelerometer base is free from dirt and grease.

2. scrapeoff a smallamountof the wax YJ0216 supplied with the accelerometer sets and roll it with the fingersto softenit. Smearthe wax onto the test surface, covering arealargerthanthe area an of the accelerometer base.Thelayershouldbe just thick enough out the fill void between two surfaces. the Slidethe accelerometer the wax and by applying onto pressure turning and the accelerometer is securedto the surface. it This may take a litfle practice.SeeFig.4.10.

Thln layer ot beeswax

F19.4.10. The use of wax lor mountingof a minlatureaccelerometer Applications: 1. Quicktest vibrationmeasurements. 93

2. Measurementswhere it is not possible, or indeed desirable, to drill a mounting hole for a stud. 3. Attaching accelerometerswhich do not have a tapped hole in the base. Advantages: 1. A quick and easy mountingoption. 2. The mounted resonance frequency is only slighily less than that for stud mounting. Disadvantages: 1. Serious temperature limitation of 40"C. 2. The maximum vibration level is approximately 100 ms-2 Notes: 1. The poor temperatureperformance is caused by softening of the wax. This causes a decrease in the coupling stiffness leading to a lower mounted resonance until eventually the accelerometer becomes detached from the test surface. 2. The use of excessivewax will lower the mounted resonancefrequency and limit the measuringfrequencyrange. See Fig.4.11.

Frequncy

6iloo

Fig. 4'11' Thetreguencyresponse a wax mountedgeneralpurposeaccelerof

ometer

94

4.4.6.ilagnel ilounting Method: 1. Ensure that the surface of test object and accelerometerare free from grease and protrusions. 2. Screw the accelerometeronto the permanentmagnet UA0642 and tighten with a spanner if necessary.A smaller magnet is available for mounting miniatureaccelerometers. High frequencyresponseis improvedby applying a thin layer of silicone grease between the accelerometerbase and the magnet and between the magnet and the structure before attaching the accelerometerto the structure. See Fig. 4.12.

Fig.4.12. The use of the mounting magnet lJA0642 to mount an accelerometer Applications: 1. The rapidity of this method makes it ideal for many preliminarymeasurements on, for example,industrial machinery,before a decision is made on the location of a permanentvibration monitoring point. Advanlages: 1. Very rapld method. 2. Consideringthe apparentlylow coupling stiffness this method gives good high frequency performance,especlallyon flat surfaces. See Fig. 4.13. 3. High accelerationcapability.

95

Fr6quency

generalpurposeaccelFig. 4.13.Thetrequency response a magnet-mounted of erometer Disadvantages: 1. The surfaceof the test object must be ferro-magnetic. Alternatively, a ferromagnetic disc or plate can be glued(or screwed) onto the structure. point cannotbe guaranteed. 2. Absoluterepeatabillty the measurement of 3. The additionof the magnetcreatesan extra mass loadingeffect on the This could be a seriousdisadvantage structure. when making measurementson light structures such as panelsor plates.The magnetUA0642 welghs169. Notes:
1 . It is possible electrically to insulate accelerometer the from the test object.

This is achieved usingthe PTFEself-adhesive by insulating disc supplied wlth the set of 5 mounting magnets The UA0643. disc is placedbetween the surfaceof the test structureand the magnet. Measurements possible curvedsurfaces are on suchas plpesalthough the frequency rangewill reduceas the radiusof curvature the surfacegets of smaller. Thepeakholdingforceof the magnet variesbetween and 60N,depend35 ing on the surfacecondltlon and whetherinsulating discsare used.Consequentlythe maximum vlbrationlevelswill vary according the combined to weightof the accelerometer magnet. and The BrUel Kjar Accelerometer &
96

Product Data contains this limit for the different types. For example, an accelerometerweighing 17 grams can be used at accelerationlevels of 1,2 kms-2whereas an accelerometerweighing 175 grams can only be used up to 0,2 kms-2

4.4.7.Selt-Adhesive ilounting Discs tethod 1. Ensure that the vibration test surface and accelerometer are free from grease. 2. Peel off the protective backing film of the disc and apply the disc firmly to the accelerometer.See Fig. 4.14. 3. Attach the accelerometerto the vibrating surface.

Fig. 4.14. The use of a self adhesive mounting disc to mount an accelerometer Applications: 1. Quick test vibration measurements. 2. Measurementswhere it is not possible, or indeed undesirable,to drill a mounting hole for a stud. 3. Attaching accelerometerswhich do not have a tapped hole in the base. Advantages: 1. Rapid method giving reasonablehlgh frequency response and high acceleration capability. 2. Electrical insulation is provided.

Disadvantages: 1. High and low temperatureoperation limitations. Notes: 1 . Double sided self-adhesivediscs are availablein two diameter sizes- 40 mm Discs (DU0079)and 5,5mm Discs (YO0073).The smaller variety come in sets of 25 and are designed for use with the miniature type accelerometers whereas the larger one is supplied as a single item and is capable of securing the largest accelerometer at any angle with sufficient adhesive force to maintaina reasonablyhigh frequencyperformance. See Fig.4.15. However it must always be remembered that this and the other methods only approximate to the superior performance obtainablewith stud mounti ng. Double-sidedadhesive tape can also be used and good results are obtainable if the tape is thin. However if the tape is very thick then the high frequency performance will be reduced.

Frequency

ffilltl

Fig. 4.15. The frequency response of a general purpose accelerometer mounted with a self-adhesive disc

4.4.8.Adheeives There are two basic methods for using adhesivesto mount an accelerometer.

98

Direct Attachment: Method: 1. Ensure that the surface is as smooth as possible and free lrom dirt. 2. Use a quick setting cyanoacrylatetype adhesiveto secure the accelerometer to the test structure following the instructionsgiven with the adhesive. Se e F ig. 4. 16.

Cyanoecrylat Adhsive

Fig. 4.16. The use of cyanoacrylate adhesive to mount a miniature accelerometer Applications: 1. This method is very commonly used with the miniaturerange of accelerometers. 2. Permanentvibration monitoring where it is not possible to use stud mounting. Advanlages: 1. Excellent high frequency performance and high accelerationlevels. Disadvantages: 1. lt is not very easy to remove the accelerometerfrom the surface and in all cases it will be necessary to clean the accelerometerafterwards with a suitable solvent. This may take some tlme. 2. Repeatabilityof the exact mounting location cannot be guaranteed. 3. Electrical insulation is difficult. Gementing Stud llounting Method: 1. Ensure a smooth, grease-freemounting surface. 2. Selectthe appropriatecementingstud and glue this to the test surfaceusing

an epoxy adhesive and allow this to dry. This may take up to 30minutes depending on the glue used. Araldite' is re.commended. 3. Screw the accelerometerfirmly onto the stud using the fingers. A spanner shoufd only be used with care. See Fig.4.17.

Fiq.4.17. The use of a cementing stud to mount an accelerometer

Applications: 1. Multi-point vibration monitoring where the accelerometeris regulary moved from one location to another and repeatability is required but normal stud mounting is not possible. Advantagee: 1. Good all round measurementcharacteristics. Disadvantages: 1. Time-consuming(if epoxy adhesives are used). 2. lt cah be difficult to remove the stud and the hardened glue from the test surface. 3. Electrical insulation is difficult. However, the addition of two glass fibres under the cementing stud can provide good insulation. Alternatively, the stud can be palnted with a thin layer of epoxy and left to cure before cementing on to the surface. 4. Typical maxlmum temperature limitation of 80" C, depending on the adhesive in use. Severalhigher temperatureadhesivesare available,such as 3M Cyanollte HG303 which can be used to 200"C. 100

1 . Cyanoacrylate cementcan only be used on the smoothestsurtaces.This is becausethe protrusionsof rough or milledsurfacessuch as the base of the cementingstud can "store" air pocketswhich reducethe adhesive effectsof this type of cement.

2. Epoxy adhesives can be used to glue the accelerometer direct to the

surface althoughthey are not as quick as the cyanoacrylate types. "Soft" adhesivesare not recommendedbecause of the reductionin coupling stiffness which greatly reduces the frequency range. See Fig.4.18. "Soft" adhesives also have inferior high temperature performance characteristics. Suitablemethyl cyanoacrylate adhesivesare 3M Cyanolite101 and Permabond747 which have the BrUel& Kjar order no. QS 0007.These may be used at temperatures from -50" C to 80" C. Other types are Eastman (Kodak) 9 1 0M HTand Loc ti te l S . 5 . A spannershouldonly be used with extremecare for tightening the accelerometer on to the cementing stud. Experience has shown that, when removing the accelerometer,instead of the accelerometer first unscrewing from the stud, the stud breaks away lrom the test surface and leavesthe cementing stud screwed tightly into the base ol the accelerometer.This can be very difficult to remove.

100

200

10 20 Frequency

50
861406

Fig. 4.18. The frequency response of a general purpose actelerometer mounted using adhesives

101

6. Threetypes of cementingstud are available.There is the 14mm diameter D80756and 25mm D82790which both use a 10-32UNFthread compatible with the majority of BrUel&Kjer accebrdmeters. The former is available in a set of twenty five pieces under the number UA 0866.There is also an 8 mm diameter version with an M3 thread (DB0757).This is availableas a set of 25 (uA0867).

4.4.9.Probes'

Fig. 4.19.The useof the HandProbe YP0080 rapid vibrationmeasurements for

- The limitatlonsof this methbd must always be consideredwhen making measurements wlth probes.

