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Flow Characteristics in Compound Channels Vegetation with and without

by

Xin Sun

A Doctoral Thesis

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University
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Loughborough -University

March 2007

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by Xin Sun 2007

Research

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CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that I am responsible for the work submitted in this thesis, that the original work is my own except as specified in acknowledgments or in footnotes, and that neither the thesis nor the original work contained therein has been submitted to this or any other institution for a degree.

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Abstract
The flow characteristics in compound channels with and without vegetation on the floodplain were investigated experimentally and numerically in this thesis. Detailed of velocity and boundary shear stress, using a Pitot tube and an measurements Doppler velocimeter together with a Preston tube, were undertaken to acoustic the flow characteristics in compound channels. Eight no-rod cases, two understand cases and two submerged-rod cases were tested. Unsteady large eddies emergent-rod that occur in the shear layer were explored numerically with Large Eddy Simulation (LES) to identify its generation and its effects on the flow behaviors. Mean flow predicted using the quasi-2D model by considering the shear effect. parameters were

Usirggthe data of depth-averaged and boundary shearstress,the contributions velocity turbulence and bed-generatedturbulence to the Reynolds shear of shear-generated were identified, the apparent shear stress was calculated using the modified stress secondarycurrent force method of Shiono and Knight (1991) and the depth-averaged then obtained.Large eddieswere important to the lateral momentum exchangein was non-vegetated compound channels and even in deep vegetated compound shallow In the compound channel with one-line rods at the floodplain edge, the channels. forces were of opposite signs in the main channel and on the secondary current floodplain and the bed shear stress was smaller than the standard two-dimensional 7HS0due to the vegetation effect, where y, H, So are the specific weight of value of depth and bed slope respectively. In vegetatedcompound channels,the water, water different to those and the discharges were smaller than those in velocity patterns were compound channelsunder similar relative water depth conditions. The non-vegetated anisotropy of turbulence was the main contribution to the generation of secondary currentsin non-vegetatedand vegetatedcompound channels,but the Reynolds stress term was more important in the vegetated compound channels. Results of cross spectra showed the mechanisms of the turbulent shear generation near the main channel- floodplain junction are due to large eddies in the non-vegetatedcompound owing to wakes in the vegetatedcompoundchannel. channeland LES results indicated that large eddies caused significant spatial and temporal fluctuations of velocity and water level in the compound channel and the instantaneous values of theseflow parameters were significantly higher than the mean In vegetatedcompound channels,the flow moved from the main channel to values. the floodplain and from the floodplain to the main channel alternately. The characteristicfrequencies of the large eddy were less than 1 Hz which was consistent with the experimentaldata. The capability of the quasi-2D model to predict the 2D mean flow parametersin under different flow conditions and also improved assessed compoundchannelswere by using the mean wall velocity as the boundary condition and appropriatevalues of the lateral gradient of the secondary current force. In the vegetated compound were proposedto treat the drag force in the casesof onechannels,new approaches line emergentrods at the floodplain edgeand submerged rods on the floodplain.
Key words: Compound channel, Vegetation, Large eddies, Secondary currents, Large Eddy Simulation, Quasi-2D flow prediction.

Acknowledgements
I would like to give my heart-felt thanks first to my supervisor, Prof. Koji Shiono, knowledge of environmental hydrodynamics helped me from the first whose profound day to the eventual completion of this research. His invaluable guidance, warm and continuous support have made this research easier. I know very encouragement that without his enthusiastic supervision and hard work, I would have been well impossible to finish this study in limited time scale.

I also would like to thank my director of research, Prof. Andrew Wheatley, for ensuing that this researchwent smooth. I would like to give my special thanks to Dr. PonnambalamRameshwaranat Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, UK, for his kind help and creative suggestionsin using the quasi-2D model and TELEMAC. I'm grateful to Dr. Deepak R Shukla for helping me in using TELEMAC and to Dr. Jean-Michel Hervouet from EDF, France and Dr. Alan Cooper and Kate Day from HR Wallingford, UK for their help and adviceregarding TELEMAC. I appreciatethe scholarshipoffered by LoughboroughUniversity for this research. I wish to thank the departmenttechniciansMike and Mick and my researchfriends Keyur, Zulhilmi and Jun for their help. Last but not least, I thank my family deeply, especially my wife, for their patience, understandingand support during this research.

11

Contents
i Abstract .......................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... iii Contents iii ............................................................ ...........................................................

List of Figures ............................................................................................................. vii List of Tables xviii ........................................................................................................... List of Symbols xix ..........................................................................................................

1 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 6. 2 Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 6 2.1 Turbulent characteristics ...................................................................................... 6.: 2.1.1 Turbulent intensity ........................................................................................ 7 2.1.2 Reynolds shearstress .................................................................................... 8 2.2 Simple open channelflow .................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 Secondarycurrents........................................................................................ 8 2.2.1.1 Generationmechanism ........................................................................... 10 2.2.1.2 Secondarycurrent pattern .................................................................... 11 2.2.2 Mean velocity .............................................................................................. 12 2.2.3 Boundary shearstress................................................................................. 13 2.3 Compound open channelflow ........................................................................... 13 2.3.1 Flow mechanisms ........................................................................................ 15 2.3.2 Secondarycurrents ...................................................................................... 16 2.3.3 Large eddies ................................................................................................ 16 2.3.3.1 Experimental observations ................................................................... 17 2.3.3.2 Numerical modelling ........................................................................... 20 2.3.4 Mean velocity .............................................................................................. 21 2.3.5 Boundary shearstress ................................................................................. 21 2.4 Vegetatedcompoundopenchannel flow ........................................................... 21 2.4.1 Drag coefficient .......................................................................................... 23 2.4.2 Overall flow behaviours .............................................................................. 23 2.4.2.1 Emergentvegetation ............................................................................ 25 2.4.2.2 Submerged vegetation.......................................................................... 26 2.4.3 Large eddies ................................................................................................ 26 2.4.3.1 Emergentvegetation ............................................................................ 28 2.4.3.2 Submerged vegetation.......................................................................... 29 2.4.4 Mean flow ................................................................................................... 30 2.4.5 Secondarycurrents ...................................................................................... 31 2.4.6 Boundary shearstress ................................................................................. 40 3 Experimental Methodologies ................................................................................. 40
3.1 Experimental apparatus ......................................................................................

40 3.1.1 Rectangularchannels.................................................................................. 40 3.1.1.1 Hydraulic system................................................................................. 41 3.1.1.2 Channelbed levelling .......................................................................... 42 3.1.1.3 Boundary roughness ............................................................................. 43 3.1.1.4 Inlet turbulence ....................................................................................
3.1.2 Smooth compound channels ....................................................................... 43

111

3.1.3 Vegetated compound channels ................................................................... 3.2 Measurement techniques .................................................................................... 3.2.1 Flow rate ..................................................................................................... 3.2.2 Pitot tube ..................................................................................................... 3.2.2.1 Basic principle ..................................................................................... 3.2.2.2 Calibration for the pressure transducer ................................................ 3.2.2.3 Test for the Pitot tube ........................................................................... 3.2.3 Acoustic Doppler velocimeter .................................................................... 3.2.3.1 Basic principles ........................................................ 3.2.3.2 Sampling time and velocity range ........................................................ 3.2.3.3 Sampling frequency ............................................................................. 3.2.3.4 Sampling volume of ADV ................................................................... 3.2.3.5 Small tank ............................................................................................ 3.2.3.6 Data analysis ........................................................................................ 3.2.3.7 Velocity corrections ............................................................................. 3.2.4 Preston tube ................................................................................................. 3.2.4.1 Basic principles .................................................................................... 3.2.4.2 Calibration method ............................................................................... 3.2.4.3 Test results ........................................................................................... 4 Small Compound Channel Experiments .............................................................. 4.1 Experimental conditions .................................................................................... 4.2 Flow development .............................................................................................. 4.3 Mean flow .......................................................................................................... 4.4 Reynolds Shear Stress ........................................................................................ 4.4.1 Calculation method .....................................................................................

45 45 45 46 46 47 47 48 49 50 51 52 54 55 56 56 56 58 77 77 79 82 84 84

4.9 Summary .......................................................................................................... 5 Large Compound Channel Experiments ............................................................ 5.1 Mean Flow ....................................................................................................... 5.1.1 Non-vegetated floodplain .......................................................................... 5.1.2 Vegetated floodplain ................................................................................. 5.2 Secondary Currents ..........................................................................................

4.4.2 Resultsand discussions 88 ............................................................................. .. 4.4.2.1Eddy viscosity 88 .................................................................................... .. 4.4.2.2Reynolds shearstress 90 ......................................................................... .. 4.5 Apparentshearstress 92 ....................................................................................... .. 4.5.1 Calculation method 92 ................................................................................... .. 4.5.2 Results and discussions 93 ............................................................................. .. 4.6 Secondarycurrent 94 ............................................................................................ .. 4.6.1 Calculation method 94 ................................................................................... .. 4.6.2 Results and discussions 96 ............................................................................. .. 4.7 Boundary shearstress 98 ...................................................................................... .. 4.7.1 Friction factor 98 ............................................................................................ .. 4.7.2 Contributions to boundary shearstress 99 ..................................................... .. 4.8 Vegetatedcompound channelflow 101 .................................................................. 4.8.1 Mean velocity and bed shearstress 101 ........................................................... 4.8.2 Eddy viscosity and Reynolds shearstress 102 ................................................. 4.8.3 Apparent shearstress 104 ................................................................................ 4.8.4 Secondarycurrent 106 ..................................................................................... 4.8.5 Contributions to boundary shearstress 106 .....................................................
107 127 127 128 129 131

5.3 Vorticity

134 ...........................................................................................................

zv

5.3.1 Vorticity equation ..................................................................................... 5.3.2 Vorticity distributions ............................................................................... 5.3.3 Vorticity balance ....................................................................................... 5.4 Turbulent Intensities and kinetic energy ..........................................................

134 135 136 139 140

5.4.1 Casestudy on turbulent intensities

5.4.2 Distributions of turbulent

139 ........................................................... intensities

......................................................... 144

5.5 Reynolds Shear Stresses

5.4.3 Distributions of turbulent kinetic energy 143 ..................................................

...................................................... ............................

5.5.1 Lateral transfer of longitudinal momentum 144 .................. ............................ 5.5.2 Vertical transfer of longitudinal momentum 145 ................. ............................ 5.5.3 Vertical transfer of lateral momentum 147 .......................... ............................ 5.6 Depth-averagedparameters 147 ................................................. ............................ 5.6.1 Depth-averagedvelocity 147 ............................................... ............................ 5.6.2 Depth-averagededdy viscosities 148 ................................... ............................ 5.6.3 Depth-averagedsecondarycurrent 151 ............................... ............................ 5.7 Energy spectrum 151 .................................................................. ........................... 5.7.1 Introduction 151 ................................................................... ............................ 5.7.2 Velocity correlation 152 ...................................................... ............................ 5.7.3 Energy spectra 155 ............................................................... ............................ 5.8 Eddy contributions to momentumexchange 156 ............................ ........................ 5.8.1 Cross energyspectra 156 ..................................................... ............................ 5.8.2 Eddy contributions to momentum exchange 158 ............................ ................. 5.8.2.1 Determination of characteristicfrequency 159 ............. ............................ 160 5.8.2.2 Peakfrequencymethod ............................ .......................................... 5.8.2.3 Energy percentmethod 161 ............................ .......................................... 5.9 Summary 162 .............................................................................. ............................ 207 6 Large Eddy Simulation with TELEMAC ............................ ............................... 6.1 Numerical methodology 207 ............................ ....................................................... 6.1.1 LES governing equations 207 ............................ .............................................. 6.1.2 TELEMAC modelling system 210 ............................ ...................................... 6.1.2.1 2-D Saint-Venantequations 210 ............................ ................................... 6.1.2.2 Mesh generation 211 ............................ ..................................................... 6.1.2.3 Boundary and initial conditions 212 ............................ ............................. 6.1.2.4 Advection scheme 214 ............................ .................................................. 6.1.2.5 Data analysingmethod 215 ............................ ........................................... 6.1.3 Simulation cases 216 ............................ ............................................................ 6.2 LES for the smooth, compound-channel flow 217 ............................ ..................... 6.2.1 Eddy evolution 217 .............................................................. ............................ 6.2.2 Flow fluctuations 219 .......................................................... ............................ 6.2.2.1 Spatial distributions 219 ............................................... ............................ 6.2.2.2 Variations of variablesalong the MC-FP junction 221 ............................ 6.2.2.3 Time seriesof variables 222 ......................................... ............................
6.2.3 Sensitivity analyses of eddy generation 223 ........................ .................. .......... 6.2.3.1 Generation problem and analysing method 223 ........... ............................

6.2.3.2 Results 224 .................................................................... ............................ 6.2.3.3 Discussions 225 ............................................................ ............................ 6.2.4 LES results of caseSTC-1 227 ............................................ ............................ 6.2.4.1 Mesh resolution 227 ...................................................... ............................
6.2.4.2 Boundary condition 229 ............................................................................ 6.2.4.3 Advection scheme 229 ..............................................................................

6.3.2.3Temporal flow fluctuations 237 ................................................................ 6.3.2.4Mean parameters 238 ................................................................................ 6.4 Summary 239 .......................................................................................................... 271 7 Quasi-2D Flow Prediction for Vegetated, Compound, Open Channels .......... 7.1 Governing equationsand solutions 271 ................................ .................................. 7.1.1 Governing equations 271 ................................................................................. 7.1.2 Sourceterm for vegetatedflow 273 ................................................................. 7.1.3 Input model parameters 274 ............................................................................. 7.1.3.3Friction factor 275 ..................................................................................... 277 7.1.3.4Depth-averaged eddy viscosity and advectionterm .......................... 277 7.2 Flow prediction for the smooth compound channel........................................ 277 7.2.1 Wall velocity ................................................................................................. 279 7.2.2 Flow prediction for the small channel .......................................................... 281 7.2.3 Flow prediction for the large channel ........................................................... 282 7.3 Flow prediction for the compound channelwith emergentvegetation............ 7.4 Flow prediction for the compound channelwith submergedvegetation.........285 ' 287 7.5 Summary .......................................................................................................... 8 Conclusions and Future Research Prospects 297 ..................................................... 8.1 Experimental investigations 297 ............................................................................. 8.1.1 Compoundchannelwith non-vegetatedfloodplain 297 .................................. 8.1.1.1Small compoundchannel 297 ................................................................... 8.1.1.2Large compoundchannel 299 ................................................................... 8.1.2 Compoundchannelwith emergentvegetationon the floodplain 299 ............. 8.1.3 Compoundchannelwith submergedvegetationon the floodplain........... 300 8.2 Numerical investigationsof the unsteadyflow characteristics 302 ........................ 8.3 Numerical studiesof the meanflow prediction using the quasi-2D model..... 303 8.4 Future researchprospects 304 ................................................................................. 306 References.................................................................................................................
7.1.3.1 Channel geometry and boundary conditions 274 ...................................... 7.1.3.2 Vegetation parameters 275 .......................................................................

6.2.5 LES results for the smooth FCF case 020201 230 ........................................... 231 6.3 LES for the vegetated, compound-channel flow ............................................. . 6.3.1 Emergent vegetation case 231 ........................................................................ . 6.3.1.1 Spatial flow fluctuations 231 ................................................................... . 6.3.1.2 Temporal flow fluctuations 233 ............................................................... . 6.3.1.3 Mean parameters 233 ............................................................................... . 6.3.2 Submerged vegetation case 235 ....................................................................... 6.3.2.1 Effect of mesh resolution on LES results 235 .......................................... 6.3.2.2 Spatial flow fluctuations 237 ....................................................................

V1

List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Calculated secondary current streamlines in open channels under various (after Nezu & Rodi 1982) 34 ratio conditions width-to-depth ......................................... Calculated longitudinal velocity contours in open channels under various (after Nezu & Rodi 1982) 34 ratio conditions width-to-depth .........................................

Figure 2.2

Distributions of wall shear stress and bed shear stress in open channels Figure 2.3 35 (after Knight et al. 1994) .............................................................................................. Overflow mechanisms ih-'a two-stage compound channel flow Figure 2.4 35 (after Shiono & Knight 1991) ...................................................................................... Large eddies observed at the junction between the main channel and the Figure 2.5 36 floodplain of a compound channel (after Sellin 1964) ................................................ Figure 2.6 Conceptual visualisation of the momentum exchange between the main the floodplain of a compound channel (after Fukuoka & Fujita 1989)... 36 channel and

Illustration of secondary currents in compound channels with rectangular Figure 2.7 trapezoidal cross-sections (after Shiono & Knight 1989) ..................................... 37 and (after Secondary current patterns for straight compound channel Figure 2.8 Tominaga & Nezu 1991). (a) h/H = 0.75; (b) h/H = 0.50; (c) h/H = 0.25 ............. 37 Longitudinal velocity isovels for straight compound channel Figure 2.9 38 (after Tominaga & Nezu 1991) .................................................................................... Figure 2.10 boundary shear stress in compound trapezoidal of channels under various relative water depth conditions (after Yuen 1989) ................. 38 Distributions

Secondary current patterns for rectangular channels with vegetation Figure 2.11 39 (after Nezu & Onitsuka 2001) corner .......................................................................... Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 59 Rectangular open channels .....................................................................

Schematic representation of the hydraulic system for the small channel. 59 ......................................................................................................................................

Figure 3.3 Flow rate control system for the small channel. (a) Centrifugal pump; (b) 60 Electromagnetic flow meter; (c) Pump controller ....................................................... Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 60 Water level control units. (a) Adjustable weir; (b) Point gauge ............. 61 Surveying equipment for channel bed levelling .....................................

Bed level profiles of the main rectangular channel. (a) Left side; (b) Left 61 and right sides..............................................................................................................

vii

Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8

62 Bed level profiles of the large compound channel ................................. 62 Effect of bed roughness on the boundary shear stress ............................

Main units for disturbing the inlet turbulence. (a) Inlet tank; (b) Kraft Figure 3.9 62 honeycomb and float foam plate .................................................................................. Effect of honeycomb on the velocity distributions at aspect ratio 2.9. Figure 3.10 (a) Depth-averaged velocity with and without honeycomb; (b) Isovels without 63 honeycomb: (c) Isovels with honeycomb .................................................................... Figure 3.11 Figure 3.12 64 Schematic representation of a compound open channel .......................

Experimental smooth compound channels. (a) Small rectangular (b) Small trapezoidal compound channel; (c) Large trapezoidal compound channel; channel....................................................................................................... 64 compound 11

Vegetated compound channels. (a) One-line emergent rods at the Figure 3.13 floodplain edge; (b) Emergent rods on the floodplain; (c) Submerged rods on the 65 floodplain ..................................................................................................................... Figure 3.14 Rod spacingfor large vegetatedcompoundchannel. (a) Emergentrods; 65 (b) Submergedrods ...................................................................................................... Figure 3.15 66 Calibration curve for the pump controller ............................................

Pitot tube. (a) Pitot tube and pressuretransducer;(b) Point gauge; (c) Figure 3.16 66 Horizontal ruler ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.17 Figure 3.18 Figure 3.19 Figure 3.20 Figure 3.21 Figure 3.22 Figure 3.23 Figure 3.24 67 Calibration tank for the pressuretransducer ......................................... 67 Calibration curve for the pressuretransducer ....................................... 68 Velocity andresponsetime (Lateral movements) ................................ 68 Velocity and responsetime (Vertical movements) .............................. 68 Velocity andrecording time (Lateral and vertical movements)........... 69 Isovels at x/R = 306 in caseSR-1. (a) Run 1; (b) Run 2 ...................... 69 Velocity distributions along the water depth ........................................ 69 ADV and its probe geometry. (a) ADV; (b) ADV Probes ...................

Time-averaged measurement data using various recording times. (a) Figure 3.25 70 Velocity; (b) Turbulent intensity; (c) Reynolds stress ................................................. Figure 3.26 Time-averaged velocity data using various nominal velocity ranges. (a)

U; (b) V; (c) W

70 .............................................................................................................

viii

Time-averaged turbulent intensity data using various nominal velocity Figure 3.27 *7U. ; (b) v 'IU. ; (c) w /U.. 71 ranges. (a) u ................................................................... Time-averaged Reynolds stress data using various nominal velocity Figure 3.28 (a) uv/U. ; (b) uw/U. ; (c) VW/U; 71 ranges. ................................................................ Figure 3.29 Figure 3.30 Figure 3.31 Relationship between energy density and frequency 72 ........................... Relationship between contribution (u; (f)/u1 and frequency 72 ................ Measured velocities by ADV and Pitot tube 72 ........................................

Measurement results along the water depth using the small tank. (a-b) Figure 3.32 Averaged velocities; (c-d) Turbulent intensities; (e-f) Reynolds stresses 73 .................. Figure 3.33 Measurement grids for velocity using a Pitot tube and ADV. (a) Small compound channel; (b) Large compound channel ....................................................... 74 Preston tube on the channel bed 74 ...........................................................

Figure 3.34

Boundary shear stress and response time. (a) Movements Ml -- M2; (b) Figure 3.35 75 Movements M3- M4; (c) Movements M5 - M6 ......................................................... Figure 3.36 Figure 3.37 Boundary shear stress and recording time 75 ............................................ Boundary shear stress and water temperature 76 ......................................

Isovels of normalised velocity U/U, along the rectangular channel Case Figure 4.1 n SR-1). (a) X/R = 85; (b) X/R = 127; (c) X/R = 176; (d) X/R = 235; (e) X/R = 282..... 110 Figure 4.2 Isovels of normalised velocity U/U, along the compound channel for n Case SRC-3. (a) X/R = 50; (b) X/R = 100; (c) X/R = 150; (d) X/R = 210 111 .................. Normalised velocity (U/U. ) distributions over the water depth at Y/B = Figure 4.3 0.5 in case SR-1 and at YB = 0.3 in case SRC-1. (a) Case SR-1; (b) Case SRC-3.112 Figure 4.4 Isovels of normalised velocity U/U, at X/R = 185 (Case SR-2)......... 112 n

Isovels of normalised velocity U/U, in rectangular compound channel Figure 4.5 n (a) SRC-1; (b) SRC-2; (c) SRC-3 113 cases. .................................................................... Isovels of normalised velocity U/Um in trapezoidal compound channel Figure 4.6 (a) STC-1; (b) STC-2; (c) STC-3 113 cases. ............................:....................................... Figure 4.7 Lateral distributions of depth-averaged velocity Ud (a) Rectangular . channel cases; (b) Trapezoidal compound channels cases....................... 114 compound

Width of shear layer in various compound channel cases. (a) Figure 4.8 Definition sketch for determination of 15; (b) Values of 8 in various cases............ 114

ix

Figure 4.9

Lateral distributions of bed shear stress r,. (a) Rectangular compound channel cases; (b) Trapezoidal compound channel cases.......................................... 115 Lateral distributions of pgHS0 - zb for six cases 115 ............................... Overall values of Manning coefficient in various cases 116 .....................

Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11

Lateral distributions of measured and predicted friction factor. (a) Case Figure 4.12 SRC-1; (b) Case SRC-2; (c) Case SRC-3; (d) STC-1; (e) STC-2; (f) STC-3 116 ............ Figure 4.13 Lateral distributions of e1 in compound channels. (a) Rectangular cases; (b) Trapezoidal cases....................................................................................... 117 distributions of TIAT, Lateral in'compound channels and peak its b

Figure 4.14

various relative water depth conditions. (a) Ar under

(b )Peak value of A. Ab b; . 117 .................................................................................................................................... Lateral distributions of Reynolds stress in compound channels........ 118

Figure 4.15 Figure 4.16

Lateral distributions of apparent stress in compound channels and dip stresses in various relative water depth conditions. (a) Apparent shear stress; apparent 118 (b) Dip value of apparent shear stress ........................................................................ (pUV)d

Figure 4.17

in Lateral distributions of secondary current term compound channels.................................................................................................... 118 Secondary current cells in a rectangular compound channel 119 .............

Figure 4.18 Figure 4.19

Typical distributions of U and V in different locations of a rectangular compound channel. (a) Main channel; (b) Near left wall; (c) Near junction; (d) Floodplain 119 .................................................................................................................. Figure 4.20 Lateral distributions of V,,, in compound channels 119 ...........................

Figure 4.21

Contributions of different forces to the difference of pgHS0 - zb in rectangular compound channel cases. (a) Case SRC-1; (b) SRC-2; (c) SRC-3.... 120 Contributions of different forces to the difference of pgHS0 -Tb in trapezoidal compound channel cases. (a) Case STC-1; (b) Case STC-2; (c) Case STC-3 121 ......................................................................................................................... Isovels of normalised velocity U/U, in emergent rod case STC-4... 122 n

Figure 4.22

Figure 4.23 Figure 4.24

Lateral distributions of depth-averaged velocity and bed shear stress in vegetated and non-vegetated channels under Dr = 0.5 .............................................. 122 Figure 4.25 (pgHS0 zb )/ pgHS0 of under Dr = 0.5. 122 .................................................................................................................................... Lateral distributions

Figure 4.26

122 Lateral distributions of friction factor under Dr = 0.5 ........................

, /Arb in vegetated and Lateral distributions of eddy viscosity E, and Figure 4.27 s 2rr /21b 0.5. (a) Eddy viscosity (b) 123 channels under Dr = non-vegetated ............. Distributions of normalised forces in vegetated and non-vegetated Figure 4.28 123 Dr = 0.5. (a) Case STC-4; (b) Case STC-3 under channels ....................................... Distributions of drag force in the affecting area. (a) Drag force per unit Figure 4.29 124 length; (b) Drag force per unit volume ...................................................................... Figure 4.30 124 Lateral distributions of V, in casesSTC-4 and STC-3 n ....................

Figure 4.31

Vertical distributions of U, V and -( at y=0.12 m UV )d 125 in the,main channel.(a) U; (b) V; (c) -:.... .............................................. (pUV )d

)d

Figure 4.32

Vertical distributions of U, V and at y=0.186 m (UV )d 125 the floodplain. (a) U; (b) V; (c) on .........................................................
Contributions of different forces to the difference of pgHS0 - zb in cases STC-4 and STC-3. (a) Case STC-4; (b) Case STC-3 ................................... 126

Figure 4.33

longitudinal velocity (U/U,,, ) distributions. (a) Case LC-1; Normalised Figure 5.1 (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5 .................................. 164 (v/U,,,, w/U,, ). (a) Case LC-1; (b) Rotated secondary current patterns Figure 5.2 165 Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5 ........................................ (a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; Anisotropy of turbulence v2 - w2 Figure 5.3 166 (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5 ........................................................... Figure 5.4 /H)) profiles. (a) Case LC-1; (b) Longitudinal vorticity (100521/(U1,, 167 Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5 ........................................ )/U;

Longitudinal vorticity balance for Case LC-1. (a) Advection term Al; Figure 5.5 168 (b) Anisotropy term A2; (c) Shear stress term A3; Viscous term A4 ........................ Longitudinal vorticity balance for Case LC-2. (a) Advection term Al; Figure 5.6 169 (b) Anisotropy term A2; (c) Shear stress term A3; Viscous term A4 ........................ Longitudinal vorticity balance for Case LC-3. (a) Advection term Al; Figure 5.7 (b) Anisotropy term A2; (c) Shear stress term A3; Viscous term A4 ........................ 170 Longitudinal vorticity balance for Case LC-4. (a) Advection term Al; Figure 5.8 171 (b) Anisotropy term A2; (c) Shear stress term A3; Viscous term A4 ........................ Figure 5.9 Longitudinal vorticity balance for Case LC-5. (a) Advection term Al; 172 (b) Anisotropy term A2; (c) Shear stress term A3; Viscous term A4 ........................
xi

Vertical distributions of turbulent intensities for Case LC-1. (a) In the Figure 5.10 173 (b) on the floodplain main channel; ........................................................................... Figure 5.11 Lateral distributions of turbulent intensities for Case LC-1. (a) u'7U. ; /U. 173 (b) v'/U. ; (c) w ................................................................................................

(u'/U, ) Normalised turbulent intensity Figure 5.12 profiles. (a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5 ........................................ 174 (v*7U. ) Normalised turbulent intensity Figure 5.13 profiles. (a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5 ........................................ 175

(w /U. ) Normalised turbulent intensity Figure 5.14 profiles. (a) Case LC-1; (b) . 176 CaseLC-2; (c) CaseLC-3; (d) CaseLC-4; (e) CaseLC-5 ........................................
.r.

Figure 5.15 Temporal variations of U velocity datafor LC-1 - LC-5 cases.(a) Case LC-1; (b) CaseLC-2; (c) CaseLC-3; (d) CaseLC-4; (e) CaseLC-5 ........................177 Figure 5.16 Temporal variations of V velocity data for LC-1 - LC-5. (a) CaseLC1; (b) CaseLC-2; (c) CaseLC-3; (d) CaseLC-4; (e) CaseLC-5 ..............................178 Figure 5.17 Temporal variations of W velocity datafor LC-1 - LC-5. (a) CaseLC1; (b) CaseLC-2; (c) CaseLC-3; (d) CaseLC-4; (e) CaseLC-5 ..............................179 (k/U.2) Normalised turbulent kinetic energy Figure 5.18 profiles. (a) Case LC-1; (b) CaseLC-2; (c) CaseLC-3; (d) CaseLC-4; (e) CaseLC-5 ..................................180 (zYX 0) /pU. profiles. (a) CaseLCFigure 5.19 Normalised turbulent kinetic energy 1; (b) CaseLC-2; (c) CaseLC-3; (d) CaseLC-4; (e) CaseLC-5 ..............................181 ) (zu / Figure 5.20 Normalised turbulent kinetic energy pU. profiles. (a) CaseLC1; (b) CaseLC-2; (c) CaseLC-3; (d) CaseLC-4; (e) CaseLC-5 ..............................182 Figure 5.21 Normalised Reynolds shearstress profiles. (a) CaseLC-1; (b) CaseLC-2; (c) CaseLC-3; (d) CaseLC-4; (e) CaseLC-5 ..................................183
Lateral distributions of depth-averaged velocity in cases LC-1 - LC-5. 184 .................................................................................................................................... Manning coefficients for grass mattress at different water depths..... 184 Water level proaround a submerged rod ............................................ 184 Lateral distributions of depth-averaged Reynolds shear stress z3s ... 185

(z'/pU;

Figure 5.22

Figure 5.23 Figure 5.24 Figure 5.25

Figure 5.26 Lateral distributions of dimensionlessdepth-averaged eddy viscosities 185 Af, and A, (a) Non-vegetatedcases;(b) Vegetatedcases ........................................ .

X11

Figure 5.27 -PWVa

Lateral distributions

of depth-averaged secondary current term 185

...................................................................................................................

Velocity auto-correlation functions for LC-1 case. (a) Velocity U; (b) Figure 5.28 Velocity V; (c) Velocity W 186 ........................................................................................ Velocity auto-correlation functions for LC-2 case. (a) Velocity U; (b) Figure 5.29 Velocity V; (c) Velocity W 187 ........................................................................................ Velocity auto-correlation functions for LC-3 case. (a) Velocity U; (b) Figure 5.30 Velocity V; (c) Velocity W 188 ........................................................................................ Velocity auto-correlation functions for LC-4 case. (a) Velocity U; (b) Figure 5.31 Velocity V; (c) Velocity W 189 .......................................................................:................ Velocity auto-correlation functions for LC-5 case. (a) Velocity U; (b) Figure 5.32 Velocity V; (c) Velocity W 190 ........................................................................................ Figure 5.33 Figure 5.34 Figure 5.35 Figure 5.36 Figure 5.37 Energy spectrum for LC-1 case. (a) log E ; (b) log E,, ; (c) log E, 191 y... Energy spectrum for LC-2 case. (a) log Eu ; (b) log Ev ; (c) log E"... 192 Energy spectrum for LC-3 case. (a) log E ; (b) log Ev ; (c) log EK, 193 ... Energy spectrum for LC-4 case. (a) log Eu ; (b) log E,; (c) log Ex, 194 ... Energy spectrum for LC-5 case. (a) log E ; (b) log Ev ; (c) log E, 195 y...

Cross spectrum and phase relation for LC-1 case. (a) Energy spectra Figure 5.38 v2 and cross spectrum (b) Phase relation between u' and v; (c) Energy u2, u'v'; w2 and cross spectrum 196 (d) Phase relation between u' and w spectra u2, u'w ; ..... Figure 5.39 Cross spectrum and phase relation for LC-2 case. (a) Energy spectra (b) Phase relation between W and v; (c) Energy u'2, v2 and cross spectrum u'v ; w2 and cross spectrum (d) Phase relation between W and w..... 197 spectra u*2, u'w ;

Cross spectrum and phase relation for LC-3 case. (a) Energy spectra Figure 5.40 2, v2 and cross spectrum (b) Phase relation between u' and v; (c) Energy u u'v'; w2 and (d) Phase relation between W and w 198 u'K;; spectra u'2, cross spectrum ..... Figure 5.41 Cross spectrum and phase relation for LC-4 case. (a) Energy spectra 2, v2 and cross spectrum u'v ; (b) Phase relation between u' and v; (c) Energy u w2 and cross spectrum u'w ; (d) Phase relation between u* and w 199 spectra u'2, ..... Cross spectrum and phase relation for LC-5 case. (a) Energy spectra Figure 5.42 v2 and cross spectrum u'v'; (b) Phase relation between u* and v; (c) Energy u2, w2 and cross spectrum uW; (d) Phase relation between W and w 200 spectra u'2, ..... Figure 5.43 Distributions of peak frequencies in the casesof LC-1 - LC-5......... 201
X111

Percents ratios of filtered and raw data of U'2, V'2, W'2, uv and uw. (a) Figure 5.44 LC-1, (b) LC-2, (c) LC-3, (d) LC-4, (e) LC-5 ........................................................... 201 wZ, UV Percents ratios of filtered and raw data of uZ, v2, Figure 5.44 and uw. (a) LC-1, (b) LC-2, (c) LC-3, (d) LC-4, (e) LC-5 ........................................................... 202 Lateral frequency distributions characterising large eddy for LC-1 Figure 5.45 LC-5 cases. (a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case 203 LC-5 ........................................................................................................................... Figure 5.46 Temporal variations of U, V and uv data for LC-1 case. (a) U, V; (b)uv. 204 .................................................................................................................................... Temporal variations of U, V and uv data for LC-2 case. (a) U, V; (b)uv. 204 ....................................................................................................................................

Figure 5.47

Temporal variations of U, V and uv data for LC-3 case. (a) U, V; (b) Figure 5.48 205 uv ................................................................................................................................ Temporal variations of U, V and uv data for LC-4 case.(a) U, V; (b) Figure 5.49 205 uv ................................................................................................................................ Figure 5.50 Temporal variations of U, V and uv datafor LC-5 case. (a) U, V; (b) uv. 206 .................................................................................................................................... Reynolds stress and contributions of large eddies for Figure 5.51 206 LC-1 - LC-5 cases ..................................................................................................... Meshes for case STC-1. (a) Mesh MS1 of resolution 1cm; (b) Mesh Figure 6.1 241 MS2 with resolution 2cm; (c) Mesh MS3 of resolution 3cm .................................... Figure 6.2 Mesh FCF4 for caseFCF 020201 241 .......................................................

Figure 6.3 Meshes for case. STC-4. (a) Fine mesh of resolution 0.5cm; (b) Coarse 242 mesh ...........................................................................................................................
Figure 6.4 Meshes M5a. M5g for one submerged rod case LTCT. (a) Mesh M5a; (b) Mesh M5b; (c) Mesh M5c; (d) Mesh M5d; (e) Mesh M5e; (f) Mesh M5f; (g) Mesh 243 M5g ............................................................................................................................ Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6 244 Mesh M6 for submerged rod case LC-4 ............................................... 244 Mesh M7 for non-vegetated case LC-2 ................................................

Figure 6.7 Velocity fields between 30 s and 150 s for STC-1 case. (a) 30s; (b) 50s; (c) 100s; (d) 150s. Horizontal axis represents the longitudinal distance x from the inlet. Vertical axis y represents the lateral distance from the left channel wall. channel 245 .................................................................................................................................... Velocity fields in a moving frame between 30 s and 150 s for STC-1 Figure 6.8 (a) 30s; (b) 50s; (c) 100s; (d) 150s. Horizontal axis represents the longitudinal case.

xiv

distance x from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents the lateral distance from the left channel wall ................................................................................................... 246 Vorticity fields between 30 s and 150 s for STC-1 case. (a)30s; (b) 50s; Figure 6.9 (c) 100s; (d) 150s. Horizontal axis represents the longitudinal distance x from the inlet. Vertical axis y represents the lateral distance from the left channel wall. channel 247 .................................................................................................................................... 2D profile perspective graphs of U, V and 92 at the MC-FP junction Figure 6.10 between t= 450 s and t= 455 s for STC-1 case. (a) velocity U; (b) Velocity V; (c) Vorticity; (d) Free Surface; (e) Water Depth ............................................................. 248

Velocity fields in a moving frame between 450 s and 453 s Figure 6.11 for STC-1 case.(a) 450s; (b) 451s; (c) 452 s; (d) 453s. Horizontal axis representsthe longitudinal distancex from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents the lateral 249 distancefrom the left channelwall ............................................................................. Figure 6.12 Spatial distributions of U, V, 92, free surfaceandbed shearstressat t= 450 s for caseSTC-1. (a) Velocity U/U, ; (b) VelocityV/U, ; (c) Vorticity; (d) Free n n Surface; (d) Bed Shear Stress rblrb,, . Horizontal axis represents the longitudinal the distancex from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents lateral distance from 250 left channelwall the ................................................................................................... Figure 6.13 Variations of veclocity U, velocity V, vorticity, bed shear stress and depth at MC-FP junction at t= 450 s for STC-1 case.(a)Vector in a moving water frame and vorticity; (b) IOOS2h/U,,, (c) U/U,no,V/U,no,zb / Z, ; (d) pUV / z, ; (e) o; no no 251 H/H, o......................................................................................................................... ,, Temporal variations of velocity, bed shear stress, water depth and Figure 6.14 term at point A (8.6,0.156) between450 s and 463 s. (a) U/U, secondarycurrent no, 252 V/U,,, zb/zIo ; (b) PW /Z, ; (c) HI H, o" no............................................................. no Figure 6.15 Velocity fields in a moving frame at t= 525 s for case STC-1. (a) Time 0.0025s;(b) Time step 0.005s; (c) Time step 0.01s.Horizontal axis represents the step longitudinal distancex from the channel inlet. Vertical. axis y represents the lateral 253 distancefrom the left channelwall ............................................................................ V variations at the start period of eddy generation under various Figure 6.16 (a) 3cm, Slip, MOC, 40s; (b) 2cm, Slip, MOC, 40s; (c) 1cm, simulation conditions. Slip, MOC, 40s; (d) 1cm, Non Slip, MOC, 20s; (e) 1cm, Non Slip, SUPG, 40s...... 254
Figure 6.17 V variations at 300s after eddy generation under various simulation (a) 3cm, Slip, MOC, 450s; (b) 2cm, Slip, MOC, 450s; (c) 1cm, Slip, conditions. MOC, 450s; (d) 1cm, Non Slip, MOC, 450s; (e) 1cm, Non Slip, SUPG, 450s......... 255 LES simulation results of different mesh resolutions for case STC-1. / pU. (e) /Zo (f) Free (a) UIU,,, ; (b) UV/U. ; (c) 2'LE/pU; ; (d) zSE ; ; surface.. 256 ;

Figure 6.18

xv

LES simulation results of different advection scheme for case STC-1. Figure 6.19 /U,,,; (b) UV/U. ; (c) r, /PU. ; (d) zse/PU ; (e) zb/zo ; (f)Free surface... 257 (a) U LES simulation results for FCF case 020201. (a) Depth-averaged Figure 6.20 (b) Bed shear stress; (c) Reynolds shear stress 258 velocity; ........................................... Velocity fields around emergent rods in case STC-4. (a) 0.2 s; (b) 1s Figure 6.21 (c) 2 s; (d) 3 s. Horizontal axis represents the longitudinal distance x from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents the lateral distance from the left channel wall......... 259 Instantaneous profiles of velocity vector, vorticity, velocity U, velocity Figure 6.22 V, UV, bed shear stress and free surface at t= 495 s for case STC-4. (a) Velocity vector; (b) Vorticity; (c) Velocity U; (d) Velocity V; (e) Secondary current term UV; (f) Bed shear stress; (g) Free surface 260 ......................................................................... Figure 6.23 Variations of longitudinal velocity U/U,,, across the section for Case o STC-4. (a) Y=0.015 -- 0.060 m; (b) Y=0.075 -- 0.120 m; (c) Y=0.1306 0.1710 m; (d) Y=0.1860 - 0.23 10 m; (e) Y=0.2460 - 0.2910 m ...................................... 261

Variations of lateral velocity V/U, across the section for Case STCno 4. (a) Y=0.015 - 0.060 m; (b) Y=0.075 - 0.120 m; (c) Y=0.1306 - 0.1710 m; (d) 262 Y=0.1860 - 0.2310 m; (e) Y=0.2460 - 0.2910 m ................................................. Figure 6.24

Figure 6.25

2D-LES simulation results of casesSTC-4 and STC-3. (a) U/U. ; (b) I zbo /r,, (c) ZL., /Zb0 ; (e) Zb ; (d) rsE 263 ; ................................................... - PUV/rbo

Figure 6.26 Longitudinal profiles of the velocity field using different meshesfor the test submerged-rod case. (a) Mesh M5a; (b) mesh M5b; (c) Mesh M5c; (d) mesh M5d; (e) Mesh M5e; (f) mesh M5f; (g) mesh M5g. Horizontal axis representsthe longitudinal distance x from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y representsthe lateral distancefrom the left channelwall 264 ............................................................................ Figure 6.27 Longitudinal profiles of the free surfaceusing different meshesfor the test submerged-rodcase.(a) MeshesM5a - M5c; (b) MeshesM5d - M5e; (c) Meshes M5f - M5g 265 ................................................................................................................. Figure 6.28 Instantaneous of velocity vector, vorticity and free surfaceat = profiles 602.5 s for submergedrod caseLC-4. (a) Velocity vector; (b) Velocity U; (c) Velocity V; (d) Vorticity; (e) Free surface.Horizontal axis representsthe longitudinal distance from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y representsthe lateral distance from the left x 267 channelwall ...............................................................................................................
Figure 6.29 Variations of longitudinal velocity Ulu,,,, in case LC-4. (a) Y=0.100.16 m; (b) Y=0.22 - 0.28 m; (c) Y=0.34 - 0.40 m; (d) Y=0.47 - 0.51 m; (e) Y= 0.55 - 0.59 m; (f) Y=0.63 - 0.73 m; (g) Y=0.81 - 0.85 m 268 ....................................

Figure 6.30 Variations of longitudinal velocity V/U, in caseLC-4. (a) Y=0.10no 0.16 m; (b) Y=0.22 - 0.28 m; (c) Y=0.34 - 0.40 m; (d) Y=0.47 - 0.51 m; 269 ........

xvi

269 (e) Y=0.55 - 0.59 m; (f) Y=0.63 - 0.73 m; (g) Y=0.81 - 0.85 m .......................
Figure 6.31 UV/U: 2D-LES simulation results of cases LC-4 and LC-2. (a) U/U,,, ; (b) /PU. ; (d) Zzs/PU. ..................................................... 270 (c) rLE zSE/PU ; ,

Figure 7.1

Illustration of the drag force and the interface shear force on a submerged circular rod .............................................................................................. 288

Figure 7.2

Shear effects on the depth-averaged velocity prediction using different for cases STC-1 - STC-3. (a) Case STC-1; (b) STC-2, (c) STCmean wall velocities 289 3 .................................................................................................................................. Figure 7.3 Shear effects on the bed shear stress prediction using different mean wall velocities for cases STC-1 - STC-3. (a) Case STC-1; (b) STC-2, (c) STC-3........... 290

Figure 7.4

Effects of secondary flow on the depth-averaged velocity prediction using mean measured wall velocities for cases STC-1 - STC-3. (a) Case STC-1; (b) 291 STC-2, (c) STC-3 .......................................................................................................

Figure 7.5

Effects of secondary flow on the bed shear stress prediction using mean wall velocities for cases STC-1 - STC-3. (a) Case STC-1; (b) STC-2, (c) measured 292 STC-3 ......................................................................................................................... Figure 7.6 Prediction results using the quasi-2D model and 2D-LES against the data for STC-1 case. (a) Depth-averaged velocity; (b) Bed shear stress. experimental 293 ....................................................................................................................................

Figure 7.7

Lateral distributions of the predicted depth-averaged velocity using various secondary flow assumptions for LC-1 case.................................................. 293 Lateral distributions of the predicted depth-averaged velocity using various secondary flow assumptions for LC-2 case.................................................. 294

Figure 7.8

Lateral distributions of the predicted bed shear stress for cases LC-1 and Figure 7.9 294 LC-2 ........................................................................................................................... Lateral distributions of the predicted Reynolds stress for non-vegetated Figure 7.10 295 (a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2 cases. ......................................................................... Prediction results of the depth-averaged velocity and bed shear stress Figure 7.11 the quasi-2D model and 2D-LES for STC-4 case. (a) Depth-averaged velocity; using 295 (b) Bed shear stress .................................................................................................... Figure 7.12 Prediction results of the depth-averaged velocity and Reynolds stress the quasi-2D model and 2D-LES for STC-4 case. (a) Depth-averaged velocity; using 296 (b) Reynolds stress .....................................................................................................

xvii

List of Tables

Table 3.1

Flow conditions for rectangular open channels 41 ......................................

Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 4.1

Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4

Geometricalparametersfor compoundchannelsin literatures 44 .............. 44 Geometricalparametersfor experimentalcompoundchannels .............. Maximum velocities in various nominal velocity ranges 50 ........................ Experimental Conditions for the Small Channel' 78 .....................................
Distance ratios at X=7.47 m under various relative water depths ......... 81

Mean values of the eddy viscosity in cases SRC-1 - SRC-3 (10'5 m2/s) 90 Mean values of the eddy viscosity in cases STC-1 - STC-3 (10"5 m2/s). 91

91 Table 4.5 Measured mean wall shear stresses in compound channels (N/m2) .............

Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 7.3 Table 7.4 Table 7.5
Table 7.6

127 Experimental Conditions for Large Channel ......................................... 131 Rotation anglesfor casesLC-1 - LC-5 (Degrees) ................................. 217 Mesh details for various LES simulation cases ..................................... Sensitivity test conditions for caseSTC-1 224 ............................................. Mass balancevalues under various numerical conditions 229 .....................