102

ilethod: 1. Attach the accelerometer the Hand Probe YP0080 via the 10-32 UNF to th re ad.S ee F ig. 4. 1 9 2. Dip the tip of the probe into a small amount of silicone grease and then press the tip onto the test surface ensuring that the shaft of the probe is held perpendicular it while preventingthe tip from slipping. to Applications: 1. Only lor quick spot measurements and checks below 1000H2. Advantages: 1. The most rapid mountingmethod available. Disadvanlages: 1. The resonancefrequency when mounted is brought down so low that it will lie within the frequency range of most vibration measurementsand renders the results invalid. The use of low-pass filters is recommendedwhen using one of these probes. See Fig.4.20. 2. Yery poor repeatability

Frequency

6'1to

responseof a generalpurposeaccelerometer mounted Fiq.4.20.Thefrequency on the Hand Probe YP0080

103

Fig. 4.21. An inverted probe. The rubber effectively decouples the probe tube so the probe resonance is not excited. The rounded cementing stud provides a smooth contact surface.
dB 50

20

200

500

1 kHz
Frquency

5102050
6tsts/l

Fig. 4.22. Thefrequencyresponseof a generalpurpose accelerometermounted on an inverted probe 104

Notes:
1 . The application of silicone grease is an attempt to raise the coupling stiffness. A slight extension of frequency range is obtainable when the round tip probe (DB0544)is in use. An inverted probe similar to that shown in Fig. 4.21 can be constructed which allows for vibration measurementsin locations where it is not possible to reach the desired measuring point. A rounded cementing-studcan be used as a probe tip. This technique can offer improved high frequency performance compared to the first probe. See Fig. 4.22.

4.5. MECHANICAL FILTERS The mechanicalfilter UA0559 is a very simple and useful device for use with most Br0el&Kjar accelerometers.lt is available as a set of five (UA0553). The following is a short list of the applications of the mechanical filter. 1. To measure low frequency,low level vibrations which are "hidden" by high frequency, high level vibrations. 2. To protect the accelerometerfrom damaging high level shocks and to avoid zero shift effects. 3. To electrically insulate the accelerometerfrom the specimen. 4. To provide a defined upper frequency limit which is particulary useful when the preamplifier being used has no built-in filters. 5. To remove the influence of transverse vibrations.

4.5.1.Description The MechanicalFilter UA 0559 is shown in Fig. 4.23. lt has a sturdy, corrosion resistant stainless steel body with a 10-32 UNF threaded hole in the base for mounting onto test specimens and a 10-32 UNF thread screw on top for attachment to accelerometers.The upper part is bonded to an internal butyl rubber core which electricallyinsulatesit lrom the base whilst at the same time acts as a low-pass filter between the structure and the accelerometer.There is a hole through the side of the mechanicalfilter through which a tommy bar may be passed, thus locking the top and bottom sections together and protecting rubber core from undue twisting when an accelerometeris tightened onto the device. The tommy bar can also serve as a wrench with which to tighten the filter to the vibrating surface. The recommended torque for this is 1,8Nm (15lb in).

105

Fiq.4.23. The Mechanical Filter UA0559

4.5.2.Operation The influence of the mechanical filter on the main axis and transverse response of an accelerometer is clearly shown in Fig.4.24. lt behaves as a lowpass filter, thus attenuating the main axis and the transverse axis resonances. Whereas the normal accelerometer resonance causes a sensitivity increase of about 30dB above the nominalsensitivity, mechanical the filter causesa highly damped resonanceof only 3 to 4dB with a high frequency roll off of 40dB/decade. An added feature is that the cut-off frequency is adjustable simply by adding extra mass between the accelerometer and the filter. Sensitivity to transverse vibrations is also reduced. Because the filtering process is dependent on the stiffness and damping characteristics of the rubber there is a temperature dependency involved. At low temperaturesthe stiffness of the rubber core increasesand the resonance frequency increasesaccompanied by a decrease in damping. At high tempera-

Maln axis aesponse ot

@ ! ID

o o o E

Frequgncy

zre/1

Fig.4.24.Typical main axis and transverse frequency response of a Brilel&Kjar accelerometer when mountedon the mechanicalfilter 106

Temperature 1(X)r-r

80
Cutoff Frequency as function of Ambi

60 4{) 20 0

0,6
Frequency Factor Relative to 20"C ResonanceAmplitude ldBl y7sc6

Fiq.4.25. Typical temperature response of UA0559

tures the stiffness decreases accompanied by a decrease in resonance trequency and damping.These characteristics are shown in Fig 4.25. lf the mechanical filter is likely to be used in environments where there is oil or other hydrocarbonsthen it is recommendedthat a resistant silicone rubber sealant should be used around the top of the filter and at the entrance to the holes for the tommy bar. Further details on the device are availablein the appropriate BrUel &Kjer Product Data Sheet.

4.6.ACCELEROMETER CABLES Incorrect vibration measurementsare often caused by carelessmounting and routingof the cable connectingthe accelerometer the charge amplifier.The to main causes ol this are as follows: 1. When a coaxial cable is subjectedto bending,compressionor tensionthe screening may become separated momentarilyfrom the dielectric at points along its length. Local changes in capacitance are created and so-called "triboelectric" charges are formed. This effect is known as the Triboelectric Effect and is particularly troublesome when measuring low level vibrations where it appears in the form of noise. 2. Yery strong electromagnetic fields can induce a voltage across the cable and this could cause extraneous noise in the measured signal. 3. In compression designs, bending forces can be transmitted to the piezoelectric discs via the connector if the cable is not prevented from vibrating. 107

The first of these points can be effectively reduced by using special coaxial cable with a noise reductiontreatment.This is a standardfeature of all acceler&Kjar.'In addition the cable should not be ometer cables suppliedby BrUel sharplybent or twisted as this will not only reducethe noise reductiontreatment but it will also damage the connectors.The cable should be clamped to the test specimento avoid excess relative movementwhich causes triboelectric noise. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.26.

-----tt-

- -- \. -\\,

Fig.4.26. Clamping the accelerometer cable to reduce cable noise

The second point is overcome by careful routing of the cable away from fields. lf this is not possible then either a linesourcesol high electromagnetic drive system or a balanced accelerometerand special cable should be used. The benefitsof these systemswere examinedin section 3.6 and summarizedin Table 3.1. Consult the IndustrialAccelerometerProduct Data for details of the Balanced Accelerometer Type 8310 and Differential Charge Amplifier Type 2634. Most BrUel&Kjer accelerometercable sleeves are constructed lrom moisture impervious Teflon for use in very damp environments.Additionally the cable connector may be sealed using a room temperaturevulcanisingrubber when the environment ls particulary wet. For details see section 4.2.5 on humidity effects. For exact details on the range of cables available from Br0el&Kjar, includinghard-llnedesigns and curly cables, see the Br0el& Kjer Accelerometersand IndustrialAccelerometersProduct Data Sheets. transmisrequire only one cable for simultaneous Line-Driveaccelerometers sion of power and vibration signals. Ordinary two-conductor cables are often used as they are inexpensivecompared to normal low-noise accelerometer cables. lt should be stressed that when a line-drive accelerometeris used in where there are electromagneticfields, a voltage will be induced environments 108

in the cable. This voltage correspondsto the ground loop noise described in and 3.6.6.These sectionsshow that the Brtiel&Kjar linesections3.6.3,3.6.4 drive system is more immune to ground-loop noise than systems based on constant-current power supplies. However, it is always recommended to use In coaxial cables with line-driveamplifiers in severe industrialenvironments. less severe environmentstwisted-pair cables can be used.

PRECAUTIONS 4.7. GROUNDING wheresmall vibrationset-upsproblemsare often encountered ln multichannel This currentsflow between the earth lines of the measuringinstrumentation. phenomenais caused by the set-up being earthed at more than one point and the potential of each earthing point being different. Earthing can be made via the protective earth terminal of the instruments housingcan also form an earthing point mains connector.The accelerometer when it is in contact with an earthedstructuresuch as as a machine.However, there is always the possibilitythat a machine in some industrialenvironments may not be at earth potential and may even be several volts above housing earth.This may be becausethe machinelacks a proper earth connectionor the impedanceof the earth connectionis not zero. The screens of connecting cables are often connected to the chassis and ground which is then connectedto the ground.Therefore case of the instrument loop currentscan tlow from one instrumentto anothervia the screeningon the cables or via the chassis of the instrumentsif the cases are touching. Ground loops manifest themselvesin the form of mains "hum" which is detected at the final measuring point and effectively adds to the vibration To output signal.This gives rise to falsevibrationlevelindication. preventthis it is necessaryto "break" the loop in which the current is flowing. There are several ways of doing this. is 1. Ensurethat the instrumentation earthedat only one point in the chain and that this earth connectionis reliable. with an option to insulatethe screenof the input 2. Selecta chargepreampifier cable from the ground line of the preamplifier.This is referred to as a "FloatingInput".Consultsection3.6 for a detailedanalysisof noise pick-up in preamplifiers. 3. Mount the accelerometerusing an insulatingstud as described in section 4. 5. 1.

109

ln industrial environments it is advisable to use an electrically balanced and insulatedaccelerometerwith a differentialam.plifier. This design of accelerometer reducesthe effects of electromagneticpick-up in the cable. The cable in this case contains two conducting cores, each with an individual screen. Both screens pick up the same interference.The differential preamplifier produces an output proportional to the signal difference in these conductors which, because of the design ol the balancedaccelerometer,eflectively eliminatesthe elfect of the electromagnetic interference. Such a design will also reduce the effects of ground loop voltages.