Comparisonsof mean wall velocities for non-vegetatedchannel cases 278 Dischargeerrors for predictions with quasi-2Dmodel 280 .......................... 282 Best fitting values of r/apgHS0 in casesLC-1 - LC-2 ....................... 284 Calculatedmean wall velocities in vegetatedchannelcases ................. 285 Best fitting values of F/apgHS0 in caseSTC-4 ...................................
287 Best fitting values of I'/cxpgHS0 in LC-4 case .....................................

xviii

List of Symbols

a,,, a2J
A Al

Acceleration thresholds
Cross-sectional area of channel Advection of the longitudinal vorticity by the main flow

A2 A3 A4 ADV Ai
"

Generationof the secondarycurrents by the anisotropy of turbulence Generationof secondarycurrentsby the shearstress Viscous term Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter Projectedarea Average cross-sectional areaof i vegetation Sub-areaabovethe woodenbed Magnitude of the accelerationthreshold Sub-areaabovethe mattressbed Total horizontal areaof i vegetation
Total projected area of i vegetation per unit fluid volume

A,, Afr AV A,,, c As

Ap

B Bs Cd cf cf cP C Ck CS CB CD CD CD CDC Cs,
C. Cr

Width of the channel Vegetation-layerwidth Constant Dimensionlessfriction coefficient Mean bed friction coefficient Constant Chazy friction coefficient Empirical constant Smagorinskyconstant Bed friction coefficient Drag coefficient Apparent drag coefficient Bulk drag coefficient Drag coefficients of the ith element Interface shearcoefficient
Speed of sound Courant number

d dt do D

External diameterof the dynamic tube Time interval Doppler phaseshift Rod diameter

xix

Dk D, D

Empirical constant Relative water depth Empirical constant in the longitudinal direction

D,, Dw DNS Er (f )
f

Empirical constantin the lateral direction Empirical constantin the vertical direction Direct Numerical Simulation Energy density at frequency f
Frequency in Section 5.7, Flow variable in Section 6.1, Friction

f f f' fi 2 f, ffp f,,. fADV (x' f t) 7(, t) f (x, y, t) F F F, Y Fd; F, F, F, Fs FY Fr FCF FFT g
h H

factor elsewhere. Mean flow variable Filtered variable ,: Fluctuation againstthe filter variable Cartesiancomponentsof force per unit volume f Variance of flow variable Friction factor on the floodplain Friction factor in the main channel Operatingfrequency Flow variable in the continuousspace (x) Filtered flow variable by the filter function G,,. Flow variable Total drag force Drag force per unit volume Motor frequency Drag force in the sub-area Drag force of i vegetationper unit fluid volume Shearforce of i submergedvegetation Drag force per fluid mass Force per unit volume in the x direction Force per unit volume in they direction Froude number Flood ChannelFacility, UK Fast Fourier Transform Gravitational acceleration
Water depth on the floodplain Water depth in the main channel, Water depth in Section 2.1,Tank

j j

Hin HY
H,,, o

height in Section 3.1 Mean water depth in the main channeland on the floodplain Height of the vegetation
Averaged water depth along the floodplain edge

xx

H(y) i, j k

Local water depth at lateral position y Standard tensor indices varying between 1 and 3 Turbulence kinetic energy

ks 1 ld l l
is

,,

Equivalent sandroughness Spacingbetweentwo rods Turbulencelength scale Turbulent mixing length

Sub-grid length scale

w L

Distanceto the wall

Length of channel

Lr IDA LES M MEI

MOC

Length of the vegetateddomain Laser Doppler Anemometry Large Eddy Simulation Node number Stemswith stiffnessvalue
Method of Characteristics

MURD n ne ny nfp n,,, Nr NY P p Q Qp QF R R, (t) Ru, u Rv, v R, v, W Re Rerod

RANS S

Multidimensional Upwind Residual Distribution Manning coefficient Overall Manning coefficient Dimensionlessvegetationdensity Manning coefficient for the wood bed Manning coefficient for the mattressbed Total number of elementsor rods Vegetation density Pressure Wetted perimeterof the channel Node number Measureddischarge Flow rate Hydraulic radius Auto-correlation function Longitudinal velocity correlation Lateral velocity correlation Vertical velocity correlation Reynolds number Rod Reynoldsnumber
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) modelling Bank slope

ISI so Sb S.

Filtered-field deformation tensor Bed slope of the channel Area of the river bed Sourceterm

xxi

SU SF SNR T, sITbsITrsITsc TB

Strain rate of the large scale eddies Shading factor Signal to noise ratio (1 2/pgHS0 a(Hz)/ay/pgHSo Represent pgHS0/pgHS0, - zb + s'2 , a[H(-pUV)dj/ay/pgHS0 respectively Represents T. +Tbs +Trs +Tsc ,

/pgHSO (pUV )d/pgHS0 /pgHS0 zyx TRasMrs TRsc Representz,,, respectively ,, , , Time t Time n, Time n+1 t" ti+1 Averaging time period T Ts Run time of the first fluctuation of velocity V TU Sub-grid stresstensor StreamlineUpwind Peterov-Galekin SUPG Turbulent fluctuations with respectto the mean velocities u, v, W Turbulent intensity in the x direction u' Velocity fluctuation in the xi direction UI Z Average turbulent kinetic energy of i velocity component u, Velocity fluctuation in the xj direction uj V. v, yy - uv,-uw, vw U, V, W U, V, W U(z) U. U,,,, x UC Fc Uf Ud Ud(y) U,, Uj U,,,
Up Ud Ud, J, i_j

'1

Turbulent intensities in the y direction Characteristicsub-grid velocity Turbulent intensity in the z direction Reynolds shearstresscomponents Time-averagedvelocities in the x, y, z directions Temporal meanvelocity componentsin the x, y, z directions Local longitudinal velocity at vertical level z Shearvelocity Maximum longitudinal velocity Mean flow velocity in the vegetationlayer Maximum longitudinal velocity in the main channel Longitudinal velocity at the centre on the floodplain longitudinal velocity Depth-averaged Depth-averaged velocity at ym from the left wall Velocity componentsin the new X, - X; plane Bulk velocity determinedfrom measured velocity
Longitudinal velocity from a Pitot tube Depth-averaged velocity at y= yt, yj_,

U, p n, U, n0
U, yQ11

Bulk velocity determinedfrom the discharge Averaged longitudinal velocity along the floodplain edge
Mean wall velocity

xxii

U.., vu Vd Vs

Mean wall shear velocity Depth-averaged lateral velocity Magnitude of the secondary current vector (V 2 (= +W2 /2)

V. V, y,
Vs, rrmX

VW
Veld

Maximum lateral velocity Water volume of the i sub-area (V2 Z)V2 Maximum magnitude of VS= +W Water volume in the whole channel
Effective water volume in the computation domain

x, Y"Z xr X* X X$ Xf Y y+

Cartesiancoordinatedirection Cartesiancoordinates'(i = 1,2,3) log[(end2

)1(4Pv2))

Longitudinal distancefrom the inlet Longitudinal distanceof the first fluctuation of velocity V Longitudinal distance300 s after the first fluctuations of velocity V logi(=ed2)1(4Pv2)l y-coordinate normalisedby the viscous length v/U.,, a )=Uf+0.25(, Lateral position y whereU(yu% -Uf ) Lateral position where U(y7S%) =Uf+0.750 -Uf Vertical level from the channelbed Velocity correction factor for drag force Fir Velocity correction factor for shearforce Fst Porosity Aspect ratio Critical aspectratio Proportionality constant Width of the shearlayer Pressuredifference Time step Characteristicsub-grid scale Grid sizesin the x, y, z directions Distance in the x, y, z directionsnormalisedby v/U. Rotation angle Mean spacingbetweentwo cylinders
Normalized z-coordinate

Y25%
y75% z a aS crv ar are. Q S Ap At Al Ax, Ay, Az Ax+,Ay+,Az+ OB AS

Empirical constant Eddy viscosity Et eu

ESE

Depth-averaged eddy viscosity relating to r Eddy viscosity relating to z

Sub-grid eddy viscosity

xxiii

ezx Etb

Depth-averaged eddy viscosity Depth-averaged eddy viscosity due to the bed-generated turbulence

Eis ESE

Depth-averagededdy viscosity due to the shear-generated turbulence Mean sub-grid eddy viscosity Lateral gradient of the secondarycurrent force per unit length

Time lag

TO Tb zb T. zE `3E zbO z, nO zJ

Theoretical overall boundary shearstress Bed shearstress Mean bed shearstress Mean wall shearstress Micro-timescale Characteristictime scale of large eddies Measuredoverall boundary shearstress Averaged bed shearstressalong the floodplain edge Depth-averagedapparentshearstress Reynolds shearstress Mean wall shearstresson the left wall Mean wall shearstresson the vertical right wall of the main channel Mean wall shearstresson the right wall TU Reynolds shearstresscomponents Depth-averaged Reynolds shearstress Mean wall shearstress Theoretical overall boundary shearstress Shearstressdue to large eddies Shearstressdue to small eddies Von Karman constant Fluid density Standardtwo-dimensionalbed shearstress )d Depth-averaged secondarycurrent Vegetation density Dimensionlesseddy viscosity due to the bed-generatedturbulence Dimensionlesseddy viscosity due to the shear-generated turbulence
Kinematic fluid viscosity Effective depth-averaged eddy viscosity

zwi zn zwo z Ty. z , zB, t zLE zSE x P pgHS0 PUV r6 All

v VC

ESE S2, al Q21S23 ,

Qx

Sub-grid eddy viscosity 2D vorticity Vorticity vector componentsin the x, y, z directions

Longitudinal vorticity

xxiv

Chapter 1

Introduction
As a natural valuable asset, the river has attracted almost every civilization. Rivers

provide many contributions to human wellbeing: water for household consumption, industry and irrigation; convenient transportation; sustainable energy; scenic

landscapes and wildlife habitats. However, the global river environments are being influenced greatly by the increasing urbanization in the developing and developed countries. Worldwide, catastrophic floods make millions of people homeless, cause huge economic loss and destroy, or seriously damage, the environment every year.

After a series of destructive floods, extensive researchinto the behaviour of natural rivers and manmadechannelshas beencarried out in order to understandand manage floods since the early parts of the last century. To meet the needsof sustainableflood the interests of flood researchhave transferred from understanding of management, the hydrodynamics in flooding channelsto studying the channelconveyancecapacity. As most of the natural rivers consist of a deep main channel for the primary flow conveyanceand shallow floodplain(s) for auxiliary conveyanceduring floods (the socalled compoundchannels),many controlled environmentsfor flood study are built in the form of a compoundchannel.In the United Kingdom, extensiveresearchon flood control has been conducted using the SERC Flood Channel Facility (SERC-FCF), which consistsof a channel56m long, 10m wide with a dischargecapacity of 1.1 m3/s (Shiono & Knight 1991).
Numerous researchers have studied the straight compound channel flows in the past to understand the flow mechanisms both experimentally and numerically (Sellin 1964; Knight & Lai 1985; Shiono & Knight 1991; Naot et al. 1993; Knight & Shiono 1996; Nezu & Nakayama 1997; Bousmar 2002; Prooijen et al. 2005). The strong interaction between the fast main channel flow and the slow floodplain flow causes significant lateral momentum exchange near the junction of the main channel and the floodplain, which makes the flow structures very complex and causes additional flow resistance and then reduces the channel conveyance. In straight compound channels, the three flow mechanisms are the bed-generated turbulence, free shear turbulence and main (Shiono & Knight 1991). In the previous studies, one of the secondary currents

is usually thought to be of the most importance. The main contributions mechanisms these physical processes to the lateral momentum exchange under different flow of

conditions are still unclear. Recently, the river hydraulics in vegetated open channels has become one of the focusesof flood researchdue to the environmental point of view. River vegetationhas traditionally been considered to produce high flow resistance and consequently decrease channel conveyancecapacity when the river is flooding. However, more the to preservethe natural river vegetationand implement river and more engineersprefer the vegetation has advantagesfor river protection and restoration schemes since ecological equilibrium.
During the first stages of the research on hydraulics in vegetated channels, most of the the flow resistance in terms of the roughness research work was concentrated on the friction factor due to the vegetation (Li & Shen 1973; Petryk & coefficient or Bosmajian 1975; Kouwen & Fathi-Moghadam 2000). Increasing efforts are now

being made to explore the complex physical processes due to the presence of Most of the experimental and numerical investigations of the vegetated vegetation. flows are carried out in the simple channels with emergent and submerged channel bed (Tsujimoto 1992; Nepf 1999; Nepf & Vivoni 2000; vegetation on the channel Nezu & Onitsuka 2001). Compound channels with vegetation on the floodplain exist in nature and investigations of the flow characteristics in these kinds of widely importance. However, only limited literature is available for channels are of practical on the whole floodplain the case of compound channels with emergent vegetation (Pasche & Rouve 1985; Naot et al. 1996; Rameshwaran & Shiono 2006). The flow in compound channels with one-line, emergent vegetation and with characteristics the floodplain have not been reported to date. Some natural submerged vegetation on compound channels consist of a vegetated main channel and non-vegetated

floodplain, but the flow characteristics in these channels have not been extensively investigated. Recently, the free shear turbulence in the compound channel has been receiving increasing interest from researchers and engineers. Since Sellin (1964) first observed the large-scale turbulence structures near the MC-FP junction in the compound the large eddies in compound channels have been investigated with channels,

and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) (Tamai et al, 1986; Nezu & Nakayama, 1997). Large Eddy Simulation (LES) has also been applied to predict large eddies in the compound channel. Thomas and Williams (1995) applied LES to compound channel flow, but they only analysed the mean flow characteristics. Bousmar (2002) applied the depthaveraged Sub-Depth-Scale turbulence model of Nadaoka and Yagi (1998) to simulate the unsteady compound channel flow without vegetation. Ifuku and Shiono (2004) developed a 2-D, depth-averaged, LES model and predicted the instantaneous longitudinal and lateral velocities in a 60m-long, FCF, straight compound channel with emergent trees on the floodplain. LES has not been applied to predict the unsteady flow characteristics in the compound channel with one-line emergent the floodplain edge and that with submerged vegetation on the whole vegetation along

experiments using flow-visualisation

floodplain.
1 For engineering issues, the quasi-2D model is a very useful tool to predict the lateral distributions of depth-averaged velocity and bed shear stress in straight compound channel. Compared with other 1D, 2D and 3D models, it has the advantages of simplicity, effectiveness and accuracy. It has been successfully applied to predict the 2D flow structures in wide compound channels with and without emergent vegetation on the floodplain (Rameshwaran & Shiono 2006). However, the predictive capability of the quasi-2D model to predict the 2D flow structures in narrow compound channels is still uncertain. In the vegetation case, the drag force due to the vegetation can be introduced into the depth-averaged momentum equation as a source term; thus, the treatment of the drag force is the key to the satisfactory application of the quasi-2D model. In the cases of the compound channel with one-line emergent vegetation on the floodplain and that with submerged vegetation on the whole floodplain, the

predictive capability of the quasi-2D model to predict the 2D flow structures also remains uncertain.

Based on the researchgaps identified above, the main objectives of this researchare
to understand and predict the mean and unsteady flow characteristics under certain flow conditions. The detailed research objectives are listed below:

(1) To carry out the velocity and boundary shear stress measurements in the compound channels to study the shear-generated turbulence and secondary from the point of depth-averaging. currents (2) To understand the turbulent characteristics in the compound channels without vegetation, with one-line emergent vegetation at the floodplain edge and

on the floodplain, and with submerged vegetation on the emergent vegetation floodplain.

(3) To explore the unsteady flow characteristics in the compound channels vegetation, with one-line emergentvegetation at the floodplain edge without vegetationon the floodplain. and submerged (4) To assess and improve the capability of the quasi-2D model to predict the 2D flow characteristicsin shallow and deep compound channels without mean with one-line emergentvegetation at the floodplain edge and with vegetation, vegetationon the floodplain. submerged (5) To give referencesfor the engineering application in flood managementby evaluating the maximum water level in the compoundchannel and treating the drag force term in the quasi-2D model appropriately. To meet the aboveresearchobjectives,the following researchapproaches adopted. are Firstly, different compoundchannelswere designedand constructedto investigatethe flow characteristics experimentally. Secondly, LES was then applied to study the unsteadyflow characteristicsin the compound channels.Thirdly, the quasi-2D model to predict the 2D flow structuresin these channels with new approaches was applied for the engineeringapplication.
This thesis consists of eight chapters. Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction to the subject, background and objectives of this research. Chapter 2 outlines a

comprehensive review of the literature on the straight compound channels with and on the floodplain, which identifies the research prospects for this without vegetation Chapter 3 explains the experimental methodologies adopted in this research, research. include the channel bed levelling and channel design, calibrations for the which transducer and tests for the Pitot tube and the Preston tube. Velocity pressure with a Pitot tube and a 3D non-intrusive Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter measurements (ADV) as well as boundary shear stress measurement with a Preston tube are also

explained. Chapter 4 shows the results obtained from simple rectangular channels, rectangular and trapezoidal compound channels without vegetation on the floodplain and trapezoidal compound channels with one-line emergent rods along the floodplain edge. Chapter 5 presents the results of turbulence measurements in trapezoidal compound channels without vegetation, with emergent and submerged vegetation on the floodplain. Chapter 6 illustrates the numerical methodologies of LES and

investigations of the unsteady flow characteristics in a smooth shallow numerical compound channel, a compound channel with one-line emergent rods along the floodplain edge and a compound channel with submerged rods on the floodplain. Chapter 7 concentrates on the mean flow prediction for the smooth and vegetated with the quasi-2D model. Chapter 8 summarises the important compound channel findings from Chapters 4,5,6 and 7 and makes recommendations for future research =

References of the text quoted from the literature are listed at the end of this projects. thesis.

Chapter 2

Literature Review
The characteristics of flows in straight open channels are mainly reviewed in this chapter. The main aspects of turbulent characteristics are given first. Secondary mean flow and boundary shear stress in the simple open channel are currents, described in Section 2.2. The flow mechanisms, secondary currents, large eddies, mean flow and boundary shear stress in straight, compound channels are summarised in Section 2.3. The drag coefficient, large eddies and other flow behaviours in vegetated channel flows are finally reviewed in Section 2.4. Several uncertainties related to vegetated, compound channel flow are also pointed out in Section 2.4

2.1 Turbulent characteristics

Almost all geophysical flows that occur in nature are turbulent. Despite the

randomness of turbulence, some turbulent characteristics or quantities can be quantified statistically. The characteristic flow parameters are important in both

theoretical turbulence research and practical engineering applications. In this section, turbulent intensity, turbulent kinetic energy and Reynolds shear stress are briefly summarized. 2.1.1 Turbulent intensity

Turbulent intensity is defined as the r.m.s. value of velocity fluctuations. The behaviour of turbulent intensity in the open channelhas been extensively investigated since the first turbulent measurements were made by Raichlen (1967) using dualsensor, hot-film anemometers. Beyond a Reynolds number of 4,000, Nezu and

Nakagawa(1993) found that the turbulent intensities are independentof the Reynolds number and the Froude number and proposedthe following universal expressions: '/U. = D exp(- Ck) u V/U. = Dv exp(- Ck) '1U. = D, exp(- CA ) w y (2.1)

(2.2)

(2.3)

V and w are the turbulent intensities in the longitudinal where u', x, lateral y and vertical z directions, respectively; U. is the shear velocity; D , Dv and D, are y =Z/H is the normalized z-coordinate; Z is the distance empirical constants; above the channel bed and H is the water depth of the flow.

The above universal expressions in were confirmed by turbulent measurements wide, channels using Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADVP) and Laser Doppler open Anemometer (LDA) by Song et al. (1994), Muste and Patel (1997), and Nezu et al. (1998), but the empirical constants in the expressions vary. However, these are not valid near the channel boundary where the viscous effects exist expressions (Nezu 1977). (" 0

Many experimental results have shown u> v> w in open channels (Grass 1971; Steffler et al. 1985; Shi et al. 1999), but u' >w> 2002). (u*2 Turbulence kinetic energy(k), defined as k= +0+ turbulence intensity and canbe expressedasfollows: k/U; = Dk exp(- 2Ck) where Dk and Ck are the empirical constants. 2.1.2 Reynolds shear stress Reynolds shear stress (2'U) represents the momentum exchange due to turbulent motion. Reynolds shear stress(z, ) is usually expressedby the eddy viscosity or the mixing length.
Boussinesq (1877) assumed that the Reynolds stress behaves similarly to the viscous stress, therefore he developed the eddy viscosity concept, which relates the shear Reynolds stress (z ;j) to the gradients of mean velocity by Equation 2.5.

v'near the channel wall (Renato

)/ 2, behaves similarly to w"

(2.4)

Z. 1--putuj

a Ur -Per DX J

(2.5)

p is the fluid where

density, u, and u, are velocity fluctuations

in x, and xj

directions, respectively, e, is the turbulent or eddy viscosity which is a property of the

flow rather than the fluid and is dependenton the stateof turbulence. For steady, uniform, homogeneous flow, the turbulent eddy viscosity can be
follows (Nezu & Nakagawa 1993): expressed as

E, = KU Z (1- ) where K is the Von Karman constant(K=0.41).

(2-6)

Prandtl (1925) assumedthat the turbulent fluctuations are proportional to the local gradient, and related the Reynolds stress (r 1 to the exchange distance of velocity j) turbulent eddiesand the meanflow quantities.In this concept,Reynolds shearstressis as expressed follows:
DU, DUI Polin - PIM2 axj axe

zi,l

(2-7)

lm is the turbulent mixing length. where flow, the turbulent mixing length can be expressed For steady,uniform, homogeneous asfollows: 11. =(1-)y
2.2 Simple open channel flow

(2-8)

2.2.1 Secondary currents

2.2.1.1 Generation mechanism A detailed description of secondary currents is beyond the scope of this work. A brief introduction to secondary currents in simple, straight, open channels is given below. According to their generation mechanisms, the secondary currents in open channels can be categorised into two kinds: the Prandtl's first kind and the Prandtl's second kind (Nezu & Nakagawa 1993).

Secondary currents of the Prandtl's first kind are generated by centrifugal force, can be observed in the curved or meandering channel, even in laminar flow as which well as turbulent flow. Secondary currents of this kind are the so-called pressure- or geometry-driven secondary currents. Secondary currents of the Prandtl's second kind by anisotropic turbulence, which can often be observed in straight are produced channels and ducts. Secondary currents of this kind are the so-called turbulencedriven secondary currents.