110

5. ACCELEROMETER CALIBRATION AND TESTING

s.1. TNTRODUCTTON The accuracy, reliability and versatility of the piezoelectricaccelerometeris only of limited value if the vibration measurementscannot somehow be traced to an absolute physical standard. lt is the purpose of calibration to ensure that the benefitscan be utilizedand hence provide a defined degree of conlidence in any vibration measurement.Accelerometer testing provides data concerning the environment and operatinglimits within which the calibrationis valid.
Celibrltion Chrrt tol Acceleromeler Type rl38il Seriaf No. .i.kAA!.7.L .
Rcb?cncc Scndlivily rl sOHz,'looms-2 and Ch.rg. scn.lfivity. ..... .. .?l .c pCtg .31 !.A pcns-z o, 1?.r5. Yoll.ec Sondlivilt'(incl AO (x)38) EnYlronmantrl: Humidllt: Weld6d. Sseled (-10O to +482"F) T.mFrrlura iang.: -74 to +25O"^C far. Shocl Accala.llaon: zokms-' psak Typlctl t.gncllc Scn.iliyily (sOHz- 0,03 T): 1 ms-'/T Ttplc.l A@u.llc Sen.ilivitt: 0,fl)2ms-2 at 151d8 SPL (2 - 100H2) glr.in Scndtlvlty (st 25ote In base Ttpbrl Bu plane):0,01ms-/t ( ftpic.l Tcmpar.lu?. frrnrlcnl S.n.illvitt (3Hz LLF): 0.1ms-'/'C Spciflotlon. obtained in eccordancewlth ANSI S2.111969 Phy.isl: | | 2tm n
!

......2ti1.5........ mV/ms-2or .................2.h:j. nvrs (Voltage Preamp Input Capacitanco:3.5pF) crp.cttrnc Ttpial (inct. cebte) . !.1.1y. pF CrFtrcltrncc ot ceble AO @38 ... . . l10pF LE ./.

f7]tn' LAJP
15 mm

llarimun Tranrrprae Sanrillvllt (at 3)Hz, looms-2) ......................:. . . Typic.l Un.t.mp.d 1{!lu?.1 Fr.qucnct

51 kHz

n"

Elrclrll Connclor Coaxial l0 - 32 UNF-2A

Ttplcal Tranrvaraa ncaonrncc F?aquancy, using Exciter Tabl 4290. with accelerometermounted on a tiianlum cube by a 10 - 32 UNF-2A stel stud, mounting torque 1,8Nm and graasd surfaces; . .. .... . . lokHz Polrrltt is posltive on the center of the connslor tor an accelerellondlrstad from the mounting $rface Into th body ot the accelerometsr noir|.nca minimum 20.000M0 at room lmorature

t-m \./
falarlrh Titanium, ASTM Grade 2 S.ndng El.ncnl: Plgzolctrlc,tyge PZ23 Waleht 17 gram Cilalrrcllon: Delta Sheal tounline Thr..d: 10 - 32 UNF-28 fdn$ng sludi 10 - 32 UNF-2Axt3 mm, sl6l founting sud.o Fl.ln6r: <3lrm Ionung Torque Normal 1,6Nm. Mln 0,5Nm Max. 3,5Nm S.ltnlc trc 6,6 9r8m Ccnt.t ot Gt.yllt of S.lanlc f,.tr 12,1mm trom mounting 3urlacg on central axls C.nl.? ol G?arltt of Aluomala.: 9.2mm trom mountlng sudace on centrel axls For further Intormatlons B&K'Plezoel@trlc Accaleromtd and Preamplltlar" hendbook
Pet OK 131{rt

o.*: .Ekr..Q.!.:...!.9..:......... . iJ..,Q.. . stsnaturo: ,.

I 9 . 9,8o7mf,2 or loms-2 = r,o2g ( . Thls callbratlon ls tro@able to the NattonalBurau ot Standards WGhinglon O C BC 0r53-r2

Fig.5.1.The Calibration Chart. This section describes individual and batch cali brated specifications 111

Every accelerometer produced at Bruel& Kjer undergoes the strictest production and quality control techniques to. ensure that the transducers are not but also that the spreadin the only reliable, and indeedlikelyto remainreliable, parametersamongst devices of the same type is small.The accelerometerscan then be individuallycalibrated to provide accurate data on several parameters. Often, when we talk about calibration we are essentially referring to the sensitivitycalibration. However,other parameters sueh as frequency response, capacitance and weight, as well as environmentaleffects, are given as part of the calibration information. Each accelerometercomes complete with an individual calibration chart containing extensive calibration information. Some of this information is individual to that particular accelerometer while some is typicaf of that type only. See Figs.5.1, 5.2, and 5.3. It is not the intention ol this Chapter to give a step-by-step guide on how to perform the calibrations. The Instruction Manuals on the particular calibration equipmentmentionedprovide this information. However,the chapter will give a comprehensiveoverview of the calibration and testing of BrUel&Kjer accelerometers.

Oate:

Potontiomstr:-ZeroLevel:-

Freq; -Hz -owe. Lim,

Wtiling

Sped:-mm/soc

Papet Speed:-mm/sec

Fig. 5.2. The Calibration Chart. This section shows an individual frequency response curve 112

Ttplcal T.mparalurc gcn.ilivilt lPlzoleclrlc Meterial PZ23)

Deyirlion:

Scham.lic Dnring ol Ercitat a2ec (Moditied laboratory teference)

.26 0

o 32

300"c a72F 79ot9t

trlcli.h

Stainless steol lablc: 1E0 gram

Laa. of Ercll..

founllne T.chnlqu.: Examln lhe mounting surface for cleanliness and smoolhfross. It nc$ary, machin suda@ to lolerances shown in schemallc drawing ot Calibralion Exciler 4290 Fastn the.l3Ei, uslng a 10 - 32 UNF-zA stud. Take care not lo oxced the recommondd mounllng torque and lhal iho stud doss nol bonom in the mountlng holes A ttrln fllm ol oll or greas btween the ecceleromeler and the mountlng surface helps achiev good contacl and improves mounting stiflnss. For othr typs ol muntlng, s B&K 'Plozolectrlc A@olromtor and Pramplltler" handbook

Lountad Rctonanca Frrqucnct obtained on lhe Exiter 4290 using lhe rscommended mounting tshnique is shown on the atlachd individual Fraquancy Fsponaa CU'YC

Fig. 5.3. The Calibration Chart. This section contains general information Why Calibrale an Accelerometer? 5.1.1. Thereare severalreasonsfor performinga calibrationapart from the basic quantity with a definable degreeof the one of establishing link to the physical reasons that createa In accuracy. manycasestheremay be legalor contractual requirementfor evidence of the accuracy of the tranqducer,possibly with standards. to reference international is may also arise when the accelerometer beingused in a particuSituations has of wherethe performance the accelerometer not lar set-upor environment for in been documented the calibrationchart. ln this case it will be necessary perform a calibrationfor that particularpurpose.The calibration the user to to comprehensive cover most applications. chart is sufficiently Systemchecking also forms an important part of the calibrationprocess, Errors particularlyin measurement systemsconsistinggf many instruments. can be avoidedsimply of madein the computation the overallsystemsensitivity 5.3.5. check.This is outlinedin section by usinga quick calibration
113

It ls alwaysadvisable, beforeany calibrationis performed,that the frequency is This will ensurethat the accelerresponseof the accelerometer measured.. ometer has not been damaged in any way. Such damage can show up as implyingthat the irregularities the frequencyresponseof the accelerometer in is accelerometer ruinedor, at best, that the frequencyrange is limited.lf this is of the case thenthe calibrationis no longervalid.The measurement accelerometer frequencyresponseis covered in section5.4.2.

5.2.THE HIERARCHY CALIBRATION OF STANOARDS 5.2,1.The General Hierarchy To avoid the necessityfor carryingout absolutecalibrationsof each individual transducer,a hierarchy of standard transducers is first established.A hierarchyof thls kind is shown in Fig. 5.4.

Fundamentel Physlcal Quantlibs: L6ngth, Ma$, Tlme, Cur.ont, Tmpetature, Amount ot Substance, Lumlnoug Intonglty

lntrnatlonal and NetlonalStandardInstltutos procdures fundamntal derlvdunltg and Measurlng for

Vlbrsilon Laboratoris ol Oallbratlon PrlmarySienderd Trangducors, uslngtraceablInstrumenlg unlts.Callb.atlon to masu.etundamontal (comparlson absolute) ot or TranstorStandardTran3ducets

Users of vlbretlon equlpmGnt (maklng comparlson calibratlon of Worklng Releronc Standa.d Transducers and mgasurlng Transducer8 In common use)

lvlbratlon Transducers commonusol In L - - - - - - _ _ - - - _ _ _ --J

Fiq.5.4. A general hlerarchy of callbration standards 114

Standard transducers are ranked into three groups; 1. Primary Standard Transducers. By definition,a calibrationmethod which establishes the sensitivity of a transducer in terms of fundamental or derived units for physicalquantities,such as the Sl system, is known as an absolute method. A transducer which has been calibrated in this manner is a Primary Stanoard Transducer and is placed at the top of this hierarchy. Such transducers are kept at the International or National Standard Institutes, or at the Calibration Laboratories where they have been calibrated. 2. Transfer Standard Transducers. These transducers are calibrated by the lnstitutes and Laboratories mentioned above. They are calibrated either by a comparison method, using a Primary ReferenceStandard, or by an absolute method. Transfer Standard Transducers are interchangedand recalibrated between Standards Institutions to establish consistancy among these Institutions. Consistency between Calibration Laboratories and a Standards Institute is also established by interchanging and recalibrating Transfer Standards. In this way, traceability is also established. Traceability defines which Standards Institute is responsiblefor the establishmentof the consistancyol the calibration performed at a Calibration Laboratory. Therefore, a transducer calibrated at that Calibration Laboratory is designated as "traceable" to that Standard Institute. 3. Working Reference Standard Transducers. These transducers are used for comparison calibration of transducers in common use. Working Reference Standards are calibrated by Standards Institutes or Calibration Laboratories using absolute or comparison methods. They are checked against Transfer Standard Transducers.ln this way the traceability of the calibration of transducers in common use is maintained.