The turbulence-driven secondarymotions in straight, open channelsare governed by Equation 2.9. In Equation 2.9, Term A represents the advection of longitudinal by the main flow and is equal to zero if no secondarycurrents exist, Term B vorticity the generationof the secondarycurrents by anisotropic turbulence,Term C represents the generationof secondarycurrents by the shearstressand Term D is the represents term which is only important close to the wall. viscosity aas an" = a2 w2 -v2)+

az

+V

ay azay
ABCD

a2 az2 aye

(wv)+vV2fj aZ

(2.9)

where S2x =

is the longitudinal vorticity.

by Researchers have statedthat the secondarycurrents are generated various sources. Based on the possible explanations of Prandtl (1953), Brundrett and Baines (1964) evaluatedeachterm in the vorticity equation and concludedthat the secondarycurrent is produced by the gradient of the normal stress difference. On the other hand, Einstein and Li (1958) first ascribedthe origin of the secondarycurrent in straight, flow to the gradientsof the Reynolds shear stresses, suggestionalso a open-channel supportedby Gessner(1973).
With the advent of measurement and modelling techniques, Nezu and Nakagawa (1984) and Demuren and Rodi (1984) verified experimentally and numerically that

Term B and Term C are dominant and opposite in sign. The difference betweenTerm

B and Term C generates the secondary currents in straight, open channels, but Term B is the main generation source of secondary currents (Nezu & Nakagawa 1993). Secondary currents can be observed by experimental measurement and numerical Nezu and Rodi (1985a) first accurately measured secondary currents in modelling. rectangular open channel flows with a two-component LDA. Tominaga et al (1989) and Shiono and Knight (1989) measured secondary currents in compound open The secondary currents can also be

flows with a two-component LDA. channel

by using appropriate turbulence models. Launder and Ying (1973) numerically solved the secondary currents in fully-developed, straight-channel flow with an calculated model. Nato and Rodi (1982) successfully simulated the vorticity algebraic stress term (w2 -v2 ) by introducing an empirical damping function of the generation turbulence due to the free water surface and the computational results agreed well the measurements by Nezu and Rodi (1985a). Extensive measurement and with reveal that the secondary currents are also influenced by channel calculation results flow conditions (Tominaga et al. 1989; Nezu & Nakagawa 1993). geometry and

Although the magnitudes of the secondary currents are only 1- 4% of the bulk (Lin & Shiono 1994), the secondarycurrents play an important role in the velocity hydraulic behaviour in the open channel and this will be discussedin the following
sections. 2.2.1.2 Secondary current pattern Secondary currents have been widely worldwide investigated by scientists and engineers

Thomson (1878) first discovered the importance of secondary since

motions. Based on extensive experimental observations (Nezu & Rodi 1985a; Nezu & Nakagawa 1993, Imamoto et al. 1993) and numerical calculations (Naot & Rodi 1982), the secondary currents near the free-surface and the bottom exist in almost all open channels and the third mid-depth vortex might occur at the half depth of simple, the channel in narrow, open channels. According to the experimental and theoretical investigations (Nezu and Rodi 1985b;

Nezu et al. 1989; Knight & Lai 1985), the aspectratio (ar) has an obvious effect on
hydrodynamic behaviour in open-channel flows. The aspect ratio of a channel is

10

defined as the ratio between the width of the channel (B) and the depth of the flow (H). Nezu and Nakagawa (1993) proposed the critical value of aspect ratio are. as 4-5. In narrow, open channels, ar S arg and the 3-D open channel flow prevails in the whole cross-section of the channel. In wide, open channels, or >_ arc , the 2-D channel flow prevails in most cross-sections of the channel. open

Figure 2.1 shows secondarycurrent streamlinesin a rectangular open channel under ratios (Naot & Rodi 1982). The free-surface vortex is much various channel aspect than the bottom vortex and is of most significance to the flow behaviour in stronger becauseit transports high momentum from the water surface to the open channels mid-depth and this momentum exchangecausesthe velocity-dip phenomenon.The bottom vortex, limited by the comer and bottom bisectors,moves the low momentum fluids from near the walls towards the channelcentre.
It can also be seen from Figure 2.1 that the clockwise upper free-surface vortex grows in strength and size and suppresses the lower bottom vortex as the aspect ratio increases. Therefore, the upper free-surface vortex occupies most of the channel and the lower vortex is squeezed into the channel corner. However, the secondary current the same when the aspect ratios are higher than 4. On the other patterns are almost hand, the lower vortex grows in strength and increases in size and eventually dominates the secondary motion as the aspect ratio decreases below 2. When the aspect ratio falls below 1, the upper vortex becomes very weak and breaks up into two or more weaker vortices. Thus the aspect ratio is a key factor in secondary current generation. 2.2.2 Mean velocity Thomson (1878) first discovered the phenomenon that the maximum velocity occurs below the free water surface. It has been widely recognised that the velocity-dip phenomenon is caused by the secondary currents in open channels, especially in (Nezu & Nakagawa 1993). For an aspect ratio < 2, the location narrow, open channels of the maximum velocity is at around Z/H = 0.60 for both subcritical and

supercritical flows (Nezu & Nakagawa 1993).

11

Unlike the isovels in closed channels (Bradshaw 1987), the isovels in open channels bulge towards the sidewalls and the corner due to the presence of secondary currents and these behaviours are not strongly affected by the Froude number (Nezu & Nakagawa 1993). The isovels are more distorted and the velocity-dip more noticeable for smaller aspect ratios <4 (Naot & Rodi 1982). Therefore, the main features of the velocity channels, ar <5, distribution in simple narrow open phenomena

are the depression of the maximum velocity below the water

the inclination of isovels near the water surface towards the centre and the surface, bulging towards the sidewalls and corners. Figure 2.2 shows the isovels under various ratios, which agree well with the secondary current patterns as shown in Figure aspect 2.1 (Naot & Rodi 1982).

2.2.3 Boundary shear stress Boundary shear stress is directly related to flow resistance,sediment transport and bank erosion. The overall boundary shear stress(zo) around the wetted perimeter in flow can be expressed the following equation: by the uniform, open-channel TO pgRS0 = (2.10)

where R is the hydraulic radius, g is the gravity accelerationand So is the bed slope of the channel.
The distribution of boundary shear stress around the wetted perimeter of a channel is dependent on many factors, mainly the shape of the cross-section, boundary

roughness and flow conditions. Figures 2.3a and 2.3b show the typical distributions of wall shear stress and bed shear stress in rectangular, open channels under various (Knight et al. 1984). The representative distributions of bed shear stress aspect ratios in trapezoidal open channels under different aspect ratios can be found in Knight et al. (1994). The wavy distributions of boundary shear stress seen in Figures 2.3a - 2.3b by secondary currents (Nezu & Nakagawa 1993; Knight et al. 1994; Naot are caused & Rodi 1982; Knight & Patel 1985). Based on extensive experimental data, Knight et al. (1984,1994) developed empirical expressions to relate the mean wall shear stress

12

( zw) and mean bed shear stress (2'b) to the overall boundary shear stress in
rectangular and trapezoidal channels, which are very useful to engineering practice.

2.3 Compound open channel flow Most natural rivers and man-made channels have floodplains that extend laterally from the river channel, "so-called compound channels" (Knight & Shiono away 1996). To effectively manage the flood and riverbank system, the distributions of boundary shear stressneed to be understood.Since the last century, this velocity and has driven many scientists and engineers to carry out extensive studies on the flow behaviours in compound channels (Knight & Demetriou 1983; complicated Fukuoka & Fujita 1989; Shiono & Knight 1991; Rhodes& Knight 1994). 2.3.1 Flow mechanisms The differences in water depth and bed friction across sections in the compound lead to the velocity difference betweenthe main channel and the floodplain(s) channel the formation of a shearlayer near the junction of the main channel and consequently the floodplain (MC-FP junction). The complex overflow mechanisms in a and trapezoidal channel are schematically illustrated in Figure 2.4 (Shiono & compound, Knight 1991). The complex flow structures in compound channels arise from three distinct physical processes, namely, the bed-generated turbulence, free shear turbulenceand secondarycurrents (Shiono & Knight 1991).
Sellin (1964) first identified the existence of vertical vortices at the MC-FP junction, as shown in Figure 2.5, using a flow visualisation technique and explained that these vertical vortices transported the high momentum fluid from the main channel towards the floodplain. Zheleznyakov (1965) called this momentum-exchange phenomenon the "kinematic effect" and showed that the interaction between the main channel flow and the floodplain flow becomes weaker as the water depth increases. The vertical by other researchers (e.g. Tamai et al. 1986). Large vortices were also observed as shown in Figure 2.6 were observed in compound channels by Fukuoda and eddies Fujita (1989). In addition to the vertical vortices, the helical secondary currents exist in the longitudinal direction and also play an important role in the momentum

the MC-FP junction (Shiono & Knight 1989; Tominaga & exchange, especially near Nezu 1991).

13

In the previous studies, one of the above mechanisms is usually thought to be the most important. The individual contribution of these processes to the transverse momentum is still unclear and needs to be quantified and generalized under various exchange geometries and flow conditions. The relative water depth (D,. ), the ratio of channel depth on the floodplain (h) to that in the main channel (H), plays a very water important role in the momentum exchange. Strong interaction between the main flow and the floodplain flow usually occurs for relative depths D,. = 0.1 - 0.3 channel (Knight & Shiono 1996). However, the low relative water depth leads to very small depths on the floodplains at the laboratory scale and this obviously makes the water to measure flow parameters difficult. Thus, the data for such small experimental work depths have not been currently available and will be collected in this study. water The momentum exchange near the MC-FP junction causes considerable turbulent then produces additional flow resistance, which reduces the channel shear stress and (Myers 1978). Apparent shear stress is normally used to reflect conveyance capacity the momentum exchange arising from the bed-generated and the overall effects of layer turbulence and secondary currents (Myers 1978; Knight & Demetriou shear1983; Shino & Knight 1991). Apparent shear stress can be easily obtained from turbulence measurement data. Based on the bed shear stress data across the section, Shino & Knight (1991) proposed a new approach to calculate depth-averaged, trapezoidal, compound channel. The

stress in the symmetrical, apparent shear

this approach to calculate the apparent shear stress in the asymmetrical application of to be assessedfurther. Thus, the calculation method for the compound channel needs shear stress in such cases will be explored in this study. apparent To numerically investigate complex flow structures in compound channels, a number 1-D, 2-D and 3-D numerical models have been developed by many researchers of (Knight & Shiono 1996). 1-D models can only be used to predict the stage-discharge 3-D models can give detailed information about flow structures, but they relationship. quite a few empirical constants and the simulations take a long time. For require applications, 2-D models seem to be the best way to predict the depthengineering averaged velocities and bed shear stresses across the section. In the quasi 2-D model of Rameshwaran & Shiono (2006), the friction factors, depth-averaged eddy

viscosities (v, ) and the gradients of the depth-averaged, secondary-current term

14

)d/ay) (a(HpUV

across the section are required. Thus, an investigation of these

parameterswill be carried out under various flow conditions in this study. 2.3.2 Secondary currents Secondary currents in compound channels are generatedby anisotropic turbulence their patterns are influenced by many factors, such as the channel geometry and and the flow conditions. Shiono and Knight (1989) undertook secondarycurrent measurements using a Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA) in the SERC Flood Channel Facility at Hydraulics ResearchLtd., Wallingford, England. According to their results,the shapeof the cross influences secondary current patterns in the main channel in the case of a section compound channel (See Figure 2.7). For the rectangular wide, symmetrical, a larger counter-clockwise secondary current cell exists in the compound channel, a smaller, clockwise, secondarycurrent cell exists in the left comer upper region and the main channel. For the trapezoidal compound channel, a smaller, counterof the MC-FP junction and a larger, clockwise secondary current cell exists near current cell exists in the main channel. One larger secondary clockwise, secondary current cell extends acrossthe majority of the floodplain, regardlessof the shape of the cross section. Smaller cells also exist in the far corner region of the floodplain. The geometry of the cross section also affects the secondary current patterns in compound channels.Shiono et al. (2003) predicted secondarycurrents using various numerical models in a narrow, asymmetrical, rectangular compound channel with a vertical sidewall. In the main channel, they identified a larger secondarycell in the upper region and a smaller secondarycell in the left corner. Thesewere also observed by Shiono and Knight (1989). Besides these two secondary cells, a clockwise cell was also identified near the left sidewall of the main channel. secondary
Naot et al. (1993) calculated the rectangular, compound, open-channel flows using the 3-D algebraic stress model (ASM). The calculated secondary currents agreed well the experimental results of Nezu (1996). The calculated results of secondary with currents also indicate that the secondary current patterns are influenced by the geometry of the cross section.

15

Tominaga & Nezu (1991) investigated the secondary current patterns in rectangular, channels. Under high relative water depth Dr = 0.75 (Figure 2.8 a), the compound secondary currents near the free surface prevailed over the main channel vortex and the floodplain vortex was very strong and reached the free surface. Under relative water depth Dr = 0.50 (Figure 2.8 b), a pair of secondary currents, called the mainchannel vortex and the floodplain vortex, was recognised near the MC-FP junction the free-surface vortex was also observed in the sidewall region of the main and Under low relative water depth Dr = 0.25 (Figure 2.8 c), the main channel channel. in the lateral direction and formed a flat vortex in the right side of vortex expanded the main channel. Compared with a smooth floodplairi, the rough floodplain with an ks'= 2mm has little effect on the secondary current equivalent sand roughness in compound channels. The effects of a rough main-channel bed on the patterns in compound channels remain uncertain. secondary currents According V, = (V2 to Tominaga and Nezu (1991), the maximum magnitude U. of in a

2)hh'2 about 4% of the maximum longitudinal is +W

velocity

while for simple, open-channel flow, the maximum magnitude of compound channel, (V 2+W2 )1'2 is VS= about 2-3% of the maximum longitudinal velocity U,,, . The az

magnitudes of secondary currents at the MC-FP junction in compound channels are 5% of the bulk longitudinal velocity (Naot et al. 1993; Nezu 1996). usually about Although the magnitude is small, the secondary currents can greatly influence the flow behaviours, such as velocity and boundary shear stress, in the open compound channels (Naot et al. 1993). 2.3.3 Large eddies

2.3.3.1Experimental observations
The velocity shear generates large-scale turbulent structures near the MC-FP junction. Sellin (1964) first observed large vortices at the surface of a compound channel from the photographs of aluminium powder scattered on the water surface taken by a downstream at a constant speed. The distances between adjacent camera moving by analysing photographs. The frequency of these vortex centres were evaluated distances or wavelength was also estimated. Since then, large eddies have been widely investigated using various experimental techniques.

16

Alavian

and Chu (1985) studied the large vortices in a small, experimental,

compound-channel flow and found that the bed friction generates the small-scale turbulence, and at the same time exerts a stabilizing influence on the large-scale lateral disturbance.

Tamai et al. (1986) performed a set of comparative experiments to identify the factor on the generation of large eddies in a compound channel flow. predominant They observedthat the large eddies are not boiling-like phenomena,but tornado-like vortices generatedby the local lateral shear at the MC-FP junction. Their velocity data using a hydrogen bubble method also showed that large eddies are measurement intensively stretchedby the existenceof,the vertical velocity gradient and that a strong upward flow existed along the vortex axis.
Using Particle Imaging Velocimetry (PIV) together with LDA, Nezu and Nakayama (1997) obtained detailed information about the three-dimensional flow structures in a Their experiments highlighted time-discontinuities for the helical compound channel. secondary currents and revealed the strong interaction between the upward flows and the horizontal vortices.

Previous experiments have mainly been concerned with the phenomenon of large eddies in compoundchannelsand have also revealed that large eddiescontain most of the turbulent kinetic energy. However, the relationship betweenthe eddy size and the turbulent energy has not been investigated. It is important to understand the eddy structuresunder various flow conditions, thus this will be investigatedin this study.
2.3.3.2 Numerical modelling Recently, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) has been used to investigate large eddies in compound channel flows. In LES, flow variables are separated into resolved and unresolved parts (Lesieur et al. 2005). The resolved or large-scale quantities control the turbulent diffusion of momentum or mass and they are computed numerically by solving modified conservation equations. The crucial effects of unresolved or smallscale quantities on the resolved ones are modelled with various sub-grid models. The unsteady characteristics of large eddies can be well captured using the LES technique. The flow behaviours can be modelled using LES better than the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) approach. In addition, this numerical modelling method does

17

not require such extensive computational power as Direct Numerical (DNS). Details of sub-grid models can be found in Lesieur et al. (2005).

Simulation

The Smagorinsky model is the most widely used sub-grid model. In this model, the Smagorinsky constant Cs may vary with location in the channel, but its value is usually set to 0.1 for general engineering applications. The sub-grid length scale 1sis dependent on the grid spacing and determined by Equation 2.11 (Deardorff 1970). According to Thomas and Willams (1995a), the length scale near the solid wall is scale on the usual mixing length ids,, where Kcis the Von Karman reduced and must and 1wis the distance to the wall. constant
is = cs (&, &yz)"3

(2.11)

In LES, periodic boundary conditions are usually imposed at the inlet and outlet boundaries and slip boundary conditions are usually used at the boundary walls (Thomas & Williams 1995a,Bousmar 2002). Thomas and Williams (1995a; 1995b) applied 3-D LES with the Smagorinski model to capture the complex flow structuresin a compound open channel under Reynolds numbers of approximately 42,000 and 430,000. In their works, the flow variables, mainly the velocities, bed shear stressesand Reynolds shear stresses,are all timeaveraged over time period 8H/U. the unsteady flow behaviours were not and

data presented.The overall simulation results agreedwith experimentalmeasurement from the SERC Flood Channel Facility at Hydraulics Research Ltd, Wallingford, England. The mean velocities were over-predictedby about 8% in the middle of the main channeland this was probably causedby the coarsestreamwisemeshresolution. The mesh intervals normalised by v/U were Ax' - 658, Ay' - 98, Az' - 240.
Shi et al. (2001) investigated the effects of the sub-grid model length scale and lateral the LES results for the compound channel flow. They found that there is resolution on no universal value of C, which satisfies all the range of mesh scales (A). Based on Mason's matching function (Mason & Thomson 1992), they modified the length scale function with varied power values. A lateral resolution of Ay' < 20 near the channel

18

boundaries was suggested. Using a reasonable length scale and lateral resolution, the mean velocity profile was better-predicted than that of Thomas and Williams (1995b). If a large eddy in a shallow, compound-channel flow is mainly two dimensional, a depth-averaged model will be sufficient to describe this phenomenon with less

expensive computation cost. A shallow water flow is characterised by the coexistence large-scale. 2-D. horizontal eddies with length scales larger than the water depth of 3-D turbulence with length scales less than the water depth (Nadaoka and small-scale, & Yagi 1998). Based on this flow structure, Nadaoka and Yagi (1998) developed the SDS-2DH model, which is slightly different to the LES. In this model, the large explicitly by solving the 2-D, shallow-water equations and the eddies are computed of the sub-depth scale turbulence (SDS) on the large eddies are implicitly effects with a k-l modelled turbulence model as expressed in Equation 2.12. In Equation

2.13, the turbulence length scale Id is calculated by Equation 2.13.

VSDS =

cu Cd

k12ld

(2.1 2)

ld = ,H

(2.13)

where vsos is the turbulence eddy viscosity, c.,,is constant and equal to 0.09, cd is to 0.17, k is the turbulencekinetic energy, , is a constantand H is constantand equal the water depth. Nadaokaand Yagi (1998) suggested ,=0.01.
Using the SDS-2DH model of Nadaoka and Yagi (1998), Bousmar (2002)

investigated large eddies in compound open channels under different relative water depth conditions. The numerical computation was initiated from an unperturbed uniform flow. The eddy generation in compound channels was qualitatively

reproduced and the effects of mesh resolution on the eddy generation were also analysed. The vortex wavelength estimated from the modelling results, agrees well with that from the hydrodynamic stability analysis and that from the experiments. The averaged velocity and bed shear stress profiles are predicted well in the shear layer. In the centre region of the main channel, the velocities are under-predicted for relative water depths Dr :50.15 and over-predicted for relative water depths Dr ? 0.20. The

19

on the floodplain are under-predicted, especially for high relative water velocities depth conditions. The predicted shear stress at the MC-FP junction is similar to that from experiments. 2.3.4 Mean velocity Mean velocities in compound, open-channel flows have been measured by many researchers (Knight & Lai 1985; Shiono & Knight 1991; Tominaga & Nezu 1991). The distributions of the longitudinal mean velocities are influenced by many factors, such as the shape and geometry of the cross section and relative water depth.

Figure 2.9 shows typical velocity isovels normalised by the maximum longitudinal in a rectangularcompound channelunder various relative water depth (U, velocity rX) (Tominaga & Nezu 1991). The clockwise secondarycurrents as shown in conditions Figure 2.8 carry fluid with lower momentumfrom the wall upwards to the free surface the MC-FP junction, then the velocities are reduced and consequently the near bulging near the MC-FP junction is formed. The velocity bulging near the velocity MC-FP junction is more obvious under moderate and deep relative water depth Under low relative water depth Dr = 0.25 (Figure 2.9c), the isovels do not conditions. bulge towards the free surface, but towards the sidewall of the main channel in the samemanner as with rectangularopen channels.The velocity bulging near the corners of the main channel is similar to that in simple, rectangular channels due to the secondarycurrentsoccurring near the corners.
In Figure 2.9, the free-surface vortex moves low-momentum fluid from the left wall towards the upper region of the main channel and causes the velocity-dip

phenomenon near the water surface. The bottom vortex causes the velocity reduction in a similar manner to that of the free-surface vortex. The maximum longitudinal velocity appears in the main channel but the location depends on the relative depth and the channel geometry. The velocity-dip phenomenon becomes more remarkable higher relative water depth conditions. under Knight and Lai (1985) pointed out that the channel geometry has an important effect

the velocity distribution in the compoundchannel. on

20

2.3.5 Boundary shear stress

The boundary shear stressesin compound, open-channel flows have been widely investigatedby researchersand engineers(Myers & Elsawy 1975; Knight & Hamed 1984; Knight & Lai 1985; Tominaga & Nezu 1990; Shiono & Knight 1991). The distribution of boundary shear stress along the wet perimeter of a channel is influenced by many factors, such as the shape of the cross section, the streamwise in planform geometry, the lateral and streamwisedistributions of boundary variation the sedimentconcentration(Knight et al. 1994). roughnessand
Figure 2.10 shows a typical distribution of boundary shear stresses along the wet "perimeter in shallow, compound, open-channel flows (Yuen 1989). `nder small

/zo 0.25, the normalised values of zb,,, decrease depth conditions Dr <_ relative water in the main channel and increase on the floodplain as the relative water depth increases. The wavy distributions of boundary shear stress are caused by the exchangebetween the faster main channelflow and the slower floodplain momentum flow, together with the complex distribution of secondarycurrent cells (Knight et al. 1994). The three dimensional turbulence characteristicsmake the boundary shear distribution very complex. The bed shearstress(zb) differs from the standard stress two-dimensional value (pgHS0) due to the transversegradient of the apparent shear stress(Shiono & Knight 1991). It has been found that the boundary shear stress on the main channel bed is usually smaller than pgHS0 and larger on the floodplain (Shiono & Knight, 1991; Tominaga & Nezu 1991; Knight & Shiono 1996). It has been explained that the difference between zb and pgHS0 is causedby the gradients of the depth-averagedReynolds stress and the secondary current in the lateral direction.
2.4 Vegetated compound open channel flow 2.4.1 Drag coefficient River vegetation can be mainly classified into two types: rigid (or stiff) and flexible (or deformable) vegetation. Stems with stiffness values (MEI) less than 200 N/m2 are

consideredas flexible vegetation, others are thought of as rigid vegetation (Stephen

1999). The stems of flexible vegetation can be deformed by the flow, while the stems

21

of rigid vegetation can remain in their original state in the flow. This study is only concerned with rigid vegetation. According to the definition of Douglas et al. (2001), the drag force per fluid mass (FT) due to rigid vegetation can be given by Equation 2.14. Based on the previous study on the drag force due to rigid vegetation is mainly dependent on stem vegetation, displacement, stem density and flow conditions (Petryk 1969; Fathigeometry, stem Maghadam & Kouwen 1997; Kouwen & Fathi-Moghadam 2000; Wilson et al. 2003).

PA,CDIUc2 2 FT pSbH

(2,14)

UUis the mean flow velocity in the vegetation layer, Ai and CD,are projected where drag coefficients of the ith element respectively, N,. is the total number of area and Sbis the areaof the river bed and H is the flow depth. elements, For a single cylinder, the drag coefficient is mainly influenced by the cylinder displacementand flow conditions (Douglas et al., 2001). The drag geometry, cylinder for a circular cylinder in a two-dimensional flow is about 1.2 within the coefficient cylinder Reynolds number range of 8 x103 to 2x105 and for its expression under Reynolds numbers less than 103can refer to Frank (1999) or Douglas et al. cylinder (2001).
For array cylinders, the drag coefficients for different cylinders could be different due to the wake characteristics, which contribute to the sheltering effect (Nepf 1999). Firstly, the downstream cylinder experiences a lower impact velocity due to the reduction caused by the wake. Secondly, the turbulence contributed by the velocity delays the point of separation on the downstream cylinder, which results in a wake lower pressure drop around the cylinder and thus a lower drag. This sheltering effect increases as both the longitudinal and lateral spacing between the cylinders decrease. The bulk drag coefficient CD can be expressed by Equation 2.15 (Nepf 1999):

2F, CD = 2-UZ c

(2.15)

22

? is the vegetation density, defined as the projected area per unit volume, and where

can be given by equation 2.16: 2NVD

dS H

AS2

(2.16)

Where Nv is the vegetation density (in-2 ); AS is the mean spacing between two

D is the cylinder diameterand H is the water depth. cylinders; Based on the force balance in uniform flow, the value of CD for emergentvegetation
be estimated from Equation 2.17 (Nepf 1999; Nikora 2000). can rr

(1-

/4)CaU, 2 +2 E7

)UC2 (1-)cs.D/4)gh =

Dh

(2.17)

the first left term represents the bed friction force, CB is the bed friction where can be determined from the bed shear stress; the second left term coefficient which the drag force due to vegetation; the right term represents the weight represents due to gravity. component The bulk drag coefficient usually decreasesas the vegetation population density increases.Under cylinder Reynolds numbers 4,000-10,000,Nepf (1999) concluded from 1.2 to 0.6 as cylinder density that the bulk drag coefficient decreases roughly increases from 0.008 to 0.07. In addition to the drag due to the projected area of vegetation, the shear on the top surface of the submerged vegetation also causesdrag force and the effect of the interface shearon the overall bulk drag coefficient needsto be considered.However, this effect hasnot been studied, thus this effect will be studiedhere. 2.4.2 Overall flow behaviours
2.4.2.1 Emergent vegetation

Simple, open-channelflow through emergentvegetationhas three characteristics:the flow is mainly pressure-driven;the primary source of turbulence production is from
the stem wakes and the principal exchange mechanism is longitudinal advection (Nepf

23

1999; Nepf & Vivoni 2000). In the emergent case, the turbulence length scale is of the order of the stem diameter. The turbulence intensities increase with the introduction of due to the wake, but decrease as the vegetation density increases sparse vegetation due to the reduced velocity. In a rectangular partly-vegetated channel, Tsujimoto (1992) measured the turbulence and an electromagnetic current meter. Under the water depth of with a micro-propeller decreases from 0.32m/s to 0.22m/s when the increases from 1.88m 1 to 11.34m"1. The velocity difference vegetation density about 4.5cm, the mean velocity between the vegetated zone and non-vegetated zone increases as the vegetation density increases. He. reported that the Reynolds shear stresses and turbulence for vegetation density 11.34m 1 are about 40% higher than those for intensities 1. vegetation density 1.88m

Naot et al. (1996) numerically predicted the flow behaviours in a rectangularpartlyusing an algebraic stress model. The maximum turbulent kinetic vegetated channel increasesas the vegetationdensity increasesfrom lower value to median value energy then decreases the vegetationdensity increasesto high values.The locations of as and the maximum turbulent kinetic energyshift from close to the channelbed at the edge the vegetation zone to the upper part of the shearlayer in the channelinterior. They of that this is causedby the stronger secondary currents at high vegetation explained densities.
In a compound channel with a vegetated floodplain, a lateral shear layer is generated the MC-FP junction and the momentum exchange mechanism is similar to that in near channel with uniform roughness (Pasche & Rouve 1985). However, the a compound flow resistance on the floodplain and then a emergent vegetation causes additional larger velocity difference and finally a lateral momentum exchange stronger than that in a compound channel with a smooth floodplain under similar relative water depth This can be clearly seen from the turbulence measurement data and conditions. predicted results of Rameshwaran and Shiono (2006).

In most vegetation studiesof compoundchannels,the vegetationwas distributed over the whole floodplain. However, little attention has been paid to vegetation along the
floodplain edge. One-line vegetation along the floodplain near the MC-FP junction

24

can absorb noticeable momentum from the mean flow, reduce the local velocity near the edge and finally reduce the bed shear stress near the edge which is helpful in protecting the riverbed. In addition, one-line vegetation along the floodplain can cause less conveyance effect than vegetation over the whole floodplain densities. vegetation 2.4.2.2 Submerged vegetation under similar

In simple, open-channelflow with submergedvegetation,the vertical discontinuity of vegetation results in a strong shear layer around the top of the vegetation which is to the free shear layer (Nepf & Vivoni 2000). Turbulence generatedin this similar layer transports the high momentum of the overlying water to the vegetation zone. Therefore, it defines the scales of active turbulence in the channel with the shear length scalebeing of the order of the vegetationheight. In this case,the flow is mainly driven by the shearstressand the momentum-exchange mechanisminvolves turbulent through large eddies. exchange
The flow behaviours in simple open channels with vegetated beds have been widely investigated by researchers and engineers (Tsujimoto et al. 1992; Naot et al. 1996; Nepf & Vivoni 2000; Lopez & Garcia 2001). Tsujimoto et al. (1992) carried out turbulence measurements in a rectangular channel with rigid vegetation on the bed. The velocity deflection was observed at the interface between the vegetated and the zones. Turbulent intensities and Reynolds shear stresses peak at the non-vegetated interface and their values increase as the water depth above the vegetation zone increases. In partly vegetated channels or compound channels with vegetated floodplains, the flow behaviours are more complex than those in the smooth open channels (Shimizu & Tsujimoto 1993; Naot et al. 1996; Nezu & Onitsuka 2001). In submerged

vegetation cases, both lateral and vertical shear layers exist between the vegetated zone and the non-vegetated zone due to the submerged vegetation. These shear layers generated by the vegetation make the flow behaviours more complex than those in the emergent vegetation cases. Nezu and Onitsuka (2001) carried out detailed turbulence measurements in partlyvegetated open channels using LDA and PlV techniques. The vegetation was

25

simulated by bronze cylinder rods with a diameter of 2 mm and a length of 50 mm. The dimensionless vegetation densities, Ad, were chosen as 0.0625,0.25 and 1.0.

The Froude numbers were set at 0.10,0.24 and 0.40 under the same water depth of 7cm.

Nezu and Onitsuka (2001) reported that the maximum region of u', V and w'is at the boundariesbetweenthe vegetatedand non-vegetatedzones.The isovel of V is similar The value of V increasescomplicatedly near the water surface at the to that of u'. junction owing to the coherent horizontal vortex, but that of w does not increase the vegetation owing to the depressionof the water surface. The position much over the maximum vertical Reynolds shearstress-uw is at around the vertical interface of between the vegetated and non-vegetatedzones. The position of the peak lateral Reynolds shear stress -uv is at around the lateral interface between the vegetated zone and the non-vegetated zone and the peak value increases with the Froude number. Their results also show that the lateral Reynolds shearstressincreasesas the density and the Froude number increase. vegetation The flow characteristicsin a compound channel with submergedvegetation on the floodplain have not beenreportedto date,thus they are investigatedin this study. 2.4.3 Large eddies
2.4.3.1 Emergent vegetation

Similar to smooth compound channel flows, large eddies exist in the shear layer in
simple partly-vegetated channels and compound channels with emergent vegetation

on the floodplains.
Pasche & Rouve (1985) carried out laboratory and field experiments in trapezoidal compound channels and observed the existence of large eddies at the interface between the vegetated floodplain and the smooth main channel using visualization techniques. In this flow, the energy spectra are dominated by a principal peak at frequency 0.125 Hz, which indicates that a periodic vortex is generated in the shear layer.

26

Tsujimoto (1992) used capacity limnimeters to measure the instantaneous fluctuations of the water surface as well as instantaneous fluctuations of the longitudinal and

lateral velocities in a partly-vegetated channel. The measurement results indicate that the intense transverse mixing fluctuations is caused by the organized and low-frequency in the shear layer and is maintained by These mechanisms are also clarified by

of the transverse velocity

associated water-surface fluctuations.

stochastic analyses of simultaneous measurements of velocities and water-surface elevation. Recently, LES has been applied to simulate large eddies in vegetated open channels. Ifuku and Shiono (2004) developed a 2-D, depth-averaged, LES model and predicted the instantaneous longitudinal and lateral velocities in a 60m-long, Flood Channel Facility (FCF), straight, compound channel with emergent trees on the floodplain. Smagorinsky model was used to determine the sub-grid eddy viscosity. Boundary discharge at the channel inlet, water depth at the channel outlet and conditions were slip condition on the wall. The vegetation effect was taken into account by

introducing the drag force term in the governing 2D depth-averaged equation. In . TELEMAC-2D, the vegetation was modelled by introducing simple geometry in the the boundary conditions were similar to those in Ifuku and Shiono (2004). mesh and Strong horizontal eddies were produced near the MC-FP junction (Ifuku & Shiono 2004). The trends of the predicted depth-averaged velocity and bed shear stress agreed the experimental data obtained from FCF in the United Kingdom (UK), but their with the MC-FP junction were over-predicted in the main channel side and values near on the floodplain side. The contributions of Reynolds shear stress and under-predicted the secondary current to the flow resistance were found to be relatively significant in the shear layer. Nadaoka and Yagi (1998) developed a 2-D, SDS-2DH model to simulate the of large eddies in a shallow, rectangular, open channel with a vegetated generation bank. They found that the bed friction and vegetation drag, acting as sinks of vorticity, play an important role in the development of large eddies and the production of Reynolds shear stress. They also noticed that the equilibrium horizontal eddy size increases with the vegetation-layer width Br .

27

Su and Li (2002) modified the LES model of Li and Wang (2000) and used a k-I model to parameterize the sub-grid turbulence. The vegetation effect was also as the internal source of drag force per unit fluid mass and was added into modelled the momentum equation. The predicted results show that large eddies occurred at the interface between the vegetation zone and non-vegetation zone. The numerical results with the experimental data of Tsujimoto and Kitamura (1992). agreed well

2D-LES has not been applied for the compound channel with one-line emergent the floodplain edge and it will be studied in this work. Results of vegetation along LES for.:vegetated, compound-channel flows using TELEMAC-2D have not..been reportedtill now. 2.4.3.2 Submerged vegetation Flow through submergedvegetation is characterised the large-scalecoherenteddies as the turbulence dynamics in the vertical shear layer (Nepf & Vivoni which control 2000). A typical large eddy consists of a pair of counter-rotating, longitudinal Sweeps generated by the downdraft between the vortex pair rather than vortices. dominatethe eddy fluxes (Finnigan 2000). ejections The vertical discontinuity of vegetation leads to the inflection of vertical velocity the top of the vegetation and this velocity inflection makes the flow profiles at to Kelvin-Helmholtz instability (Nepf & Vivoni 2000). This instability susceptible the large-scale,coherentvortices within the mixing layer. Some researchers generates have identified frequency peaks between 0.1 and 0.6 Hz in the energy spectra of the longitudinal velocity measuredwithin the vegetation canopies(Ackerman & Okubo 1993; Grizzle et al. 1996; Nepf & Vivoni 2000; Nezu & Onitsuka 2001). The advection of these vortices causes the progressive, coherent waving of aquatic known as "monami" (Ackerman & Okubo 1993;Tsujimoto 1993). vegetation,
PIV results from Nezu & Onitsuka (2001) showed that the horizontal large eddies near the free surface are generated by the velocity inflectional instability which

.,;

increases as the Froude number and vegetation density increase. The space-time correlation analyses show that large eddies control the momentum-exchange between the vegetated and non-vegetated zones by periodic motions. The vertical large eddies due to the lateral shear were not presented.

28

Compared with LES studies for emergent vegetation cases, LES has not been used to study the flow characteristics in the compound channel with submerged vegetation on the floodplain due to the more complex treatments of drag force and the lack of

computational power. Frohlich and Rodi (2004) carried out LES for the flow around a circular cylinder of finite height 2.5 times the diameter at a Reynolds number of Re = 43,000. Using fine the simulation results obtained with the Smagorinsky model captured the mesh, periodic eddy structures quite well and also agreed with the measurements. In the existence of tip vortices and an arch vortex in the average flow particular, downstream of the free end was also demonstrated, but the dependence of the heightto-diameter ratio on the flow simulation was not studied.

Park et al. (2004) evaluated the suitability of high-order accuracy, centred and compact difference schemesfor large eddy simulation (LES) through upwind-biased, both static and dynamic analyses. The results from the static analysis give a that both the aliasing and finite-differencing errors increase as misleading conclusion the numerical dissipation increases.The dynamic analysis, however, shows that the decreasesas the dissipation increasesand the finite-differencing error aliasing error the aliasing error. It is also shown that there exists an optimal upwind outweighs the total discretization error becausethe dissipative schemes scheme of minimizing decreasethe aliasing error but increasethe finite-differencing error. Based on LES for channel flow at Re = 23,000 and flow over a circular cylinder at Re = results 3,900, they found that the conventional,compact,upwind schemesare not suitable for LES, whereasthe fourth-order, compact-centredschemeis better for LES, provided that a proper treatmentof the nonlinear term is performed. 2.4.4 Mean flow
Extensive velocity measurements have been undertaken in partly-vegetated open channels. For channel flows over a bed covered by rigid vegetation, various empirical expressions have been developed to describe the velocity distributions over the water depth. Inside the vegetation zone, some researchers assumed the longitudinal velocities are uniform (Kouwen et al. 1969) or even zero (Christensen 1985). Most of the velocity expressions inside the vegetation zone are related to the vegetation

29

density and the constants in the expressions are usually functions of the vegetation density (Tsujimoto et al. 1992; EI-Hakim & Salama 1992; Kutija & Hong 1996;

Klopstra et al. 1997). The velocities above the vegetation zone are mainly expressed by a log-law and the characteristic roughness length is usually included in the (Kouwen et al. 1969; Nnaji & Wu 1973; Christensen 1985; Temple 1986). expression

For channels with vegetated corners, the isovels are different to those in smooth The maximum velocity occurs in the non-vegetatedzone and the compoundchannels. the free surface in the non-vegetated zone, when the ratios of velocity-dip occurs near the vegetationheight to water depth are relatively low (Shimizu & Tsujimoto 1992). 1: According to Naot et al. (1996) and Nezu & Onitsuka (2001), the isovels only bulge the junction between the vegetated and the non-vegetated zones under large near density conditions. This is caused by the secondary currents generated vegetation under thesevegetationconditions. Naot et al. (1996) also applied an algebraic stress model to predict the velocity distributions in a compoundchannelwith emergentvegetationon the floodplain. With increase in the vegetation density, the flow on the floodplain is considerably an of homogeneouslongitudinal velocity is formed and extendsto attenuatedand a zone the floodplain under higher vegetation densities. However, no experimental data are to verify this flow behaviour. To date, the isovels in the compound channel available floodplain have not been reported. For engineering applications, with a submerged the distributions of the depth-averaged velocity using 2D-SKM (Shiono prediction of & Knight 1991)in this casehas not been explored.
2.4.5 Secondary currents

The secondary currents in vegetated channel flows require more attention and investigation. Compared with smooth channel flows, literature on this topic is limited, especially in the caseof compound channelswith submerged currently very vegetationon the floodplain.
In channel flows through submerged vegetation, Nepf and Koch (1999) found smallscale vertical secondary currents behind the submerged stem, which play an important role in the vertical transport of sediments and nutrients within an aquatic canopy. The ascending flow is generated by the vertical pressure gradients along the surface of the

30

stem due to the gradient of the longitudinal velocity. It is controlled by a local balance the vertical pressure gradient, proportional to au2/az, and the viscous stress and is of influenced by vegetation density and flow velocity. The roughness difference also between the walls and the top of the vegetation zone can also cause secondary circulation above the vegetation, but the magnitude of the secondary currents can be less than 3mm/s (Ghisalberti 2000; Nepf & Vivoni 2000). even

Nezu and Onitsuka (2001) measuredsecondary currents with LDA in a vegetated and they found that the secondary currents were quite corner of an open channel different from those in smooth open channels.Their results show that a large, countercirculation exists in the channel (See Figure 2.11)-and they clockwise, secondary high-momentum fluid from the non-vegetatedzone to the top of the vegetated move then into the vegetatedzone and finally to the non-vegetatedzone. They also zone and found that the secondarycurrents are generatedby an anisotropic turbulence and that the strength of secondarycurrents near the free surface over the vegetation zone is of The strength of the secondary currents increases as the Froude appreciable size. number increases. 2.4.6 Boundary shear stress Vegetation in the channelbed increasesthe total drag by absorbing momentum from flow and thereby reduces the bed shear stress. In general, the boundary shear the the vegetatedbed is smaller than that in the non-vegetatedbed owing to the stresson drag force on the vegetation. Comparedwith the extensive turbulence measurements, has been successfully done on boundary shearstress date little measurement work to in the vegetatedchannel. The distribution of boundary shear stressin the vegetation depends on many factors, such as vegetation density, flow conditions and zone geometry (Shimizu & Tsujimoto 1993; Nezu & Onitsuka 2001; Anita & channel Bruce 2002; Crawley & Nickling 2002; Baptist 2003).
Shimizu & Tsujimoto (1993) tried to measure the boundary shear stresses on the bed in a compound channel and the vegetated corner of a channel, but they did not obtain values due to technical problems. However, they found that the boundary accurate shear stresses on the vegetated bed are smaller than those in the smooth compound channel under similar water depth conditions.

31

Thompson and Wilson (2002) measured the particle shear with a hot-film anemometer determined the drag force by using a special instrument in a flume with a length and 7.32m, a width of 0.38m and a height of 0.38m. Four idealized shapes were used to of simulate the geometric characteristics of vegetation: cylinders, rectangles, trapezoids large bases and trapezoids with small bases. Under the conditions of water with densities of 1-9 m 2, the experimental results depths 0.022-0.058 in and vegetation that the particle shear partition decreases with an increase in vegetation showed density and that the particle shear accounted for 13-89% of the total shear. The agreed well with the theory of Raupach (1992). measurement results

In most cases,the flow in the vegetation zone approximately relates to the flow over.. a the behaviour of the bed shearstressof the vegetatedbed is similar rough surface and To indirectly determine the bed shear stress in vegetated to that of a rough surface. two main calculation methods have been developed by a number of channels, The force balance method is used to determine the average bed shear researchers. channel bed and the momentum equation method is used to stress on a vegetated determinethe local bed shearstresson the vegetatedchannelbed. For uniform flow in vegetatedchannels,the bed shearstresscan be usually calculated from the relationship derived from the balance of the shear force on the bed, drag force on the vegetation and the weight component of the flow. This force balance the results of mean bed shear stress in vegetated channels method can give (Angelina & James2003). phenomenally
Extending the continuity equation and steady Reynolds equations for normal, openflow, Nezu and Onitsuka (2001) predicted the lateral distributions of bed channel in the partly-vegetated open channel. The distribution in the channel shear stresses from Equation 2.21 agreed well with those estimated from the log-law. The estimated bed shear stresses on the non-vegetated bed were larger than those on the vegetated bed. The bed shear stressesnear the MCFP region varied greatly and this was caused by the complex momentum-exchange.

In the momentum equation method, the effects of flow and vegetation conditions on the bed shear stressin vegetatedchannels are embodied. Theoretically, this method

32

can correctly predict results, but more verification is needed because the drag force term is not easy to determine precisely under complex flow conditions.

It is very important to know wall shearstress in terms of riverbank design since the wall shear stress affects the stability of the riverbank. However, experimental of measurements wall shear stressesin vegetatedchannelshave not been reported to date.

4. -

33

-j
7\

.:,
i
jsy ' "1 :. ^; C-7. [ ... `,= -: - zT... -nc r. "c<ri.: " car c:

47 y

- i4-.: ; ,,. . _ =_i/ .

__ _ rte:

Figure 2.1

Calculated secondary current streamlines in open channels under ratio conditions (after Nezu & Rodi 1982). various width-to-depth

WJ_, 13!
8 PI 4

i wrw: i.i5
1.101 t 00l BIH z6

Figure 2.2

Calculated longitudinal

various width-to-depth

velocity contours in open channels under ratio conditions (after Nezu & Rodi 1982).

34

.1

7H/ti "0 53 " 1.0

2B/H. 3 876 B/H. 3.91

5 0-

2 B/H=5 00
B/H. i" 4 71.

h0

li:
2 H/8.1.3S 10

to c 0.6

2B/H. 600 "

B/H. 1 74 oe !
2B/H. 10 2 00

ID

B/

r"

5 95

ZB/H . 7.50 '-B/H. 173

BAH . 200

ID

jK f" 56

Open clorWI flew Closed candWlflow 04 06 0b t0

o-e
1"

"

Open chonnel flow Closed condLAI flow

06

02

D4

016

0"

-D

znt

zr/ e

Distributions of wall shear stress and bed shear stress in open Figure 2.3 (after Knight et al. 1994). channels
Local velocities Momentum trans fer
veocities Interface vortices ^ /_>

Sher

T..

Fl oo d p l a i n River channel

Dircctuon nl IInH Secondary

flows

Boundary shear stresses

Overflow mechanisms in a two-stage compound Figure 2.4 (after Shiono & Knight 1991).

now channel

35

Large eddies observed at the junction between the main channel Figure 2.5 the floodplain of a compound channel (after Sellin 1964). and

Figure 2.6

Conceptual visualisation of the momentum exchange between the main channel and the floodplain of a compound channel (after Fukuoka & Fujita 1989).

36

n -z r : -, ri

Illustration of secondary currents in compound channels with trapezoidal cross-sections (after Shiono & Knight 1989). rectangular and Figure 2.7
/H (a) S-1 Smooth Compound Channel -* 0.02Umax

(a)

0.5 (e) Case S-1 (h/H-0. ]5)

(. 0
y'11 3-2

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0 z/H

2.5

3.0
0.02Umax

3.5

5.0

q. 5
,

"i

0.

tom

..