5.2.2.The Hierarchy at Briiel & Kjar The callbratlon of Br0el& Kjer accelerometers begins with the Standard Reference Accelerometer Type 8305 (see Fig.5.5). This is a piezoelectric accelerometer based on an inverted centre-mounted compression design. The piezoelectric element is a carefully selected and prepared quartz crystal PZ 1OO which has been chosen for its low sensitivity to temperature fluctuations and excellent stability over very long periods of time. A threaded hole in the top of the accelerometerallows oJheraccelerometersto be mounted on to the top of this accelerometerfor back-to-back accelerometer calibration (see section 5.3.3).

115

Disc Piezoelectric Mass Spring Base

Fig. 5.5. The Standard Reference Accelerometer Type 8305

of Every accelerometer this type is absolutelycalibratedby a laser interferIn ometry technique(see section5.3.1). addition, a CalibrationSet Type 3506 consistingof an 8305 and Type 2626ConditioningAmplifier is laser-calibrated as an integralpair (see Fig.5.6).

Fig. 5.6. The Calibration Set Type 3506 116

sentto the Two 3506'sfrom BrUel Kjer's calibrationlaboratoryare regularly & (NBS)in the UnitedStatesat set times throughout NationalBureauof Standards the year. These Transfer Standards are always transported to the NBS by hand rather than by normal mailingservices.This procedureensuresthat Bruel&Kjar's laser calibrationis consistentand providesfor all 8305'sto be traceable to the NBS. A set of Primary Standard Accelerometersis establishedtogether with a set Standardswhich are kept in Denmarkas insuranceagainst of Supplementary damage to any of the Primary Standards. The remainder of the range of BrUel& Kjer accelerometersare calibrated by a semi-automatic back-to-backcomparisonsystem in-housewhich employsa Type 8305 as a Working Reference Standard. for A collectionot TransferStandardsis established checkingthe calibration & systemsthroughoutthe world at several BrUel Kjer Service Centres and other calibration laboratories. Here all types of accelerometersare calibrated for the customer by a back-to-back method using the Type 9559 Calibration System (see section5.7.1).Other parametersmay be calibratedusing this system. In this way BrUel &Kjer has evolved an efficientcalibrationhierarchywhich can control the calibration process not only at the manufacturingstage but also for many years after the purchase of the accelerometer,while still maintaining the traceability of the calibration of any accelerometer.This hierarchy is illustra te d i n F ig. 5. 7.

XBS and othr C6llbrallon Inillules

B&K Las lnldro. frbr Canbrailon

Fiq.5.7. The hierarchy of calibration at Brriel&Kjer 117

5.2.3.The Accuracy ol Galibration Techniques It is important to understandthe differencd between traceability and accuracy. Traceability only implies consistency with the calibration performed at a Standards Institute, and that the calibration is within tolerances. This means that if a Calibration Laboratory uses more accurate instruments than the Standards lnsititute to which they refer, the uncertainty of the calibration performed by the former will be less than that of the la{ter. In order to evaluate the accuracy of various calibration methods the uncertainty of the calibration must be treated in a conslstent way. At BrUel&Kjar the method described in the British Calibration Service Guidance Document No. 3003 is adopted.The documentdescribesa method for assigninga single(+) value of uncertainty to the measurement,including a statement of confidence, in terms of the probability, that the true value for the measulementlies between the to the 1+ I limitsstated.For practicalconvenience contributions the calibration uncertainty are classified into two categories a) random uncertainty b) systematic uncertainty The uncertaintyincurred in absolute and comparison calibration methods are now examined. Absolute Method. Using laser interferometry, theoretically the amplitude of However, in practice vibration can be determined to an accuracy of O,O2o/o. measurementerrors occur in the voltage measurement(0,1%),distortion in the vibration exciter motion (0,1%),tilting of the reference accelerometer (0,2%) and transverse motions of the reference accelerometer (0,1%).The estimated inaccuracy of the absolute calibration of the Calibration Set Type 3506 and the Standard ReferenceAccelerometer Type 8305 has been calculated to be 0,6% at a confidence level of 99%. Gomparison Method. This method is used by NBS to check the Br0el& Kjer Transfer Standards. lt is also used by Br0el&Kjar to calibrate the range of accelerometers.lt results in an estimated total inaccuracyof better than 0,95%. This must be added to the uncertainty produced by the absolute calibration of the 3506 Calibration Set described above to give an overall estimatdd error for this method ot 1,12Yo a confidence level of 99%. at It must be rememberedthat these figures are based on the use of Br0el& Kjar's own in-house laser calibration system which is an absolute method. However the NBS comparison system is accurate to 1o/o. Therefore if the NBS figures for the accuracy of the Type 3506 system are used, the overall estimated inaccuracy of the comparison method is correspondinglyincreasedto 1,38%at a confidence level ol 99%. 118

5.3. CALIBRATIONMETHODS Sensitivitycalibrationsare divided into three distinct methods; 1. Absolute methods. These include Laser Interferometryand Reciprocity techniques. 2. Comparisonmethods.This refers to the back-to-back method. 3. Calibrators.This involvesthe use of a vibration exciter of known vibration level.

5.3.1.Laser Inlerlerometry This absolute method of calibration involves the use ol very specialized equipment and it is therefore unlikely that average users of accelerometers would ever carry out their own calibration ol this type. Fig. 5.8 showsthe arrangement used at Brriel& Kjer for the calibrationof the Standard ReferenceAccelerometer Type 8305 and Calibration Set Type 3506. The measuring arrangement centres round a Michelson Interferometer.The laser beam is directed at the upper surface of the Standard Accelerometer to be calibrated, from which it is reflected back along the same path. The beamsplitter (semi-reflectingplane mirror) of the Interferometer is located in this path and directs some of the beam reflected from the Accelerometeronto a Photodiode. Some of the Laser beam reachingthe Photodiodealso comes via the beamsplitter and the fixed mirror of the Interferometer, thus generating light fringes at the Photodiode.The amplified output of the Photodiode is fed into the input of the FrequencyRatio Counter which measuresthe number of fringes per period which is proportional to the peak-to-peak displacement of the accelerometer. The vibration frequency(a sinewave)is generated by the Sine Generator,whose output is used as an External Clock for the FrequencyRatio Counter. The vibration amplitude is adjusted until the displayed Ratio is correct. The electrical output of the Standard Accelerometer is measured using a Conditioning Amplifier and an RMS DifferentialVoltmeter,both of which have been calibrated electrically. The laser interferometer part of this set-up measures the peak-to-peak displacementof the 8305. From this the acceleration is derived using the frequency read off the frequency counter. The sensitivify is obtained by measuring the electrical output from the accelerometer and dividing by the acceleration. 119

r E'
D:

s
o o

92

I! (o
ttt F

3 o
ro o
0! at,

* d 3 o
o o o T

s C" o a
0)

D c,

ao

s
I o

BH oe
f o

120

At Br0el&Kjar the excitationfrequencyused is 160H2 and the acceleration level used is 10ms-2.

5.3.2.Other Absolute ltlethods Other methods of absolute calibration do exist. They are however not used at Br0el& Kjer and therefore are only briefly descibed here. The methods are: 1. ReciprocityCalibration.Until recentlythis method has been suggestedin Br0el&Kjer literatureas an absolute method which can be performed by equipment.The method is very anyone possessingbasic, non-specialised involved and good results are difficult to obtain. The method will not be described in this handbook. is 2. Calibrationby usingthe Earth'sgravity.In this methodthe accelerometer carefullyturned in a vertical circle so that gravity alone is acting on the accelerometer. This method is only practical at low frequencies and is sometimes used with static (DC) accelerometers and is consequently not used at BrUel& Kjar.

5.3.3.Comparison Calibration by the "Back-to-Back" Method & The back-to-backmethodis used at BrUel Kjer for the factorycalibrationof every type of measurementaccelerometer.Br0el& Kjer use a semi-automated systembut a similarsystemcan be built up by anybodywishingto perform their own comparison calibration ol accelerometers. The accelerometerwhose sensitivity is to be measuredis mounted in a backto-back arrangementwith a Standard ReferenceAccelerometerType 8305 and the combination is mounted on a suitable vibration source. Since the input is acceleration the same for both devicesthe ratio of their outputs is also the ratio of their sensitivities. The Vibration Exciter Type 4801 or 4805 fitted with the Calibration Head Type The Type 4815 is designed for back-to-back calibration of accelerometers. Type 8305.Consultthe 4815 has a built-in StandardReferenceAccelerometer &Kjeer Product Data on this instrumentfor more details. BrUel In its simplestform a back-to-back arrangementcan be seen in Fig.5.9. The accelerometersare excited at a constant frequency and their outputs are (operatingin charge or voltage mode depending passedthrough preamplifiers on whether the charge or voltage sensitivity is of ihterest) and measured individuallyby using any high quality electronicvoltmeter whose accuracy is known. 121

Accelerometer to be Calibrated

Reference Aederometer

Fig. 5.9. A simple arrangement for the back-to-back calibration of accelerometers. The accelerometer signals are passed through a preamplitier before the voltmeter The previous system can be improved by using an expanded voltmeter device such as the Sensitivity Comparator Type 2970 as part of the system (see Fig.5.10).By adjusting the sensitivityof the preamplifierin the path of the unknown accelerometera minimum deflection can be obtained on the 2970.The sensitivityis then simply read off the dials on the conditioningpreamplifier.
Control and Balancing Slgnal

control Slgnal

Precision Condltloning Amplltier 2650 ol 2628

Sine/Nolse Generatol 1049

Sensitivity Comparator Type 2970 UnknownAccelerometer Stendard Accelerometgr Type 8305

Powe. Amplltlot 2707

Fig. 5.10. A complete high accuracy set-up for the back-to-back calibration based around the Type 2970 Sensitivity Comparator 122

The Type 2970 performs the following roles: 1. Simplifiesthe comparisonof the outputs. 2. Increasesthe speed of the procedure. 3. Gives calibration accuracy similar to the one obtained by Broel& Kjar's own factory calibration and that ot NBS. 4. Performs voltage-to-chargeconversion for voltage and charge calibrations. The calibration frequency and acceleration level will vary according to the standard with which it is necessary to comply. At BrUel&Kjer measurement accelerometersare calibrated at a frequency of 160H2 al a level of 100ms-2. The Type 297Ocan only be used in the frequency range of 60 to 25OHz. In practice it makes little difference at what level or frequencythe accelerometer is calibrated providing they lie well within the normal working range of the accelerometer. After all, accelerometers are extremely linear devices in frequency and dynamic range. In section 2.5.2it was seen that the charge sensitivity (and capacitance) of BrUel& Kjar general purpose accelerometersemploying piezoelectric elemenl PZ23 and PZ27 decreases at a rate of 2.5oh per decade increase in frequency and therefore this effect can be accounted for if the sensitivity at another frequency is required. For example, the dilference from 50Hz to 160H2 is approximately1,3%. When voltage sensitivities are measured it should be remembered that the voltage sensitivity is only valid for the accelerometer and cable as an integral pair and these are calibrated together. lf the cable is changed the calibration is no longer valid. 5.3.4.FFT-based back-to-back calibration It is possible to perform back-to-back calibration using a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)approach. By using a BrUel&Kjar Dual Channel AnalyzerType 2032 or 2034 it is possible to apply broad-band noise to the vibration exciter. The outputs of the referenceaccelerometerand the unknown accelerometerare fed into the two channels of the analyzer. The analyzer computes a frequency response function. After averaging it is possible to produce answers as to the sensitivity and relative phase of the unknown accelerometerover a wide range of frequencies. As with any calibration set-up, the accuracy of the final calibration depends on the individual accuracies of each of the instrumentsconstituting the set-up, and of the accuracy of the referenceaccelerometerat all frequencies,including all those which are different from the lrequency at whicli the referenceaccelerHz).For more detailsof this technique, ometer was originallycalibrated(i.e.160 contact your local Bruel& Kjar office.

123

5.3.5. The Use of Calibrated Vibration Exciters for Sensitivity Checking Perhapsthe most convenientand commonlyused checkingtechniqueis the & application a calibratedvibrationexciter.BrUel Kjar producean instrument of specificallyfor this purpose. The method can be used by anybody making vibration measurements. Calibration Exciter Type 4294.This small, pocket-sized and battery-powered instrument is simply a calibrated vibration exciter which provides a fixed (1000rads/s) to corresponding an levelof 10ms-2RMS at 159,2H2 acceleration of RMS velocityof 10mms-1and an RMS displacement 10pm. The accuracyis betterthan + 3%. lt is idealfor systemcheckingin the field. Fig. 5.11showsthe Type 4294 being used to check the sensitivity of an accelerometer using a measuringamplifier. The Type 4294 can be used in two ways; 1. Accelerometer sensitivitychecks. 2. Systemcalibrationchecks and adjustment. checkingis sirnplya matter of attachingthe accelAccelerometer sensititvity to erometerto the exciter head and measuringthe output lrom the preamplifier is which the accelerometer attached.This can be achieved by using a good voltmeter.

Fig.5.11. The Calibration Exciter Type 4294

124

An attractive feature of the Type 4294 is its ability to calibrate an entire The overallsystem sensimeasurement chain from accelerometer analyzer. to of tivity can be measuredregardlessof the individualsensitivities the instruments in the measurement chain. In addition the gain can be adjustedon one of the instruments give a full to to scale deflectioncorresponding the relerenceaccelerationproduced by the exciter.

OF OTHERACCELEROMETER PARAMETERS 5.4.MEASUREMENT parameter.lt Accelerometer is sensitivity the most commonlyused measured is, however,by no meansthe only parametermost commonlymeasuredfor the accuratemeasurement vibration.We may wish to have individually of measured informationon the following: 1. Transversesensitivity 2. Frequency response 3. Mounted resonance frequency 4. Gapacitance Most of these parameters are individuallymeasured for each individual accelerometer produced by Br0el& Kjer. The measurementof environmental parameters is covered in section 5.5

5.4,1.Transverse Sensitivity

Fig. 5.12. A special exciter similar to this is used at Brtiel & Kjer to measure the trensverse sensitivity of an accelerometer 125

At BrUel Kjer transversesensitivity is measured by using a special custom& built vibrationtable similar to that shown in Fig.5.12.The platform onto which the accelerometeris mounted is vibrated in ihe horizontalplane at an acceleration of 100ms-2and at a f requencyof 30 Hz. At the same time the accelerometer mounting platform at the centre of the table slowly rotates. This alters the direction of the transversevibration applied to the accelerometer.The output of the accelerometeris measured and the maximum transverse sensitivity can be found. The direction of the minimumtransversesensitivityis also determined and is indicated by a red dot on most BrUel& Kj@r accelerometers.

5.4.2.Frequency Response Fig.5.13shows a set-up similarto that used at BrUel &Kjer for the measurement of the frequency response of all measurementaccelerometersexcept for the miniature types.
Voltmter/ Amplifier 2125 Conditioning Amplltier(1) 2626

Accelerometer under test

Level Recorder 2307

(Cable AQ 0035) FrequencySynchronisation

Fig. 5.13. A set-up to measure the frequency response of an accelerometer

The GalibrationExciter Type 4290 (see Fig. 5.14)is driven by the sine generator over a lrequency range from 2OOHz 50kHz. The moving element of the to Type 4290 is a 180gram steel head which has a carefully finished mounting surface with a tapped fixing hole providing the optimum mounting arrangement for the accelerometer. The acceleration at the table is kept constant over the frequency range by 126

Fiq.5.14. The Calibration Exciter Type 4290 means of a feedback signal (compressor loop). A miniature accelerometerbuilt into the exciter head provides a signal relating to the actual acceleration. This signal is fed into the compressor section of the generator where it is used to regulate the output level of the generator automaticallyso that constant acceleration is obtained at the exciter head. The output from the accelerometerto be calibrated is then passed through a preamplifier and to a level recorder. Apart from the miniaturetypes and Type 8310,each Br0el& Kjer accelerometer is supplied with an individual frequency response curve recorded in this manner. The mounted resonancefrequency stated on the calibration chart can be identified from this curve. By knowing the response of the accelerometerat any particularfrequencyone is no longer limited to rigid frequencylimits The followingpoints should be remembered when measuringthe frequency response of an accelerometer using this technique: 1. The mounting of the accelerometer onto the exciter head is critical. Poor mounting can result in misleading errors in the frequency response curve. For further details consult section4.4 127

Constant acceleration ol the exciter head is not possible unless there is sufficient gain in the feedback (compressor). loop. lt is advisable to check that the acceleration of the exciter head is constant over the frequency range of the measurement.This is done by feeding the output of the control accelerometer into the level recorder via its preamplifier and adjusting the preamplifier gain and generator compressor speed accordingly.This method is described in the lnstruction Manual for the sine generator or exciter control in use. Over 30kHz the accuracy with which the compressor maintains a constant acceleration at the exciter head decreases rapidly. However, the range up to 50kHz still gives a reliable check of the mounted resonance frequency.

5.4.3. UndampedNatural Frequency This parameter little practicaluse in vibrationmeasurements. has Neverthelessit is quotedon the calibration chartbecause is a fundamental it accelerometer parameter. Thereare two alternative methodsfor measuring it. Theaccelerometer suspended its cableand is excitedelectrically is by froma voltagesourcecoupledthrougha 1nF capacitor.The undamped naturalfrequencyis definedas that frequency whichthe voltageand the currentin the at accelerometer in phase. approximation this is obtained monitoring are An of by boththe voltage acrossthe capacitor and acrossthe accelerometer finding and wherethere is a 90' phasedifference the frequency between two. This is the

Oscilloscope

Fig. 5.15. A set-up for the measurement of the undamped natural trequency of an accelerometer 128

most easilydone uslng a set-up similar to the one shown in Fig.5.15where an oscilloscopeis used to simultaneouslymonitor both these quantities.By adjusting the excitation frequency a circular Lissajous figure is formed when the correct frequency has been found. In the second method the accelerometer is once again suspended by its cable, but this time it is given a mechanicalshock by tapping its base. The accelerometersignal is fed via a charge amplifier into a storage oscllloscope where a trace ot the decaying oscillations is obtained. By measuringthe period ol one oscillation in this response and taking its reciprocal, the undamped natural frequency is obtained.