_.

J.

'100510152.0 ?H

2.5

3.0

3. S50

r, '11 1.0

(b)

S-3

Smooth Compound Channel

0.02Umax

(c) r 0,8.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 z/H I" 2.5

(b) Case S-3 (h/H-0.25)

3.0

3.5

i 5.0

Secondary current patterns for straight compound channel Figure 2.8 (after Tominaga & Nezu 1991). (a) h/H = 0.75 ; (b) h/H = 0.50 ; (c) h/H = 0.25.

37

t. o
y

(a) 5-1

SmoothCompound channel
". f

U/Uaax
is

offs

o. o (a) 0.5 e. e

Case 5-1 (h/H-U. 75) 0.0 1.0

y/H 0.5

1.0

I/H
e. frs

2.0
e. fs e. f . t

3.0
e. n
o. f

5.0
..,. r-"-

o. t

(b)

(h/H = .S) o.o

0.0 1.0 y/H 0.5 (C) e`` 0.0 0.0 1.0 z/H 2.0 3.0 h 5.0 o. " o. fs o. f (b) Case $-3 (h/H-0.25) 1.0 z/H 2.0 -3.0 6.0.4, 5.0

Longitudinal Figure 2.9 velocity (after Tominaga & Nezu 1991).

isovels for straight

compound

channel

bwhb o

s, "1

. 'wt 2

Or 0.051 0.100
0.150

To041s2> 0.3302 0.3786

0.4103

i0

f3

wi 03

0.200 0.230

0.4430 0.4U37 'p a

p oY. . E
Q

",

ae

a
i ao o N uAo"" " "e "

n "

"a A : va

rx
E
" t! ""n p o I >. o

0 00

000

---

--'

--

6 20

040 Lateral distance

C 60 y (m)

Figure 2.10

of boundary shear stress in compound trapezoidal channels under various relative water depth conditions (after Yuen 1989).

Distributions

38

1.00Case

FR1
r. j...

0.02 m -+
i.... t.. _w. j"""L_. i... ir""wi+"

(V / Umax .
,ii1"iiiii

W/

Umax
ii{

"i"J...

.ii

0.00

100--+
0.71-

0.2 case FR2

0.3

0.4

0.

0.0

z/B

0.8

s._a."-" -h-"- a,..i iiisii1iii ._.-r""i. _a.

... .,._&_..

0.4

z/B

FR4 case
0.71as 100, 02-

++:

S:

rSr4

.;

kt..:

..

rrrSf"

02 Figure 2.11

0.3

0.4

O. S

0:8

ZI ,V0;

Secondary current patterns for rectangular corner (after Nezu & Onitsuka 2001). vegetation

channels with

39

Chapter 3 Experimental Methodologies

In this section, the experimental methodologies used in this work are explained. Section 3.1 gives a detailed description of the experimental apparatus, which consists of rectangular channels, smooth compound channels and compound channels with floodplains. Section 3.2 describes the measurement techniques, including vegetated flow rate determination, Pitot tube and acoustic Doppler velocimeter for the velocity and a Preston tube for the boundary shear stress measurement.. measurement 3.1 Experimental apparatus

3.1.1 Rectangular channels 3.1.1.1 Hydraulic system

To model natural river environments during the experiments,various channelswere designed from simple rectangular channels to complex, compound channels with floodplains. Most experiments were undertaken in a small open channel vegetated (L) of 12 m and a width (B) of 0.306 m and in a large open channel with with a length LxB=8.6m x 0.915m in the hydraulic laboratory at Loughborough University.
The rectangular channel with LXB =12m x 0.306m was made out of Perspex and used to determine the flow rate chart and test a Preston tube and a Pitot was mainly tube. To study the flow development and gain basic knowledge of flow behaviour in open channels, two small rectangular channels with Lx B=8.3m x 0.15m and

Lx B=8.3m x 0.10m, as shown in Figure 3.1, were made by placing 5cm wide and 5cm high Perspex prisms in the small rectangular channel. Table 3.1 shows the flow for the rectangular channel experiments. The detailed flow conditions of conditions two representative rectangular cases SR-1 and SR-2 will be shown in Table 4.1. Figure 3.2 illustrates the hydraulic system of the small rectangular channel. It was filled with tap water through a circular PVC pipe by a centrifugal pump as shown in Figure 3.3a. Before the experiments the water level in the steel outlet tank (Lx BxH=3.00m x 1.30m x 0.89, n) was kept constant. The required flow rate,

measured by an electromagnetic flow meter (Figure 3.3b), was obtained by changing

40

the motor speed of the pump. The motor speed of the pump was controlled by adjusting the pump controller (Figure 3.3c) to obtain the required flow rate. Table 3.1 Flow Rate (m3/s) Flow conditions for rectangular Water Depth (m) open channels Water Temperature (C)

Channel Width (m)

Re (x104)

0.0048-0.0232 0.0012-0.009 0.00130.011

0.306 0.10 0.15

0.047-0.152 0.0295-0.0498 0.0303-0.0365

0.99-3.92 0.65-2.17 0.66-2.32

18.6-21.8 20.7-23.8 20.5-21.9 ".

To facilitate making the uniform flow under small water depths, an adjustable

methacrylateweir, as shown in Figure 3.4a, was fabricated and installed at polymethyl the outlet of the small rectangular channel. The uniform flow was obtained by the weir height at the outlet of the channel and the water depths were adjusting by a point gauge,as shown in Figure 3.4b. measured 3.1.1.2 Channel bed levelling Bed levelling is of utmost importanceto open channel experiments.The bed slope of the small rectangular channel was set to be 1/1,000 by using surveying equipment. The detailedproceduresare describedbelow. Firstly, six sectionswere chosenin the rectangularchannel.The longitudinal distances the six sections from the inlet are 0,0.805,2.513,4.908,8.246 at and 11.434 m, respectively.Two control points at eachsection were set to ensurethe zero bed slope in the lateral direction. The left point A and right point B were set at 2.8cm away from the left wall and the right wall, respectively. The zero control point was set at 12 m downstreamfrom the inlet.
Secondly, the expected bed levels of 6 sections along the channel were calculated

basedon a bed slope of 1/1,000.

41

Thirdly, the measured levels were obtained using the surveying equipment as shown in Figure 3.5 and the bed level difference between the expected and measured bed

levels at eachsection was evaluated. Fourthly, the screws under the channel sections were slightly and carefully adjusted
from the downstream section to the inlet section until the ideal bed levels were

Figure 3.6a showsthe bed level profiles of the left side. obtained. Lastly, six new sectionswere set at an interval of 2m from the channel inlet to x= 10 to check whether the bed slope is 1/1,000 or not. After slightly adjusting some m the channel was run with flowing water for 12 hours and the channel bed screws, checkedagain.Figure 3.6b shows the final bed level profiles. slope was For the large compound channel, the slopes of the main channel bed were 0.002 as in Figure 3.7 (Wilkins 2003). shown 3.1.1.3 Boundary roughness The bed roughness has an important influence on the flow behaviour. The distributions of boundary shearstresswill vary according to the bed roughness.At the beginning of the experiments,there were lots of glue and stickers along the channel bed and the sidewalls, which were used for building the channel, which could influence the distribution of the bed shearstressby changing the local bed obviously (Figure 3.8). roughness
The effect of changes in the bed roughness on the bed shear stress has been observed by a number of researchers. The formation of the internal boundary shear layer as a a sudden change of roughness has been studied by Fredsoe et al (1993) and result of Nezu & Tominaga (1994). They all noted an abrupt increase in the bed shear stress the bed at the larger roughness section. Although most of the bed roughness over heights on the channel boundary were about 1-2mm, their effect on the distribution of boundary shear stress was ambiguous. This indicates that complete cleaning of the channel is of vital importance in obtaining satisfactory measurements. All the glue on the channel boundary were therefore removed before the experiments. and stickers

42

3.1.1.4 Inlet turbulence To minimize the effect of inlet turbulence on the flow behaviour downstream, three major units were adopted (Figures 3.9a - 3.9b). Firstly, a 1m long steel inlet tank, as shown in Figure 3.9a, was constructed to minimize the strong turbulence from the outlet of the circular PVC pipe. The cross-section of the lm long inlet tank changes in dimension from BXH=0.59m x 1.40m to BXH=0.31m x 0.50i n. Secondly, a 10cm

long, 30cm wide and 20cm high Kraft honeycomb with small, uniform, hexagonal holes, as shown in Figure 3.9b, was placed at the entrance to the channel to straighten the flow and prevent large disturbances due to inlet turbulence. The average diagonal length of the hexagonal holes was about 1cm. Thirdly, a 25.5cm long, 30.5cm wide 2.5cm high float foam plate, as shown in Figure 3.9b, was fixed to the honeycomb and by a nylon thread to avoid the wavy water surface propagating downstream.

Figures 3.10a - 3.10c show the depth-averagedvelocity profiles and isovel lines at discharge 15 Ls with and without the honeycomb. The isovel lines and depthare totally different with and without the honeycomb. When averagedvelocity profile the honeycomb was used, the velocity pattern is nearly symmetrical and similar to those in the literature. The depth-averaged velocity profile is also symmetrical. This indicatesthat the honeycomb plays an important role in minimizing the effect of inlet turbulence and the honeycomb was therefore placed at the channel inlet for each experiment. 3.1.2 Smooth compound channels The schematicfigure for the compound channel is shown in Figure 3.11. Table 3.2 lists the geometricalparametersfor some compoundchannelsfound in the literatures.
Notations in Table 3.2 can refer to Figure 3.11. Based on the geometrical parameters listed in Table 3.2, the rectangular compound channel, as shown in Figure 3.12a, was made by putting PVC plates on the right side the rectangular channel. To investigate the effects of channel geometry on flow of behaviour, the small, trapezoidal, compound channel shown in Figure 3.12b was also in the rectangular channel. These two compound channels were mainly used to made acquire basic knowledge of flow behaviour and to study the effects of large eddies on momentum exchange. To further study the effects of large eddies on momentum

43

exchange, the larger trapezoidal compound channel shown in Figure 3.12c was in a larger flume. In the large compound channel, it is possible to constructed turbulence measurements with an acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV). undertake

for Table 3.3 lists the geometricalparameters compound channelsused in this study.
Table 3.2 Geometrical parameters for compound channels in literatures

Bj{cm) 225 20 10 10 10 20 20 20

Bm(cm) 75 10 20 15 10 20 20 20

BS(cm) 15 0 0 5 10 0 0 0

D(cm) 15 5 5 5 5 2 4 6

Bf/D 15 4 2 2 2 10 5 3.33

BfBm 3 2 0.5 0.67 1 1 1 1

Reference Shiono & Knight, 1991

New & Nakayama, 1997

Tominaga & Nezu 1991 ,

The large compound channel with a bed slope of 1/500 is 8.6 m long, 0.915 m wide 0.80 m deep. The channel sides were fabricated with slate. Four glass viewingand incorporatedon both channel sides.The main channelbed was a grass windows were The floodplain was wood. The water was circulated between the channel mattress. the ground water tank by an axial pump. The water level was measuredwith a and
gauge. An adjustable weir was installed at the channel outlet to control the water point

level in the channel.A honeycombwas put at the channelinlet to minimize the effects inlet turbulence and the diameterof the honeycombhole was 6 cm. of Table 3.3
Case B1{cm)

Geometrical parameters for experimental compound channels

Bm(cm) BS(cm) D(cm) Bf/D BfBm Channel type

R1 T1 T2

15 15 36.5

12 12 40

0 3.6 15

3.6 3.6 15

4.2 4.2 2.4

1.3 1.3 0.9

Rectangular Small Trapezoidal Large Trapezoidal

44

3.1.3 Vegetated compound channels

To acquire basic knowledge of flow behaviour in the vegetatedcompound channel, three different arrangements of vegetation on the floodplain, one of which is on the edge of the floodplain, were examined. One-line emergentcircular vegetation wood rods were placed at y=0.163m on the floodplain of the small, trapezoidal, The diameter (D) and height (Hr) of the rods were 9 mm and 100 compoundchannel. A special frame, as shown in Figure 3.13a, was designedfor holding mm respectively. rods along the floodplain edge.The spacing (1) between two rods was 4 cm one-line this spacingwas chosenbasedon the critical spacingof l/D = 3.8 for.no interface and by by the rods suggested Igarashi (1991).
Two uniformly vegetated floodplains were used to study flow structures under

and submerged vegetation conditions. Emergent vegetation was modelled emergent blocks, as shown in Figure 3.13b. The blocks were 6 cm long, 6 cm wide with square 10 cm high. Submerged vegetation was modelled with concrete cylinders, as and in Figure 3.13c. The diameter and height of the cylinders were 6 cm and 11 cm shown Figure 3.14a shows the block spacing for the emergent vegetation case respectively. Figure 3.14b shows the rod spacing for the submerged vegetation case. and 3.2 Measurement techniques 3.2.1 Flow rate As mentioned in section 3.1.1.1, the flow rate can be measured by an electromagnetic flowmeter in the small channel. The flow rate (QF) is directly related to the frequency the motor of the pump, providing that the water level in the tank remains relatively of constant. It is more convenient to obtain the flow rate with the relationship between (Fe,)than to obtain it by reading the flowmeter. the flow rate and the motor frequency Thus, the flow rate calibration was done in the main rectangular channel, and the calibration curve was obtained from Equation 3.1.

QF = 0.023ln(Fcy) - 0.0457

(3.1)

The channel discharge for the large compound channel was determined by weighing the water mass per unit time.

45

3.2.2 Pitot tube 3.2.2.1 Basic principle Although the Pitot tube only measures the longitudinal velocity, it can give conclusive if it is correctly used (Rhodes & Knight, 1994). As described in section 3.1.1.1, results the main purpose of velocity measurement in the small channels is to obtain isovel line patterns and depth-averaged velocity profiles. Hence, the conventional Pitot tube, in Figure 3.16a, was used in the small channel. A point gauge as shown in as shown Figure 3.16b and a horizontal ruler as shown in Figure 3.16c were used to control the lateral movements of the Pitot tube. The diameter of the inner tube of the vertical and 4 holes (c0.75mm) is 2.2 mm. The Pitot tube was placed against the Pitot tube with flow direction to measure the pressure difference between the stable and dynamic By connecting the L-shaped Pitot tube to the low-range pressure transducer, pressures. difference (4p) can be obtained from the output of the transducer. The the pressure flow velocity (UP) be determined by applying Bernoulli's can equation (Equation

3.2), 2AP

U= pp

(3.2)

p is the fluid density. where

A reference reading was required before every experiment to allow the background difference to be considered. The reference reading was taken five minutes pressure the Pitot tube was submerged in a beaker. Then, the submerged Pitot tube in the after beaker was moved to the channel, the beaker was leaned against the channel bed and the submerged Pitot tube was transferred from the beaker into the carefully flowing water in the experimental channel. The Pitot tube must be submerged during the transfer process. The reverse of this procedure was performed when a reference was taken at the end of the experiment. If the difference between the start and reading reference readings was higher than 5 %, the experiments were repeated. This end was also used for the Preston tube. procedure

46

3.2.2.2 Calibration

for the pressure transducer

As mentioned in section 3.2.2.1, the pressure difference (Op) is required to determine the velocity and is normally obtained using a pressure transducer. Careful calibration

the pressuretransduceris important to obtain accuratemeasurements. of

A LPM5480, low-range, pressure transducer was used to obtain the pressure

difference (i1p) in this work. Two compartments in the pressure transducer are by a diaphragm which flexes with the change in differential pressure. The separated displacement of the diaphragm due to a pressure difference can be converted into a The voltage (V) and the pressure difference (ip) voltage. were calibrated by

the water level from 10mm to 50mm in a calibration tank as shown in changing Figure 3.17 using a digital calliper. The calibration data were obtained and shown in Figure 3.18. Equation 3.3 is the calibration equation.

OP = 68.913V- 3.5209 3.2.2.3 Test for the Pitot tube

(3.3)

As the diaphragm in the low-range pressure transducer is elastic, it takes a certain of time to respondto the correct pressuredifference. The main purposesof the period
test are to determine the proper response time and record time.

It takes sometime for the pressuretransducerto respondwhen the Pitot tube is moved from one position to another.In order to define a responsetime, the experimentswere in the rectangular channel under a water depth of 3.54 cm. Figures 3.19 performed 3.20 show-the velocity profiles after three lateral movements and four vertical and respectively.The velocities become stable after one minute for the seven movements, This indicatesthat the responsetime can be chosenas one minute. cases. movement
Figure 3.21 shows the averaged velocity profiles after four movements using a oneminute response time. From Figure 3.21, the averaged velocities do not change much as the recording time is longer than one minute. Therefore, the recording time can be chosen to be more than one minute.

47

The velocity measurements in the rectangular channel were conducted using a oneresponse time and recording time. The velocities were measured repeatedly at minute 306 in case SR-1. Figures 3.22a and 3.22b show the isovel lines for the two x/R = The isovel lines in Figures 3.22a and 3.22b are nearly the same and measurements. both flow patterns are nearly symmetrical about the centre line. Figure 3.23 shows the profiles over the water depth for the two measurements at the centre. The velocity profiles in Figure 3.23 coincide well. Figures 3.22 and 3.23 demonstrate the velocity consistency of repeated measurements using the one-minute response time and recording time.

3.2.3 Acoustic Doppler velocimeter 3.2.3.1Basic principles

An acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) as shown in Figure 3.24a, manufactured by Nortek, was used to measure three components of velocity in the large, compoundflow. The acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) uses the Doppler shift channel to measure velocity by transmitting short pairs of sound pulses, listening to principle their echoes and measuring the change in pitch or frequency of the returned sound (Nortek, 2004). The ADV consists of one transmitter, four receivers, as shown in Figure 3.24b, and module. The transmitter transmits acoustic pulses into water. one signal-processing These pulses are then reflected from the small, suspended particles in the water and the reflected signals are received by the four receivers. The acoustic signal received by each receiver is used to calculate the Doppler phase shift (do ), which is to the velocity component along the bisector of the transmitted and proportional beams. The beam velocities v, (i = 1,2,3) received are computed using the Doppler

in Equation 3.4 and the velocities in the local phase shift relation as expressed Cartesian coordinate system (u J) can then be converted from the radial velocities transformation matrix which is calibrated by the manufacturer (McLelland & using a Nicholas 2000).

C'S do v= 4ADv

(3.4)

48

where C. is the speed of sound, f,

is the operating frequency (10 MHz), do is ,

the signal phase change and dt is the measurement time interval. Compared with a laser Doppler anemometer, the ADV is relatively low in cost and to use. The sampling volume is located at least 5 cm below the transmitter and easy the flow being measured is then less influenced by the ADV probe. The ADV can three components of velocity in a small sampling volume (Kraus et al 1994, measure Lane et al. 1998). However, the capability of the ADV to resolve turbulence

has been a subject of debate among researchers (Nikora & Goring 1998, quantities McLelland & Nicholas 2000, Garcia et al. 2005). Voulgaris and Trowbridge (1998) stated that the main sources of -measurement errors are sampling errors (o) by the ADV hardware, Doppler noise due to the motion of acoustic generated in the sampling volume (o) reflectors volume ( of ). The effects of and errors due to the shear in the sampling parameters on minimizing the

configuration

errors were investigated in this study. measurement

3.2.3.2 Recording time and velocity range The experiment tests were carried out in the small compound channel to define the time. The sampling point was located at 5m downstreamfrom the channel recording inlet, 0.10 m away from the left channel wall and 0.01 m above the main channel bottom. The water depth in the main channel was 0.07 m. The mean local velocity by a Pitot tube (Uo) was 0.232 m/s and the mean shear stress (U. ) was measured 0.019 m/s.
Unlike the Pitot tube, the response time of ADV is very short and usually less than 1 second (McLelland & Nicholas 2000). To avoid the possible vibration of the ADV holder, the response time for velocity measurement was chosen as 30 seconds when the ADV was moved from one position to another. Figures 3.25a - 3.25c show the effects of recording time on the measured results for averaged velocity, turbulent intensity and Reynolds shear stress. It is easy to see from Figure 3.25, that the values of these parameters remain almost the same when the recording time increases to 2 minutes. Thus the recording time for ADV was chosen as 2 minutes.

49

The ADV has six nominal velocity ranges as shown in Table 3.4. Table 3.4 Maximum velocities in various nominal velocity ranges

Nominal velocity range (m/s) Maximum horizontal velocity (m/s) Maximum vertical velocity (m/s)

0.03 0.26 0.08

0.10 0.44 0.13

0.30 0.94 0.27

1.00 1.88 0.54

2.50 3.28 0.94

4.00 5.25 1.50

Velocity data were collected for 2 minutes-at three nominal velocity ranges using 11 between 2 and 200 4;. Figures 3.26 - 3.28 show the averaged sampling. -frequencies
(U, V, 44, turbulent intensities and Reynolds stresses using nominal velocities velocity ranges 0.03 , 0.10 and 0.30 m/s, respectively. Most of the

results are not reasonablewhen the lower range of 0.03 rn/s is used. measurement For example,the measuredlongitudinal velocities (U) are only 0.5 Uo, the measured turbulent intensities (u) are nearly 7 U., and finally the Reynolds shearstresses(uw) around -6 U*. The values of u, and uw are quite different from the values at are in the open channel flow obtained by Nezu and Nakagawa (1993). similar positions These results indicate that the nominal velocity range 0.03 mis is not suitable for this case. Most results of using ranges 0.10 and 0.30 rn/s are similar, but the turbulent intensities (v') using range 0.30 m/s are obviously larger than those using range
0.10 m/s at higher frequencies (> 50 Hz). McLelland & Nicholas (2000) also

that the measurementerrors increasewith the velocity range and sampling showed frequency.Thus, the nominal velocity range 0.10 mis is the best rangefor this case. Based on the above results, the nominal velocity range should be set to cover the
range of the velocities expected during the data collection and the best velocity range needs to be selected by trial test. 3.2.3.3 Sampling frequency From Figure 3.26, it can be seen that the sampling frequency does not influence the mean velocity measurements using the velocity range 0.10 m/s. However, Figure

50

3.27 shows that the sampling frequency influences the turbulent intensities. The turbulent intensities u; increase as the sampling frequency increases, but peak at 150 Hz and do not increase further. This means all the turbulent structure for around this case can be captured using a sampling frequency of 150 Hz. It is interestingly in the literature that the most used sampling frequency is 25 Hz for ADV noticed (Lane et al. 1998, Sarker 1998, Bousmar 2002). In this test case (Figure 3.27), the intensities u', v' and w at 25 Hz to those at 150 Hz were 0.86, ratios of turbulent 0.88 and 0.90, respectively. This means that major part of the turbulent energy can be by using a sampling frequency of 25 Hz. obtained

Turbulent intensities at different sampling frequenciescan be obtained by integrating the energy spectrum, which will be further described in section 5.7.1. As turbulent only performed in the large compound channel, the effect of measurementswere frequency on the turbulent intensity was further studied in the large channel sampling depth of 0.50. The sampling point was located at 6.45 m under a relative water downstreamfrom the channelinlet, 0.46 m away from the left channel wall and 0.178 the main channel bed. The sampling frequency was 100 Hz. The measured m above intensities u', v' and w at this point were 7.03,6.56 and 4.13 (cm/s)2. turbulent
Figures 3.29 and 3.30 show the cumulative turbulent intensities contributing to the total intensities under different frequencies. It can be seen from these two figures that the turbulent intensities increase quickly within the range 0- 10 Hz and then increase a frequency of 50 Hz. Nearly 100 % of the turbulent intensity is covered slowly until by using a sampling frequency of 50 Hz. In this study, 100 Hz was then chosen for the turbulent measurements using ADV to ensure covering most turbulent frequencies.

3.2.3.4 Sampling volume of ADV

The cylindrical sampling volume with a diameter of 6 mm is located 5 cm below the the transmitter. The height of the sampling volume is adjustable in the range centre of 1.0 - 9.1 mm. Theoretically, increasing the sampling volume size can improve the of averaging because the total sample numbers that are used for the velocity spatial calculation are increased (Nortek 2004). However, if the sampling volume size is too large, the measured velocity might be biased towards the local point velocity and

51

information might not be captured, especially in a small channel. In this small eddy study, the height of the sampling volume was chosen as 2.5 mm. During the measurements, the transmitting length was set to 1.8 mm. The signal-to(SNR) is an indicator of the relative strength of the received signal and a noise ratio higher SNR indicates that the velocity measurement is more reliable. Usually, an SNR of 20 can ensure good measurements (Nortek 2004). The values for SNR were value higher than 20 during the large channel experiments and this indicates that almost all the noise effect is suppressed by that of the echo signal.

Based on the above considerations, the height of the sampling volume and the length can be chosenas 2.5 mm and 1.8 mm respectively. The sampling transmitting volume is 70.65 mm3.
Velocity measurement results using ADV were compared against those using a Pitot tube in the small compound channel. The configuration settings for ADV were:

velocity range 0.10 mis, sampling frequency 100 Hz, sampling volume nominal height 2.5 mm, transmitting length 1.8 mm with the power level set to `High'. Six were selected. Figure 3.31 shows the velocity data measured by ADV sampling points the Pitot tube. In Figure 3.31, y represents the distance from the left channel wall, and 0.2-ADV and 0.2-Pitot represent the data from ADV at 0.2 cm above the main

bed and data from the Pitot tube at 0.2 cm above the main channel bed channel It can be seen from Figure 3.31 that the velocities measured by ADV respectively. with those measured by the Pitot tube. almost agree

3.2.3.5 Small tank

Using ADV with a 3-D down-looking probe, the velocity near the water surface of a5 cm distance between the

be measured directly due to the limitation cannot

transmitter and the sampling point. To overcome this, a special small cylindrical tank 8.4 cm diameter, as shown in Figure 3.24a, was designed and placed on the water of to measure the velocities below the water surface. This is the first application surface ADV with a 3-D down-looking probe to measure velocity near the water of using surface.

52

The cylindrical

tank was made out of Perspex with a depth of 6 mm. Several

transparent materials were tried to seal the tank bottom. No signal was detected by ADV when a Perspex plate with a depth of 6 mm and thick plastic film were used. This might indicate that most of the acoustic energy from the transmit sensor or (and) from the receiver sensors was absorbed by the thick materials. A thin film was proved to be the best material for making the tank bottom. The thin film was stuck to the Perspex wall with superglue. To avoid the sudden water level jump near the small tank and to minimize the flow disturbance around the tank, the film extended about 2 in the front and back of the flow direction to make a smooth flow. cm

The height of the small tank was set as 8 cm, which was 3 cm larger than the minimum distance between the sampling point and the transmitter head. The main of setting this height was to ensure that the sensor head was submerged purpose Moreover, the tank on the water surface cannot be too large during the measurements. becausea large tank would poseholding difficulties.
The capability of using the small tank to measure the velocities near the water surface investigated in the large compound channel. Some representative test results are was in Figures 3.32a - 3.32f. The water depth in the main channel was 20 cm. presented Velocities at z=0velocities at z= surface. In Figure 3.32a, the velocity U profile was not continuous at z= 17 cm which might be caused by the boundary interference. Lane et al (1998) studied the boundary interference and identified the zone where the noise might mask the velocity signal. Velocities decreased quickly between 2=190 and Z=200mm and this is because a boundary layer had developed below the water tank. In Figures 3.32c-3.32d, the turbulence intensities decreased gradually as the distances from the channel bottom increased to 150 mm. Higher turbulence intensities u'2 and w2 occurred around Z= 17 cm which corresponded to the sharp changes of velocity U and W in this zone. In Figures 3.32e -- 3.32f, higher Reynolds stresses were also related to the velocity profiles. 15 cm were measured with ADV in the channel directly and 16 - 20 cm were measured with ADV in the tank on the water

53

These results indicate that the small water tank can be used to measure velocity near the water surface, except in the zones which are 0-1 cm and around 3 cm below the

water surface.
3.2.3.6 Data analysis

The Vectrino software creates a binary data file that can be converted to an ASCII format file. Explore V software from Nortek was used to analyse the measurement data in the ASCII format. To minimize measurementerrors, the noisy data were by four methods, namely, correlation score threshold, signal to noise ratio removed (SNR), velocity threshold and spike filtering. The removed data were linearly interpolated. i,1.

The correlation score is expressed as a percentage, where 100 represents a perfect and 0 represents no correlation. Perfect correlation indicates that all the correlation move in the same manner. The correlation score threshold replaces water particles data for which the correlation scores are lower than the threshold value. The velocity score threshold was set at 70 during the measurements as suggested by correlation Nortek (2004).

Signal to noise ratio (SNR) is defined by Equation 3.5 and canbe used to estimatethe of the velocity signal and the noise signal. The SNR threshold was relative strength set at 20 during the measurements. Amplitudexignaz+noise SNR= 201og1o
Amplitudenoue

(3.5)

Velocity threshold is expressedas a level of the standarddeviation of each velocity The velocity threshold was set at 3. component.
Spikes can be identified as the local acceleration. For each successive triplets of sample, the local accelerations can be expressed by Equations 3.6a - 3.6b. The sign in the accelerations indicates the presence of spikes, while the magnitude (A;) change can be expressed by Equation 3.7. The spikes are filtered using the acceleration threshold of three times of gravity acceleration (g).

54

Q,f =

Vu-Vr-ii
dt Vr+1 VU J-

(3.6a)

a2j __

dt

(3.6b)

where j=x, y, z and dt is the sampling rate.

AU =Z

j=1

(a, i - a2j) j

(3.7)

data,the abovefour thresholdswere used. For most of the measurement

3.2.3.7 Velocity corrections

h,

It is very difficult to make the alignment of the probe to the flow direction and the Z direction exactly normal to the channel bed. These alignment problems were also using LDA and velocities need to be corrected (i. e., New & Rodi 1986). encountered The velocities were correctedby rotating the coordinate systemthrough a small angle the correction method used in this work is given next. and For vector (U1, Uj ) on the X, -X X, -X plane, the new vector (U, , U; ) on the new

plane can be calculatedby Equations3.8a - 3.8d. C= U1 +UJ2 (3.8a)

a= arctg

'

(3.8b)

Uj =C cos(a+ M) U; = Csin(a+E O) where OB is the rotation angle.

(3.8c) (3.8d)

55

With the carefully tested Pitot tube and ADV, the velocities across the sections can be measured accurately using the measurement grids as shown in Figure 3.33.

3.2.4 Preston tube

3.2.4.1 Basic principles

The measurementof boundary shear stress is of vital importance to practical issues like the bed form evolvement and riverbank erosion. Such data can provide a physical in insight into the complex flow phenomena open channels. The conventional Preston tube method developed by Preston in the 1950's, which is the simplest and cheapestindirect measurementtechnique, has been widely probably in the field of fluid mechanics.The boundary shear stress rb can be obtained used from the differential pressure Op between the dynamic and static pressuresin the Preston tube at the boundary. If the Preston tube is accurately calibrated, it gives a of 6% when the pressure gradient parameter A measurement accuracy [dpl dx][v/ pU; ]) is in the range 0.007 <0<0.015 (Patel 1965). (= The Preston tube used in this work is shown in Figure 3.34. The diameters of the and dynamic pressurepipes are 3.00mm and 2.72mm, respectively. There are static four circular holes with diametersof 0.54mm. The offset value of the Preston tube was determined before each experiment by the tube into a plastic beaker.Then the Preston tube was moved into flowing putting in the channel and fixed on a specialholder. water
3.2.4.2 Calibration method

The main difficulty of applying the Preston tube method is how to obtain the most calibration equationfor a given Prestontube diameter. appropriate Based on Preston's suggestionof the non-dimensional relationship between Ep and
zB (Preston1954), Patel (1965) proposed the following relationships:

y` = 0.50x` + 0.037,y` < 1.5

(3.9a)

56

y` = 0.8287 - 0.1381x` + 0.1437x`2 - 0.0060x`', 1.5 < y* < 3.5

(3.9b)

3.5 +2 logio95 +4.10), < y* < 5.3 x" = y*

(3.9c)

fd2)i(4pv=)] )1(4pv2 )] 2 y* =log where x* =1og[(o and d is the external diameter of the dynamic tube. Bechert (1995) proposeda more generalcalibration equationexpressed below, 2s, z+= 28.44(Op+)Z+6.61x10-6(ep+)'sp. 25<x` 2/(PV) and ENp+ Lpd 2/(pv2 rid =

<9.0

(3.10)

where r=

v can be determinedby Equation 3.11 and 3.12. where p and p=0.00008889T3 - 0.01T2+ 0.0830159T+ 999.8048 11.14 0.031(T-15) + 0.00068(T-15)2] v =10-6 (3.11)

(3.12)

Based on the boundary shearstressescalculated using Patel's and Bechert's methods (e.g., Sutardi & Ching, 2001), Patel's method was much less dependent on the diameter under ranges of 1.46-5.54 mm and it gives more accurate results. Many in the hydraulics field have used Patel's method. Therefore, Patel's researchers was adoptedin this work. method
The tests were carried out to find an appropriate response time, recording time and the

and effects of tube displacements water temperatureon the measurements.

When the Preston tube is moved from one position to another, it will take some time to correctly respond to the measurement system. An accurate boundary shear stress also depends on the length of the recording signal. Two series of tests were conducted. One was setting a proper response time and a recording time and the other was extending the recording time without a response time.

57

In most cases, the water temperature changes owing to the heat from the pump. A sixhour continuous measurement of the boundary shear stress was conducted at one point

the channelbed to check the temperatureeffect. on 3.2.4.3 Test results Figures 3.35a - 3.35c show the responsetime results of six movements using three as the recording time. Although the responsetime for every movement was minutes the same,it takes about two minute to settle the output of the system.This not always indicates that the appropriateresponsetime for measuringboundary shear stress can be chosenas two minutes.
Using two minute as the response time, the relationship between the recording times the boundary shear stresses for each movement was illustrated in Figure 3.36. In and Figure 3.36, the boundary shear stresses reach stable values three minutes later for M1-M4 movements and almost one minute later for movements M5. M6. When the

Preston tube was moved from a position of smaller boundary shear stress to a position larger boundary shear stress, the measured boundary shear stress remained as the of within the two minute response time and then it was increased to the previous value larger value correctly. When the Preston tube was moved from a position of current larger boundary shear stress to a position of smaller boundary shear stress, the boundary shear stress was decreased from the larger previous value to the measured smaller one after two minute response time. As a result, there was a crossover current just two minutes in Figure 3.36. For general applications, a three-minute recording at time is an appropriate value for getting satisfactory measurements of boundary shear stress.

The water temperaturewas recorded every hour. The temperatureincreasedfrom 20.7 C to 21.8 C in six hours. Figure 3.37 shows that the boundary shearstresseswere influenced if the water temperaturechangedby about 1 degreecentigrade. not
With a carefully used Preston tube, the boundary shear stress in open channels can be measured accurately. During the measurements, the lateral intervals on the channel

1 bed were about 1.5 cm and the vertical intervals were about 7

58

Figure 3.1

Rectangular open channels.

1-Inlet tank 5-Adjustable weir 9-Overflow valve Figure 3.2 channel.

2-Kraft honeycomb 6-Discharge valve 10-Centrifugal pump

4-Point gauge 3-Pump controller 7-Pump control valve 8-Leakage tube 11-Storage and outlet tank of the hydraulic system for the small

Schematic representation

59

(b)

(a)

(c)

Flow rate control system for the small channel. (a) Centrifugal Figure 3.3 (b) Electromagnetic flow meter; (c) Pump controller. pump;

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.4

Water level control units. (a) Adjustable weir; (b) Point gauge.

60

Figure 3.5

Surveying equipment for channel bed levelling.

In IL

10 8 E 6
4
After --Before -o Theoretical -a-

(a)
2 0
_9

12 10
Theoretical

8 E E6

---

-f-

Lef t Right

(h)

ID 4

Co 2 0
2468 10 112

C)

istance (m

Bed level profiles of the main rectangular channel. (a) Left side; (b) Figure 3.6 Left and right sides.

61

0.25
0.24 E

r"
"

Measured
Theoretical

0.23 0.22 co 0.21 0.2 1 11 01234567 X (m)

89

Figure 3.7

Bed level profiles of the large compound channel.

U. /

0.6

0. s
0.4
0.3

'
0.2
O

- -i-

Sticker No sticker

= 0.1
0 02468 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 Distance from left wall (cm)

Figure 3.8

Effect of bed roughness on the boundary shear stress.

(a i

(h)

Main units for disturbing Figure 3.9 Kraft honeycomb and float foam plate.

the inlet turbulence.

(a) Inlet tank; (b)

62

v. 0 0.5 U 0.4 4.0 0.3 0.2

(a

0.1 0 02468 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Distance from left wall (cm) 24 26 28 30 32

0.8 0.6

cu)0.4
0.2
01N 1II rar iTIII1-II1 I-IU? "' V1

0
1

0.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

o.5 (C) r=j

O1III

TF-Tv.

9-

ITIIIaII

+----7

T-

II

0.2

0.4

YOB

0.6

0.8

Effect of honeycomb on the velocity distributions at aspect ratio Figure 3.10 2.9. (a) Depth-averaged velocity with and without honeycomb; (b) Isovels honeycomb: (c) Isovels with honeycomb. without

63

----s

S
Bn L Bs L Bf

Figure 3.11

Schematic representation of a compound open channel.

(a)

(h)

(c)

Figure 3.12

Experimental smooth compound channels. (a) Small rectangular (b) Small trapezoidal compound channel; (c) Large compound channel; trapezoidal compound channel.

64

(a)

(b)

(c)

Vegetated compound channels. (a) One-line emergent rods at the Figure 3.13 floodplain edge; (b) Emergent rods on the floodplain; (c) Submerged rods on the floodplain.

Qn
-(d)

Mensur!

n fnt

Li -

$lctbn

0
. , . z O
6cn 12tH

0 K
0
85cn

Ii
I

(b)

12tH

BScn

11

Figure 3.14 Rod spacing for large vegetated compound channel. (a) Emergent rods; (b) Submerged rods.

65

0.022 0.02 0.018 0.016 0.014 E 0.012 0.01 LL 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0
02468 10 Frequency(Hz) 12 14 16 18 y=0.023Ln(x) - 0.0457 R2 = 0.9986

Figure 3.15

Calibration

curve for the pump controller.

n>

(a 1

(c)

Pitot tube. (a) Pitot tube and pressure transducer; (b) Point gauge; Figure 3.16 (c) Horizontal ruler.

66

Figure 3.17

Calibration

tank for the pressure transducer.

600 500 b 200 m 1(X) 0 1234567 400 300 -----P= 68.913V - 3.5209 --- R=0.998

-Aa)
Figure 3.18 Calibration

Voltage(V)

curve for the pressure transducer.

67

0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 0 30 60 90 120 Response time(s) 150
--MII -M12 M13 --

180

Figure 3.19

Velocity and response tile

0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0 30 60

(Lateral movements).

-f-

Myl Mv2 Mv3 Mv4

90 120 Response time(s)

150

180

Figure 3.20

Velocity and response time (Vertical movements).

U. 31

111.

0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 .= 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.21 012345 Record time(min)
-t--M11 -Mv1-Mv M121 --

Figure 3.21

Velocity and recording time (Lateral and vertical movements).

68

(a)

n
1

0.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

(b)

C)
Figure 3.22

Y/B Isovels at x/R = 306 in case SR-1. (a) Run 1; (b) Run 2.
0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.00 0.17 0.33 0.50 Z/ H 0.67 0.84 1.00

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

>

Figure 3.23

Velocity distributions

along the water depth.

(a)

(b)

Trsntmq Tnntduer \

pSCiw TrLnducn

Scm

ll-m-

Figure 3.24

ADV and its probe geometry. (a) ADV; (b) ADV Probes.

69

(a)
4U

(b)
io 14 12 10

35
N

u2
N2

30
25

-------------

Z. 20 15 10 5 0 0123401234 time (minute) 75

8 6 4 2 0 times (miniitA(

(c) 3

2y1
0

N N - CCCT

"2 -3

time (minute)

Time-averaged measurement data using various recording times. Figure 3.25 (a) Velocity; (b) Turbulent intensity; (c) Reynolds stress. (a)
30 25 20 0.5 15 10 5 0 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 1 > 0.0 0.5 -1.0 -1.5
G. V

(b)
1.5 1.0

-2.0

Hz

(c)
2.0 1.5 1.0 S 0.5 0.0 25 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 ----Hz W 0.03 -t0.10 -. . 50 75 100 125 150 175 20

Time-averaged Figure 3.26 (a) U; (b) V; (c) W. ranges.

velocity data using various nominal

velocity

70

(a)
7 6 5 x. 03 x. 10 -s0.30

(b)
7 6 5 =4 3
F: 03 0 0

0
(C)

25

50

75

100 Hz

125

150

175

200

0
0 25 50 75 100 Hz 125 150 175 200

s
5

33 2

0 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

Figure 3.27

Time-averaged turbulent intensity (a) u'/U. ; (b) v'/U. ; (c) w'/U.. velocity ranges.

data using various nominal

8 7 6 5

-1 -2 -3 a

3 2 1 0

-5 -6 -7 -a

0 (c)
4 3
2 1

25

50

75

00 11

125

150

175

200

----

---------

--

so. o3 -=0.30

1 2 -3 A

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

Figure 3.28

Time-averaged Reynolds stress data using various nominal (a) uv/U; ; (b) uw/U: ; (c) vw/U; velocity ranges. .

71

8
7 i4 6 E v5 N4 (1) -D 3
Q'

a c w 1
0 ! fTTIT

V W,

05

10

15

20 25 30 Frequency (Hz)

35

40

45

50

Figure 3.29

Relationship between energy density and frequency.

1.00.9 08 . 07 . 2 0 .6 05 . c 04 . 03
. 02 . 0 1 u (f )/u

--

--

. 0.0

05

10

15

20 25 30 Frequency (Hz)

35

40

45

50

Figure 3.30

Relationship between contribution

0.28 0.24 0.20 N 0.16 E 50.12 0.08 0.04 0.00 78 ) y( m9

(u,.(f )/ u, and frequency.

I I

0.2-ADV - 1-ADV -0.2-pitot - -0-1-pilot

10

11

Figure 3.31

Measured velocities by ADV and Pitot tube.

72

60 50 40 E 30 (a) 20 10 0
U)

2.0 1.5 1.0

IIvw
5` 10 J5

E 0.5 0.0

(b)

-1.0 -1.5

0 350
300 250 00 c)
N

10 z cm)

15

20 30 25-11
0

E v15 10 5 0

50 '10050 0 05 10 z (cm) 15 2C

(d)

ZAll- )

15

20

4 3n2 tuv vw

40 30 X20 E10

;o 15 -2 10 5

0 10 -10 -20 15

(t)

Measurement results along the water depth using the small tank. Figure 3.32 (a-b) Averaged velocities; (c-d) Turbulent intensities; (e- f) Reynolds stresses.

73

xxx

x%

X=XXXXMY

JK

5
4

xx::::::

(a)

N3

. :
:

. x
X

x :
:

x x
X

. x
:

. :
:

. x
X

x ::: :xx
: I/

ex:

r::.

i a

2
Q x : : x x z x ./

02468
av 25 20 o15

10

12

14

16 18 Y (cm)

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

(b)

10 5 n 05 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Y (cm)

Measurement grids for velocity using a Pitot tube and ADV. (a) Figure 3.33 Small compound channel; (b) Large compound channel.

Figure 3.34

Preston tube on the channel bed.

74

0.52 Cl) 0.51

0 M1 M2

(a)

IJ0.50 E -C
CO 0

0.49 0.48 0.47

0 0.72 0.70
N

20

40

60

80

100 120 Time (s)

140

160

180

200

N 2

(b)

0.68 20.66 " 0.64 0.62

-A

M4

0.60 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Time (s) 140 160 180 200

cn a,
CO N

0.27
-F:: -5 M6

(c)

0.26

Co

0.25 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Time (s) 140 160 180 200

Boundary shear stress and response time. (a) Movements Ml Figure 3.35 (b) Movements M3- M4; (c) Movements M5 - M6. M2;
0.72

0.67

z
y
N Cl)

0.62 0.57 0.52 0.47 0.42 0.37

0.32

0.27 0.22 02468 10 Time (minute)

Figure 3.36

Boundary shear stress and recording time.

75

0.7

4-

0.6
E

0.5
U) CO a> 0.4 co

0.3
Z M a 0.2 0

0.1

0.0
20.7

20.9

21 21.1 21.2 Water temperature (C)

21.5

21.8

Figure 3.37

Boundary shear stress and water temperature.

76

Chapter 4 Small Compound Channel Experiments

In this chapter, the major results of the small compound channel flow experiments are Sections 4.1 and 4.2 show the experimental presented. conditions and flow

development. Section 4.3 summarises the characteristics of the mean flow in the noncompound channel whilst section 4.4 describes the method of calculating vegetated, the depth-averaged eddy viscosity er by considering the effects of bed-generated

turbulence and lateral shear and also illustrates the depth-averagedReynolds shear (i-y ) under various flow conditions. Section 4.5 introduces the calculation stresses
of the depth-averaged apparent shear stress results (r, Section 4.6 gives the S).

results of the depth-averaged secondary current calculation

(-

pUV)d and the

lateral velocity (V.,, ). Sections4.7 and 4.8 presentthe calculation results maximum the contributions to the depth-averagedapparentshearstressand bed shear stress of Section 4.9 presentsthe mean flow pattern and shear layer analysesin respectively. the compoundchannelwith emergentrods on the floodplain. Section 4.10 summarises for flow. the results and discussions the small, compound-channel 4.1 Experimental conditions
Nine experiments were conducted in the 9.7m long channel with a variety of crossshapes. Detailed channel geometry parameters are described in section 3.1. section Cases SR-1 - SR-2 are rectangular channel casesunder different aspect ratio Cases SRC-1 - SRC-3 are rectangular compound channel cases under conditions. different relative depth conditions. Cases STC-1 - STC-3 are trapezoidal compound cases under similar relative depth conditions to those in cases SRC-1 - SRCchannel 3. Case STC-4 is the trapezoidal compound channel case with one-line emergent rods near the MC-FP edge. Detailed experimental conditions are listed in Table 4.1. H is the water depth in the channel or in the main channel. B is the channel width. R is the hydraulic rectangular ( U,,, is the mean bulk velocity. U. gRS0) is the friction velocity, g is the radius.