5.4.4.Capacitance The capacitanceof an accelerometercan be defined as the ratio of its charge sensitivity to its voltage sensitivity and can be calculated from these two calibrations. This is how the value on the callbration chart is obtained. ll the capacitance is measured at a frequency of 1000H2with a capacitance bridge, a different value to the one calculated in the first paragraph is found. This is caused by the capacitance decrease of 2,5o/o frequency decade for per piezoelectric elements. The measurementvoltage may also be different. The typical capacitance noted on the calibration chart includes the effect of any cable supplied for use with, or as an integral part of, the accelerometer.To calculatethe capacitanceof the accelerometeralone it is necessaryto subtract the effect of the cable capacitance. A typical value for the cable capacitance can be found on the calibration chart.

5.5. DETERilIINATIONOF THE EFFECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENTON THE ACCELEROMETERSPECIFICATIONS The accelerometer calibration chart has a section giving details on the sensitivity of the accelerometer to environmental phenomena. This section deals with the methods Bruel&Kjer use to determine these sensltivities.

5.5.1.Temperature Transient Sensitivity This is measured by mounting the accelerometer on an aluminium block whose-mass is approximately ten times that of the accelerometer and slowly lowering the combination into a container containing water at a temperature of approximately 25'C greater than the room temperature. Care is taken not to induce any vibration in the set-up: 129

The preamplifier is set to give a lower limiting frequency ot 3Hz, with a 6dB/octave roll-off. The peak output from the aqcelerometeris measuredon a storageoscilloscope. The acceleration requiredto producethis output is calculated lrom the sensitivity of the accelerometerand divided by the temperature change to obtain the temperature transient sensitivity.

5.5.2.Temperature Sensitivity lf a measurementaccuracy better than 1 or 2 dB is required when making vibration measurementsat temperaturessignificantly removed from room temperature,it is advisableto use the information given on the Calibration Chart to obtain a correction factor for the sensitivity of an accelerometer.The information is providedin the form of a graph of the change in sensitivity and capacitance from the values obtained at the calibration temperature (room temperature). Voltage, charge sensitivity and capacitance all vary with temperature. For BrUel& Kjer accelerometers,individualcalibration of temperaturedependence is unnecessary because piezoelectric materials of the same type will have similar dependencies.The temperature curves can then be obtained from batch tests and preprinted on all the calibration charts for accelerometersof the same type. To measurethe temperature dependence,the accelerometeris mounted on a special vibration exciter incorporating a push rod which passes into an environmental chamber. The accelerometer to be calibrated is mounted on a table fitted to the end of the rod inside the chamber, and the exciter and reference accelerometer are attached to the other end of the rod, outside the chamber. The table used at BrUel&Kjer can accommodate up to twenty accelerometers (dependingon their size). Calibration is performed at a low frequency so there is no risk ol inaccuracies caused by resonance in the rod or table. The measurement of temperature dependence is a time-consuming procedure because it is essentialto allow sufficienttime for the accelerometers reach equilibrito um temperature. There must be no thermal gradients which would otherwise modify the sensitivities. When this technique is used, the temperature dependenceof accelerometer capacitance may be deduced from that of the voltage and charge sensitivities.

5.5.3.Base Strain Sensitivity Base strain sensitivity is measured by mounting the accelerometernear the fixed end of a heavy steel cantilever beam. Strain gauges are attached to the beam around the accelerometer.The beam is given a displacementat the free end and the accelerometerbase is stressed by this motion. The output from the 130

strain gauges is monitored on a storage oscilloscopealong with the accelerompe eter output. When the strain falls to a level ot 25O the accelerometeroutput is measured and the acceleration required to produce an equivalent output is calculated. This acceleration divided by the strain and the base strain sensiis tivity is obtained.A typical value is given on each calibrationchart.

5.5.4.Acouslic Sensitivity It is difficult to accurately measurethe acoustic sensitivity of an accelerometer without mechanical interferencefrom the acoustic actuator producing misleadingresults.At Br0el&Kjer the accelerometer mountedinside a special is chamber which is rigidly secured to a high pressure microphonecalibrator which produces a sound pressure level of 154dB inside the chamber. This arrangement ensuresthat the minimumpossiblevibrationis transmittedto the accelerometer. The output from the accelerometer and its preamplifier is passed through a frequency analyzer and the calibrator is excited with a swept frequency sine wave. From the spectrum of the accelerometer output it is possible to determine which part of the signalis due to the acousticexcitationand which is due to the vibration transmitted trom the piston ol the actuator. The latter will normally mask the former at frequenciesabove 100Hz which is why the acoustic sensitivity specification is only quoted in the 2 to 100Hz band. However,the results are estimated to be valid up to frequenciesof several kilohertz.At these high frequenciesthe wavelengthsare comparableto the dimensionsof the accelerometer.

5.5.5.Magnelic Sensilivity This is also a difficult parameter to measure accurately. At BrUel& Kjer the accelerometeris placed in the centre of a large coil and an alternatingmagnetic field is created by passing 50 Hz mains through the coil. In the centre of the coil the field strength is 0,03T. The accelerometeris rigidly fixed to a heavy support so that electromagneticallyinduced motion of the accelerometer and fixing is minimized.The output lrom the accelerometeris measured and converted to a sensitivity as in the examples above. The following points are considered. 1. The induction of a current in the clamping ring around the elements is This currentwill react with the magneticfield and the ring, and unavoidable. the piezoelectric elements to which it is secured, will move. 2. Therewill be some inducedmotion of the seismicmassesbecausethey will have some magnetic permeability, however small it may be. 3. Currents will be induced in the accelerometer cable. 131

As it is not possible to isolate the individualcontributions of these effects, the cumulative eflect is taken and used to derivq the magnetic sensitivity.

5.5.6.Temperature Limits Temperaturelimits are defined as the maximum and minimum temperatures at which it is possible to use the accelerometer.There mubt not be more than a small and well defined change in any calibration parameter after the accelerometer has had 24 hours to "recover" at room temperature. At BrUel&Kjer this is achievedsimply by heating the accelerometer an in oven or cooling it in a freezer. When it is taken out again a full check of the change in sensitivity is allowed. calibration is performed aller 24 hours. A 2o/o

5.5.7.Shock Limits Shock limits are determined by mounting the accelerometer on a hydraulic machine which strikes the accelerometer one hundred times in short succession at a known shock level. This is repeated in all 3 axes of the accelerometer (x,y and z) and a calibration of sensitivity and frequency response is then made. The maximum shock is taken as the lowest shock in any axis which causes more than a 2% change in sensitivity . The shock limits are measurementlimits provided that the preamplifler used with the accelerometercan accomodate the very high input charge presentedto it by the accelerometer.In the rare case that a high sensitivity accelerometeris used to measure shock, the accelerometer output can be reduced using a charge attenuator. See section 3.2.4.

5.6. FACTORYTESTING OF ACCELERO]TETER CABLES Fig.5.16 shows a set-up similar to that used at Brriel&Kjar to test the low noise performance of accelerometercables. The cable is terminated by a load whichTepresentsa general purpose accelerometerand one end is subjected to a preloadingforce. The output from the cable is fed into a charge preamplifier. The cable is then connected between .the two end supports and its centre is clamped onto a shaker. The cable is excited, using narrow band random vibration centred around 80 Hz. The output of the cable is measured.lf a cable is too noisy it is rejected. At Br0el&Kj@r every AO0038 cable is individually tested. All other cables are batch tested.

132

Measuring Amplifier 261 0

Sine-Random Genrator 1027

Power Amplifier 2706 Accelerometel 4371

1000pF' Dummy

Preloading Force

Fig. 5.16. Measurement of triboelectric noise in accelerometer cables

5.7. CALIBRATIONEOUIPIIENT 5.7.1.Galibration System Type 9559 This is a complete specializedsystem for the calibration of both accelerometers and microphones.Equipped with such a system, a laboratory can calibrate sensitivityand frequency parameters,enabling them to issue calibration certificates. The system is shown in Fig.5.17 Such a system is used at several Br0el& Kjer service centres throughout the world and is available any organization to wishingto performcalibrations. Each system comes complete with a step-by-step guide for the calibration of both accelerometersand microphones. For more details on the Type 9559 contact your local BrUel&Kjar representative.

5.7.2.Individual Calibration Equipment Fig.5.18 gives a summary of the calibration equipment available from Br0el&Kjer which is mentionedin this chapter.

133

Fiq.5.17. The Calibration System Type 9559

5.8. STANDARDSRELATINGTO THE CALIBRATIONOF ACCELEROMETERS At BrUel Kj@r the wide range of accelerometer & calibrations and tests comply with ISO 5347-"Methods the Calibrationof Vibration and Shock Pickfor ups". This paper contains outlinesof the techniqueswhich are recommended for the various calibrations of accelerometersand should be consulted for further.details. Other standards relating to calibration are; ANSI 52.11-1969-"The selectionof calibrationsand tests for electricaltransducers used for measuringshock and vibration" ISO/DP8042-"Characteristics be specifiedfor seismictransducers shock to for and vibration measurements" British CalibrationService GuidanceDocumentNo. 3003 134

Type 4290 Galibration Exciter

Small vibration exciter for use in accelerometer frequency response measurements.Used with B & K Sine Generators. r Max. force level 3N. FrequencyRange 200 Hz to 50 kHz r Built-in accelerometerfor level regulation of generator Primarily intended for high acceleration calibration of accelerometers and other measuring transducers using back-toback and laser interferometermethods r Built-in Standard ReferenceAccelerometer Type 8305 r Fits Exciter Body Type 4801or Permanent Magnet Body Type 4805 r Accelerometer Calibration possible over a frequency range from 5 Hz to 10 k Hz Rapid back to back comparison calibraUsedtogether with tion of accelerometers. Calibration Set Type 3506 and Precision ConditioningAmplifier Type 2650. r al99o/o Cafibrationaccuracy + 1,02oh confidencelevel Pocket-sizevibration referencesource for calibration of accelerometersor measuring systems. r Fixed RMS level 10ms-2 !3oh al 159,2 Hz (1000radls) r Internalbatt. supply (1 x tEC 6LF22) Consists of Reference Accelerometer Type 8305 plus Conditioning Amplifier Type 2626calibratedas integralpair using laser interferometrymethod.For use in accelerometercalibration set-ups.

GalibrationHead Type t1815

Type 2!J7O Sensitivity Gomparator

Type 4294 Calibration Exciter

Type 35116 Galibration Sel

fot0t9@o

Fig.5.18. A summary ot calibration equipment available trom Br0el &Kiar

135

136

6. A P P E NDICE S

137

APPENDIXA
m
1

cm 100
1

mm 1000

tt
3,281

0,01 0,001 0,3048 0,0254

10
1

0,1 30,48
2,54

0,0328 0.00328
1

39,37 0,3937 0,03937

12 1
fuuTcao

304,8 25,4

0,0833

Table 1. Conversion of length

m/s

km/h 3,6
1

ftlmin 196,85 54,68

1

mile/h 2,2369 o,6214 1 , 1 3 6x 1 0 - 2

1
fotNSGB()

'|
o,2778
5,08 x 10-3 0,4470

1,829x 1O-2 1,6093

88

Table 2. Conversion of velocity

g 1

mls2

cm/s2 981

ftls2

in/s2 386

9.81
1

32,2

o,102 0,00102 0,03109 0.00259

100
1 30,48 2,54

0.01
0,3048

3,281 0,0328
1

39,37 0,3937
'12 1
fotN9@0

0.0254

0,0833

Table 3. Conversion of acceleration

138

kg
1

tekma

gram 1000
9807

lbs 2,2046

oz 35,274 345,93 10-3 10-2 3,527 16

1
fot09tGBo

0, 102
1

9,807
1fi3

21,6205
2,205 1 6,25

1,O2 4,625 1o-2 2.8908

10{
1o-2 1o-3

10-2

0,45359 2,835

453,59

28,35

Table4. Conversionot weight(mass)

kp 0 ,1 0 2
1

lb ftls2

1 9,807 0.1379

7,2329
71,0 1
TOlW

1,40510-, Table 5. Conversion of force

N/m2

mbar
10-2
1

mm H2O

atm 9,869 10-6 9,868 10-4 9,678 10-5

in WG 4,02 10r 0,402

3,93710-2 406,77
1

psi
1,450510-4 1,4504 10-2 1,4223 10-3 14,696 3.60510-2
1
tol@G&

0,102
10, 917
1

100
9,807

9,80710-2

1,013 0s 1013 1 249,10 6908,9

1.0332 104 1

2,491
69.089

25,4
704,49

2,453 1o-3
6,805 1o-2

27.736

Table6. Converslonof pressure

139

J= W s
1

kwh 2,778
1011 2,7241 1,16 3 2,93 10-6

Kpm

kcal

Btu 10r
9,48 104

it tb 0,7376 2,655 10t

1(r'. 0,1020
1

2,39 '

3,6 9,807 4187

3,6710 101860

3413
9,2949 1o-3 3,9685
1

2,3423 10^
1

7,233
3087,4 778 1

1 03 t27 101 107,59 1o-7

1056

98 0,251 3,239 10-4

1,3558 3,766

0,1383

1,285 10<

Table 7. Conversion of work, energy and heat

kw
1

kpm/s 102
1o-3 1 75 0 ,11 9

hk 1, 36

kcal/h

ft lb/s 738

hp 1,34

860 10-2 10r 1o-3 8.44

9,81

1 ,3 3
1 1, 58 1, 84 1, 014

7,23
542 0,858 1

1,32
0,986 1,56 1,82 1

1o-2 1o-3 1o-3

0,735 r,1 6 1o- 3

1,36 0,745

632
1 1, 17 642 10{

0, 138 76 1o-'{ 35,9

550 0,216
259

2,93 3,52

2,99 1o-'? 3,99 0,479

o,252 3024

3,93 o,471

10{

Table 8. Conversion of Power

Symbol
G M k c m
It

Prefix
giga mega kilo centl milli micro nano pico

Multiple 1oe
106 103 10-2

n p

1o-3 1o- 1o-e 1o-12

Table 9. Commonly used Prefixes

140

APPENDIXB VIBRATIONNOMOGRAM
The vibration nomogram is a graphical descriptionof the relationshipbetween frequency,displacement, velocity and accelerationfor simple harmonic vibrations.lf any two parametersare known the other two can be simply read off the chart.

10 vllaiq, Di9lffinr y!tu6 rnd A@tration, RMS

Hr

1n 00

141

APPENDIX C VIBRATION STANDARDS Dueto the continously evolvlngnatureof standardsand the varlety of standardsaroundthe world, the incluslonof a set of relevantstAndards wouldhave limitedvalue.However, Br0el&Klar havea publlcatlon 'Natlonaland International Standards and Recommendations-Acoustlcs; Vibratlon& Shock,Lumlnanceand Contrast" whichls avallable from your localBr0el& Kjar represenative agent.A selectlonof the maln standardsin thls area publlshedby every standardauthority ln the world are includedalong wlth the addressesof the authorities.

APPENDIX D BRIIEL& KJIER VIBRATION LITERATURE

publications Br0el&Kjar producea large numberof technical education in They are dlvldedup into the followlngcategories: the lield of vibratlon. Primerr. TheseA5 slze baslc texts offer a simplifledintroductlon lnto the theoryand applicationof a selectedsubjectarea.In the fleld of vlbratlonthere are presentlythree primers; MeasuringVlbration, Vibration Testingand Machlne HealthMonltoring. three are available All from your local Br0el&Kjar representative. Application Noteo.Theseshort papersare published regularly and concentrate on the application Br0el&Kjar equipment a partlculararea of current of to lnterest. Technical Review.Thls ls publlshed four times a year and deals wlth the whlch the application Br0el&Kjar lnstruments of and specialdevelopments companymay considerof Interest customers. to

142

from Br0el Kjar. Here is a & Books. Severalbooks on vibrationare available selection; "Mechanical Vibrationand ShockMeasurements' "Frequency Analysis" "ModalTesting Theoryand Practice" "ModalAnalysls LargeStructures" of Revlewsis avallableon A list of currentAppllcatlonNotes and Technical request.

143

APPENDIX E & from Br0el Kjer. TheLine-drive currently avallable Summary preamplifiers of consultthe AmpfilierType2644is coveredin Chapter3. For moreinformation Product Data Sheetson these types

2695

a:a

Plrmpliliel

TyPe
Sdiglt .en.itivity condilionlng, low noile chrlge emplifie? 3-digit .endtivity condilioning, low nolae charge

terau|menf toder
Amplitiel Sen.alivaly

Accelsration Veloclty Dlsplacment 0,1 mV to 10 V/pC (-20 to + 80 dB)

Acceleratlon

0,1 mV to 1 V/pC (-20 to + 60 dB) 0,3 Hz to 100 kHz

Frquency Rlnge (-3 dB limit.) Selectlble Fr.quenct Limit. (-3 dB llmit.) PowerSupply
Olhet Faalu|r!

0,1Hzto 200kHz Low High

O,2i1i 2i 10 Hz (10%llmlts) 0 ,1 ;1 ; 3 ; 1 0 ;3 0 ; > 100 kHz (10%limlts) lnternal batterles or Ext. DC OvrloadIndlcator, Test oscillator. Battery condltlon Indicator Fleld measurement of vibratlon. Underwater sound measurement with Hydrophons

0,3:3; 10;30 Hz
1;3; 10;30; > 100kH z AC Malns Overload Indlcator. Dlrect and transformel coupled outputs

Applicrtion.

Genral purpose measurecallbratlon msnts.Comparlson of acceleromters

144

tet3-Uni-Grin .en.itiYlty ting.. Cha?ge amplilier. very low lraquenct merauiement cep.bilily Acceleration Vloclty 0,1-1-10mV/pC (-20 to + 20 dB) 0,003H2to 200 kHz

,t
sm.ll, ?obu!t, rdiu.tlble g.an, Excellent ch.rgc rmplifier. .lctromagnelic rudirtion lmmunity Acceleration tl digit .on.itiyity conditioning. Low noile charge rnd Yolllge .mPliliel

Acceleration 0,1 mV/pC to 100 mV/pC. 100 mV/V (-20 to + 40 dB) 0.3 Hz to 200 kHz 0,3;3H z;2kH z 1;3; 10;30; > 200 kHz

0,9 to 10mV/pC internally adJustable (0 to 20 dB) 1 Hz to 200 kHz

Hz 0,003;0,03;0,3;1 200kHz
Ext. DC Input slgnalground floating or grounded Ext. DC Normal or dltlerential Input. Can be tixed to machlng frames Vlbration measuremsnts ln industrlalenvlronments Prmanent installatlons

AC Mains Overload indlcator Test osclllator Comparlson calibratlon of accelerometers. General measurements
IW9GBI

Multi-channel measuremnt9 shockmeasurements

1tl6

APPENDIX F Accelerometers can be connecteddirectly to these instruments. For more detailsconsultthe ProductDataSheetson thesetypes

2511

Inalruneil TyPo Integ].ling Yabr.lion tatra

Yibrltbn

tctct

Dercriptlon

A vrsatllevlbratlon mtr for Economlcal and acrurate vlbratlon gneral vlbratlon magurgment metrs for day-to-day use
accgtgraltonr YEloGtIy

nosuramant Ioda. Frrquency (dB)

8.Lct!ble fraquaDct llnlt ({rlB} Dclaclora

dlsplacomgnt

accaleratlon, voloclty 10 Hz to 10 kHzr LLF28Hz and 10 Hz ULFz1 kHz and 10 kHz On minut Lcq RMS. Max. Pak

rlnga

0.3Hzto 15kHz
LLF 1,3 and 1OHzl ULF 1 and 15 kHl RMS Truo Psak-to-Pak

Pouor Supplt lnpul

1. llote. 2.

Intrnal battery xtornel DC

Charge 1.

Internalbattry
Oharge

When llnear wightlng ls selected 2. Rlated to llnear, Hand-Arm and 0,3H2 and 3Hz lor accelVlbratlon Sverlty measurements eratlon mode (lSO/DPs34g and lSO2954) Wlth 1 kHz Slcted the 3. 2513 uses Sl units. 2516 uses 2511 can b us6d ln vlbralmperlal. 2513/WH2134 ls a slmtlon sovrlty measurments plltled verslon ot thes Instrumnts

146

7fi7 zt 0060

2515
.!! !.!.

T.pc Rocordel A fully portable Instrument for tleld and laboratory rcording ot vlbratlon and sound data uslng plugJn module zM 0060 acceleratlon, vloclty 0.3 Hz to 16 kHzi L L F 0 , 3 , 1a n d 1 0 H z

Ylbrltlon Anlltucr A poworful FFT analfzer tor machlne vlbratlon analysls, Includlng machlns health monltorlng,f ault dlagnosls and balanclng acclaratlon, vloclty, dlsplacmnt (analogu) 0,3 Hz to 20 kHz (-1 dB)l LLF 0,3 Hz or 3 Hz ULF up to I selctable, dependlng on analysls mode Total RMS In addltlon to many trequency enalysls optlons.

Plugln batterybox external Dc

Charge

Internal battery, Dc extrnal

Chargs, Voltag6, Llne-drlve

1. 1. Dpends on tape speed

Th followlng tacllltles are availeble: Constant Percntage Bandwlth analysls fff/o and 23o/ol, Narrow Band Analysls, Zoom Analysls, Scan Analysls, Cepstrum Analysls, Spd Compensatlgn, Spectrum Comparlson, Mass Storag

fqg:xEl

147

APPENDIXG

Ra
o @

@ o o

E(,) *o o c o
! t4 q) q)

-a *o
g= gE r= 6 o 6 o
N @

c o o o () o

i s) ro

a a su o
q) q)

o c

qrc EQ (! or

s.c < )\
!-' s

SE
Sb(r, -p \
9o

bs

148

149

A P P E NDIXH

150

Senilivity Type
U.ighl (gr.m.) 1374 0,65 (xcludlng cablo)

vo|tege I mYtmta I (rnv/g) |

= 0 ,1 8 ( - 1 ,8 ) = O,48 (B 4,8)
= Q,r[$ (= 4,81

charge pClmf hc/c)

:0 ,1 1 ( = 1 ,1 ) 0,316 + 2Vo + 13,10 2o/ol o,316 + 20/o 13,10+ 2oh'
1 + 20/o (9,81 r 2%) 1 + 2o/o (9,81 ! 2o/ol

F|rquency Range +10% Linil (kHz)

l{oltble Cher.cle.irlic.

Applicllion A!..

26

Miniature Shear Type wlth xtremely low welght and hlgh resonance frequency Integral cable. Unl-Gaino sensltlvlty Mlniature Delta Shearo Type with low wgight and hlgh resonance frequency Mlniature Delta Shear@ Type with low welght and high resonance trequency. Integral cable Delta Sheero constructlon with Uni-Gain@sensitlvlty leaturing an insulated base and TNC top connectot Side Connector Top Connector T"p Connector Sld" Connector Llne-Drlve accelerometer wlth Uni-Gaino sensltivity and Dlta Shearo deslgn Delta Shear@construcilon wlth Uni-Galno sensltlvltes tor easy system calibratlon

4393

2,4 2,4 (excludlng

cable)

1 6 .5

High level and hlgh trequncy vlbratlon masurements Shock measurements

Vihralion mdtsuremanlR dn .lclicale

structureg and In contined sDaces

4375

1 6 ,5

.1391

16

= 0,8 (- 8)
= 0,8 (= 8)

l2

437'l 4384 43,,,2

11
11

12,6 1 2 ,6 8,4 8,4

= 0,8 (= 8) = 2,6
(e 26)

1 + zYo ! 19,81 206l 3,'16+ 2Vo (31,0 ! 2o/ol 3,16 ! 2o/o (31,O !2o/ol

Suitable for general shock and vlbration measuremnts

17 17

4383

x 2,6 l= 261

4390

17

3,16 + 2c/o pAlms'2 (O1,0 + 2o/opAlgl o8 (= 80) 10 + 2o/o (98,1 + 2olo) 10 + 2o/o (98,1 ! 2chl

8,4

Sultable for general vlbration work and also tor dlrect connectlon lo B & K Dual Channl Slgnal Analyzers

4370 4381 4378

tt 43
175 175

4,8 4,8 3,9

conl?to,

Detta shearo constructton Gneral vlbratlon measurements

Higher snsltlvlty for low level measurements

*8 (= 80)

Slde sensnttity Connector

^^__-:^.^_ Slde Connector

= 26 (= 260)

31,6 + 2Yc (310 ! 2.hl 31,6 + ?/o l31Q ! 2o/o)

4379
8318

* fr
(= 260)

3,9
1

Very hlgh snsltlvity UnlSultable for nvironments where only Galno Type acceleromtrs low level vlbratlons are ncounterd of Delta Shear@ constructlon very low level vibratlon measuroments. Bullt-ln low pass tllter gives well detined upper frequency limlt Shock measurements up to 1 mllllon ms-2. High trequency vibration masurements For measuremenlsof vlbrallons In 3 mutually prpendicular directlons fyp,e 4322 is used wlth the Type 2512 Human Respons vibratlon Metr lo measure Whole Body Vlbratlon Reference Standard Acceleromter for back-to-back calibratlon of acceltometers

470

316 + 2Vc pAtms-2 (3100 + !/o pAlgl = 0,04 (* 0,4)

Delta Shearo deslgn featurlng bullt-tn Lln-Orlve preampllfle, and very hlgh sensltlvlty. Unl-Galno sensitivlty Small slz6. smm integral fixlng stud. Integral cable Thre Delta Shar@accelerometers ot the same Uni-Galno sensltivity combined into a slngle unit Three Delta Shearo Uni-Galno type accelerometers mounted In a rubber and metal housing Quertz element wlth very hlgh stablllty and wlde temperatur range. Laser callbrated to + 0,6% accuracy Integral stalnlsss ste6l cable and hlgh temperature operatlon up to 400'C. Unl-Galno sensltlvlty Electrically balancd and Insulated for low noise In strong electromagngtlc flelds Bullt-ln Llne-Drlve amplilier for low nolse Safe for us in xploslve envlronmnts. Uni-Gain@sensltlvlty

&xlg

3 (excludlng
cabl6)

0,004 (= 0,04)
1!2Vo (9,81 ! 2o/ol

54

4321

55

= 0,8 (= 8)
= 0,8 (o 8)

12
0,1 In rubbor pad 5,3 (2% llmlt)

4322

3{t0

'l + 2o/o

!2%l 19,81 = O,125 (- 1,251

8{n5

&
100 (excludlng cable) * 1 ,0 (= 10)

8it10

1 + zYo (9,81 i 2%)

1O + 2o/o (98,1 + 2olo)

8315

102

* 2,5 (- 251

8,1

usg In the most sever nvlronmental condltions otten encounted In permanent vlbration monitoring sltuatlons

831 7

112

9,16 + 2% pAlms-2 (31,0 + 2o/cpAlgl

7,5

(tl

Summary of accelerometer types currently available from Brilel&Kjer. Consult the latest General Purpose Accelerometers, lndustrial Accelerometers and Standard Reference Accelerometer Product Data Sheets for complete details

Bri,iel Kier "#r' &

. +452800500 Telex. DK-2850 Narum Denmark Teleohone: 37316brukadk

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