77

So is the bed slope. Re (= 4RU,.. /v) gravitational acceleration and v is the kinematic number, fluid viscosity. n=R3 2 S U,,,

is the Reynolds is the Manning

coefficient. The velocities and boundary shear stresseswere measuredwith a Pitot tube and a
Preston tube, respectively. Velocity measurement grids and boundary shear stress

have been described in section 3.2.3 and 3.2.4 respectively. measurementpoints (Ud(y)) at ym data, the depth-averaged Based on the velocity measurement velocity left channel wall and measured bulk velocity (U,,,) were calculated by from the (Um, Equations 4.1 and 4.2 respectively.The bulk velocity was determined from the p)
(Qp) discharge using Equation 4.3. The different percentages of the bulk measured

( 100* (Um U, )IU,,,, for all experiments were within 3%. The velocities - ,,, P p) boundary shear stress (rB) for a compound channel was calculated measuredoverall 4.4. The theoretical overall boundary shearstress (zo) was determined using Equation Equation 4.5. The different percentagesof the overall boundary shear stresses using (=100 * (zB zo)/zo) for all experimentswere within 4%, exceptin CaseSTC-4. Table 4.1
Case
SR-1 SR-2 SRC-1 SRC-2 SRC-3 STC-1 STC-2 STC-3 STC-4

Experimental Conditions for the Small Channel

B(m)
0.150 0.100 0.306 0.306 0.306 0.306 0.306 0.306 0.306

H(m)
0.0354 0.0486 0.0466 0.0561 0.0703 0.0475 0.0575 0.0723 0.0745

R(m)
0.0240 0.0246 0.0222 0.0281 0.0361 0.0223 0.0289 0.0374 0.0386

(m/s) U,,,
0.2303 0.3044 0.2428 0.3075 0.3555 0.2287 0.2917 0.3477 0.2138

U.(m/s)
0.0153 0.0155 0.0148 0.0166 0.0188 0.0148 0.0168 0.0191 0.0194

Re
22109 29953 21561 34563 51334 20400 33720 52016 33011

n
0.0114

Geometry
Rectangular

0.0088 0.0103 0.0095 0.0097 0.0110 0.0102 0.0102 0.0175 Compound (s=1)
d Compoun (s=o)

78

Ud(Y) =

H(Y) b

(Y) UdZ

(4.1)

rUd(Y)H(Y)dY rH(y)dy

Um. = n

Qp

(4.3)

zB =pf

zbdP

(4.4)

zo = pgRS0

(4.5)

H(y) is the local water depth at ym from the left channel wall; Z is the where level from the channel bed; U is the local velocity; B is the width of the vertical A is the cross-sectionarea;P is the wet perimeter; zb is the local boundary channel; stressand p is the fluid density. shear 4.2 Flow development It takes some distancefor the flow to becomefully developed.In controlled hydraulic the developmentlength is usually influenced by the inlet condition. To environments, flow information about uniform flow, flow measurement must be get correct at the proper location where the flow is fully developed.The measurement undertaken needsto be chosenreasonablybefore formal measurements. section
In this channel, only the longitudinal velocity component can be obtained using a Pitot tube. The velocity patterns are the same at various locations where the flow is fully developed. The cross-section isovels along the channel were therefore used to investigate the flow development and determine the proper measurement section. Flow development was initially investigated in the rectangular straight channel and further studied in the rectangular straight compound channel.

79

location was expressed as the distance ratio (X/R) The section

of the longitudinal

from the inlet (X) to the hydraulic radius (R). The relative water depth Dr distance for a compound channel usually ranges from 0 to 0.6 (i. e., Tominaga & Nezu 1991, Knight & Shiono 1996). The relative water depth, Dr, is the ratio between the water depth on the floodplain to that in the main channel, i. e. Dr = h/H, where h is the m

depth on the floodplain. Table 4.2 lists the distance ratios of XIR at X=7.47 water

the rectangular compound channel under four relative water-depth conditions. of Based on the above distance ratio ranges, five cross sections were selected along the 15 cm wide and 5 cm deep rectangular channel and four cross sections were selected along the rectangular compound channel. Figures 4.1a - 4.1e show the distributions of the normalized longitudinal velocity (U/U,,, ) at five cross sections along the rectangular channel in case SR-1. The aspect (= B/H) ratio of this case is 4. At X/R = 85 (Figure 4.1a), the positions of the isovel

1.14 is at around Z/H = 0.75 and the velocity pattern is not symmetrical. As the of flow progresses downstream (Figure 4.1b), the positions of the maximum isovel of 1.21 and the isovel of 1.14 move down to around Z/H =0.8 and Z/H =0.6 respectively, but its lateral position shifts slightly from the centre line of the channel. At X/R = 176 (Figure 4.1c), the lateral position of the isovel of 1.14 moves around the centre line of the channel and the isovels become nearly symmetrical about the centre of the As the flow channel. develops further (Figures 4.1d - 4.1e), the positions of

are at around Z/H = 0.80 in the centre of the channel, the velocitymaximum velocity dip near the free surface can be observed and the velocity pattern is symmetrical. Also, the isovels slightly bulge towards the channel corners. As summarized by Nezu Nakagawa (1993), these flow features are caused by the secondary currents. The and in Figures 4.1d - 4.1e are similar to the patterns calculated with a 3D velocity patterns model by Naot and Rodi (1982) and the measured ones by Nezu and Rodi numerical (1985). The above results indicate that the flow is fully developed at X/R >_176 in case SR-1. Figures 4.2a - 4.2d show the distributions of normalized longitudinal velocity (UIU,,, ) at four cross sections along the rectangular compound channel in case SRC3. At X/R = 50 (Figure 4.2a), the isovels do not bulge towards the channel walls, the

80

velocity is wide in the main channel and only slight bulging near area of maximum the corners of the main channel can be seen. As the flow develops downstream (Figure 4.2b), bulging near the junction of the main channel and the floodplain

becomes visible and the maximum-velocity area is reduced. At X/R =150 (Figure 4.2c), bulging near the junction and the corners can be clearly seenand the position of
the maximum isovel of 1.25 moves down from around Z/H = 0.7 at X/R = 100 to Z/H = 0.6 at X/R = 150. As the flow progresses further (Figure 4.2d), the around

does not change much and is similar to that of Tominaga and New velocity pattern (1991). This indicatesthat the flow is fully developedat X/R >_150 in caseSRC-3. Table 4.2 Distance ratios at X=7.47 m under various relative water depths
Dr H(m) R(m) X/R 0.20 0.045 0.021 353 0.35 0.055 0.028 270 0.50 0.072 0.037 202 0.75 0.144 0.065 115

Figures 4.3a and4.3b show the velocity distributions over the water depth at YB = 0.5 in caseSR-1 and YB = 0.3 in case SRC-3 respectively. In Figure 4.3, U. is the bed
velocity and Z+ is the z-coordinate normalised by the viscous length (v/U. ), shear

v is the kinematic viscosity. For the fully-developed open channel flow, the where distribution over the water depth follows the log law except near free surface, velocity be expressed U/U. a 2.51nZ+ (Nezu and Nakagawa 1993).In caseSRas which can 1, the velocity profiles at X=5.63 in and X=6.76 m are almost the same and their linear relationships between 2.5lnZ+ and U/U. were better than those at other two This indicatesthat the flow is fully developedfrom X=5.63. In caseSRCpositions. 3, the velocity profile difference betweenX=5.4 m andX=7.2 m is smaller than that
between X=5.4 U/U. m and X=3.6 m. Also the linear relationship between 2.5lnZ+ and m, except near the water surface. This indicates that m.

be seen from X=5.4 can

the flow is almost fully developed at X=7.2

81

Measurement sections were set at 6.76 m, 7.47 m and 8.60 m downstream from the inlet for cases SR-1, SR-2 and SRC-1 -. STC-3 respectively. The distance channel in cases SR-1 and SR-2 are both higher than 176. The distance ratios in cases ratios SRC-1 - SRC-3, STC-1 - STC-2 are all higher than 150. According to Tominaga and Nezu (1991), a fully developed flow was established at 7.5 m downstream from the inlet and the distance ratio was 150. The overall boundary shear stress is close channel to that determined using Equation 4.5. During these experiments, the different

for the overall boundary shear stresses were all within 4% as described in percentages 4.10. section

The above'resultsindicate that distanceratios of 176 for the rectangularchannel and 150 for the compoundchannelcan be usedas empirical criteria to determinethe section for thesesmall channels. measurement The characteristics of the fully-developed non-vegetated channel flow will be and discussed in sections 4.3 - 4.9. The vegetation effects on the flow presented behaviour in the compoundopen channelwill be discussedin section4.10. 4.3 Mean flow
As described in section 4.2, the distributions of normalized longitudinal velocity

(U/U,,, ) in case SR-1 are similar to those of Naot and Rodi (1982) and Nezu and Rodi (1985). In case SR-2 (Figure 4.4), the velocity pattern is slightly different from that in SR-1 (Figure 4.1e). The slower velocity near the free surface in the upper centre case is more obvious in case SR-2 than in case SR-1. The aspect ratio in case SR-2 region is 2, which is smaller than its value of 4 in case SR-1. This indicates that the velocitydip phenomenon becomes more noticeable as the aspect ratio decreases. According to Nezu and Rodi (1985), the velocity-dip phenomenon in rectangular

flow is directly influenced by the secondary currents. Imamoto et al (1993) channel two typical vortices of secondary currents in the narrow, open channel. Strong showed secondary currents carry low-momentum fluid from the channel corner up upper towards the water surface and secondary currents change their moving direction from towards the centre of the channel. Once secondary currents reach the centre the wall line, they move the high-momentum fluid from the upper region downwards to the

82

and the bed bisector. Nezu et al. (1985) further pointed out that secondary corner in a narrow, open channel become stronger as the aspect ratio decreases. So currents the velocity-dip is more noticeable in case SR-2 than in case SR-1. 4.5a - 4.5c show the normalized velocity (U/U,,, ) patterns in rectangular Figures cases. The relative water depths in cases SRC-1, SRC-2 and SRCcompound channel 3 are 0.22,0.35 and 0.48, respectively. In the shallow case SRC-1 (Figure 4.5a), the isovel lines bulge towards the walls and comers of the main channel in the velocity manner as the rectangular, open channel and velocity-dip phenomenon can be same in the main channel. No clear bulging near the junction of the main channel and seen the floodplain (MC-FP junction) can be seen, but steep velocity gradients can be seen in this region. These flow phenomena are similar to those of Tominaga and Nezu (1991). Under this flow condition, the main channel flow can be roughly thought of as channel flow and secondary currents near the water surface might be much narrow than those near the MC-FP junction. stronger As the relative water depth increases to 0.35 in case SRC-2, the velocity-dip becomes more noticeable in the main channel, as shown in Figure 4.5b. phenomenon The velocity bulging near the MC-FP junction begins to appear in case SRC-2. Based the complex flow mechanism illustrated by Shino and Knight (1991), the velocity on bulging can be explained by secondary currents near the MC-FP junction. The

currents carry low-momentum fluid from the wall upwards towards the secondary near the MC-FP junction. As a result, the velocity is decelerated near water surface the MC-FP junction and consequently the velocity-bulging is formed. In the deep case, SRC-3 (Figure 4.5c), three flow characteristics can be recognised. The velocity isovel lines bulge towards the channel corners and up towards the water near the MC-FP junction. surface The velocity-dip is more remarkable and the

gradients are smaller than those in cases SRC-1 and SRC-2. The position of velocity moves down to Z/H = 0.6 near the centre line of the main channel. maximum velocity The above flow behaviour is similar to that in Tominaga and Nezu (1991). 4.6c show the normalized velocity (U/U,,, ) isovel lines in trapezoidal, Figures 4.6a cases. The relative water depths in cases STC-1, STC-2 and STCcompound-channel

83

3 are 0.23,0.37 and 0.50, respectively. The velocity patterns in the left side of the are similar to those in cases SRC-1 - SRC-3, but on the sloping wall of main channel the main channel, the velocity patterns in the right side of the main channel and near the MC-FP junction change slightly. The velocity bulging pattern in the right bisector the main channel and near the MC-FP junction is weaker than that in cases SRC-1 of SRC-3. The velocity bulging in these regions is similar to that of Shiono and Knight (1989). The velocity gradients are also smaller than those in cases SRC-1 - SRC-3.

Figures 4.7a - 4.7b show the depth-averagedvelocity distributions under different depth conditions in the rectangular and trapezoidal compound'channels relative water respectively. The above results show that the flow structuresmeasuredin this study more or less the existing onesin the literature, so the datameasuredseemsto be fine. agreewith 4.4 Reynolds Shear Stress 4.4.1 Calculation method Turbulence measurements were not performed in the small channel experimentsand the Reynolds shear stresses could not be calculated, so only the depth-averaged Reynolds shear stress TY., will be analysed, in this section, based on some The main purpose of this analysis is to investigate the effects of large assumptions. in the shear layer on the Reynolds shear stress, which can be used as a eddies to characterisethe lateral momentum exchange. parameter Reynolds shear stress is related to the depth-averagededdy The depth-averaged zyx (e, viscosity ) and the velocity gradient 4.6,
aUd

and can be calculated using Equation

ry. = PE, ay is the fluid density. where p

(4.6)

84

Several models have been used to determine the eddy viscosity in the literature. The model is the constant viscosity model where the dimensionless eddy normally used (A) is constant across the section. Shiono and Knight (1991) and Abril and viscosity Knight (2004) stated that the value of A is constant in the main channel but a function the relative water depth on the floodplain. of Using the mixing layer approach,

Alavian and Chu (1985) proposed a model by taking the effects of both the bedturbulence and shear-generatedturbulence into account and. Recently, generated Prooijen et al (2005) adoptedthe eddy viscosity concept and proposeda similar model
to that by Alavian and Chu (1985). These eddy viscosity models were developed from data and therefore they are expected to be applicable only in similar experimental conditions. In this work, the model by Prooijen et al. (2005) was used. experimental

According to Wormleaton (1988), both bottom turbulence and transverse shear (Erb)due to the to the eddy viscosity. The depth-averagededdy viscosity contribute bottom turbulence can be modelled with Equation 4.7a (Shiono & Knight 1991). The (E,, due ) to the transverseshearcan be modelled with depth-averagededdy viscosity Equation 4.7b (Prooijen et al. 2005).

Erb =i6

UdH

(4.7a)

-=H Et,

n (5)Z

a Ud y

(4.7b)

A where

is the dimensionless depth-averaged eddy viscosity;

Ud is the depth-

longitudinal velocity; f is the friction factor; Hm is the mean value of the averaged depth in the main channel and on the floodplain; water is the proportionality was

8 is the width of the shear layer. In this work, the value of constant and

0.07 (Rameshwaran & Shiono 2006) and the value of Q was chose as 0.08 chose as (Prooijen et al. 2005).

85

Figure 4.8a shows the determination of the width of the shear layer (15). The distance between the position Y25% where U(yu%) =Uf+0.25(c 9 u1) and Y75% where ,

)=Uf+0.75(U -c determineshalf the shearlayer width U(y, -U f), s%

S= 2Iy759, Y25%I

(4.8)

-U U, and f are the maximum velocity in the main channel and the velocity at where the centreon the floodplain. From the depth-averagedlongitudinal velocity Ud shown in Figure 4.7, the shear 8 was further determined from Equation 4.8 and presentedin Figure 4.8b. It width be seenthat the shearwidth decreases with an increaseof the relative water depth can in both rectangular and trapezoidal channel cases.In casesSRC-1 and STC-1, the almost the same and this indicates that the sloping side wall of the shear widths are does not influence the shear width under shallow water depth main channel In the other four deeper cases, the shear widths in the rectangular conditions. channel are larger than those in the trapezoidal compound channel under compound relative water depths. The magnitude of shearwidth correspondswell to the similar of steepness the velocity gradient. The depth-averaged eddy viscosity (-) by can be expressed Equation 4.9. In Equation

turbulence are taken into 4.9, both the bed-generatedturbulence and shear-generated accountin the eddy viscosity.
E, _ erb + Eu

(4.9)

Based on the longitudinal velocity data shown in Figures 4.5 and 4.6, the depthlongitudinal velocity Ud was calculated using Equation 4.1. averaged Using the calculated data for the depth-averaged velocity (Ud) in Figure 4.7 and the data of bed shear stress in Figure 4.9, the friction factor (t) can be calculated measured Equation 4.10. using

86

8rb f=pU

(4.10)

in Figure 4.10, the bed shear stress (-rb) differs from the standard twoAs shown (pgHS0) and this difference is caused by transverse gradients of dimensional value the apparent shear stress arising from secondary currents and lateral shear stresses (Shiono & Knight 1991). As shown in Figure 4.11, the overall values of Manning (n) for various cases are almost 0.01. In these non-vegetated compound coefficient the Manning coefficients are all about 0.01 and the equivalent sand channel cases, height (k3) can be determined *as 0.3 mm. The friction factors for grain roughness with Equation 4.11. Figures 4.12a - 4.12f show the various cases were calculated the measured and predicted friction values of factors for various cases. In the

trapezoidal cases, the predicted friction factors roughly agree with the measured ones. In the rectangular cases, the friction factors were not properly predicted with Equation 4.11, especially in the main channel and this could be caused by the right vertical wall. The strong secondary currents near the MC-FP junction make the main channel flow structures three-dimensional, but Equation 4.11 is based on the two-dimensional assumption.

f=

-21og

+ 128gH3So 12.3H (L)

3.02y

ks

z (4.11)

The

dimensionless depth-averaged eddy

I

viscosity

normalized

by

U. H =

fJ2

UdH is composedof two components: a contribution due to the bed

(11, j can be due to the transverse shear . turbulence b) and a contribution 1s).
determined using Equation 4.12.

Hnasd
r = Tb + ifs = 0.07 +1y (4.12)

C8

I2UdH

87

Velocity gradient (a d) is calculated from two adjacent, depth-averaged velocities Y

in expressed Equation 4.13: and

aUd Ud. . i Ud. i-1 (4.13)

ay

dy
and y=y, _,.

Ud.; and Ud. are depth-averaged velocities at y=y; where r_,

In Equation 4.13, the depth-averagedvelocity was calculated with Equation 4.1 and the local velocity was measured at the local point as shown in Figure 3.33a. The lateral intervals between two adjacent points were 0.9 cm on the right sloped main 1.5 cm in other parts of the channel.Under certain channel and flow channel wall and the depth-averagedvelocity can be assumedas the function of the lateral conditions, distance (y) from the left channel wall. The lateral intervals are smaller than those by Shiono and Knight (1991) and accurate enough to calculate the velocity used gradient. Eddy viscosity, dimensionless eddy viscosity and Reynolds shear stress were the above methods based on raw experimental data for velocity, calculated using depth and bed shearstress. water 4.4.2 Results and discussions 4.4.2.1 Eddy viscosity
Figures 4.13a and 4.13b show the lateral distributions of the depth-averaged eddy (er) in rectangular and trapezoidal compound channel cases respectively. In viscosity Figure 4.13a, solids "0", "0" and "0" represent calculated eddy viscosities taking into the bed-turbulence contribution only whilst voids "0", "0" and "o" represent account the calculated eddy viscosities taking both the bed-turbulence and shear contributions into account. In Figure 4.13b, the eddy viscosities were calculated taking the bedturbulence and shear contributions into account.

The depth-averagededdy viscosity (e, ) is only from the bed-turbulence when the
to the eddy viscosity is not considered. Under this assumption, the shear contribution

88

of E, in each case are relatively constant in the main channel and on the values floodplain, but their values increase as the relative water depth increases (Figure 4.13a). This can be explained by the definition of the eddy viscosity from bed-

turbulence ( Erb). The eddy viscosity from bed turbulence (E,1,) can also be defined as 'Olb = TbH 2'blp by rearranging Equation 4.7a. As the relative water depth (Dr)

increases, the bed shear stress (,r, ), as shown in Figure 4.9a, and water depth (H) increases. increase, and then the eddy viscosity (8 b) Seen from Figure 4.13a, the depth-averaged eddy viscosities (Er ) are larger considering the shear contribution than those without conidering the shear

contribution, especially under shallow water conditions. It can also be seen that the (e, ) peak at the MC-FP junction. Figures 4.14a and 4.14b further eddy viscositie show the relative magnitudes of dimensionless eddy viscosities A, , A,, and A,, . The /egb in cases SRC-1, SRC-2 and SRC-3 are 28,4 and 1, maximum ratios of Et respectively. Table 4.3 shows the averaged eddy viscosities (e1) for the main channel floodplain and in cases SRC-1 - SRC-3. These results indicate that the shear

contribution to the eddy viscosity is very important in the shear layer, especially on the floodplain under low relative water depth conditions, i. e. Dr = 0.2.

From Figure 4.13b, the eddy viscosities (El) in the trapezoidal compound channels behave in a similar manner to those in rectangular compound channels.However, the
magnitudes of e, are smaller than those in the rectangular cases due to the reduced aUdlay, velocity gradient of especially under shallow water conditions. As shown in

T, 11,,- in Figure 4.14a, the maximum ratios of cases STC-1, STC-2 and STC-3 are 10,3 1, respectively. From Figure 4.14b, the maximum magnitudes of A and in

STC-1, STC-2 and STC-3 are 9,2 cases

and 0.2 times larger than those of Ab ,

respectively. Table 4.4 lists the mean values of the eddy viscosity in trapezoidal STC-1 - STC-3. The information from Table 4.4 is similar to that compound cases from Figures 4.13 and 4.14.

89

The above results of eddy viscosity show that the lateral shear in a rectangular channel is more significant than that in a trapezoidal compound channel compound water depth conditions, especially under lower shallow-water under similar relative conditions, i. e. Dr = 0.2. These results also indicate that the assumption of A=0.07 the section of a compound channel is not correct, especially under shallow across In 2D modelling, the values of the dimensionless eddy viscosity water conditions. (A,, must be properly selected by considering the shear effects to give satisfactory b)

flow predictions. Table 4.3

. ":

Mean values of the eddy viscosity in casesSRC-1 - SRC-3 (10"5m2/s)

J":

Dr SRC-1
Main

0.07 5.36 7.25 9.47 0.86 2.09 4.52

0.07 shear 6.69 8.24 9.95 6.37 4.16 4.82

0.23 0.36 0.49 0.23 0.36 0.49

SRC-2 channel SRC-3 SRC-1 Floodplain SRC-2 SRC-3

4.4.2.2 Reynolds shear stress

Based on the data presented in Figures 4.7a and 4.13a, the depth-averaged Reynolds (iyx) in rectangular, compound channel cases SRC-1 SRC-3 were stresses shear by using Equation 4.6. Based on the data presented in Figures 4.7b and calculated 4.13b, values for ryx in trapezoidal cases STC-1 - STC-3 were also calculated. The

distributions of zyx in rectangular and trapezoidal compound channel cases are

in Figure 4.15. The shear contribution to the eddy viscosity was considered presented in all the calculations. It is clearly seen from Figure 4.15 that the depth-averaged Reynolds shear stresses dip the MC-FP junction in all six cases, but the dip values of Reynolds shear stress around increase as the relative water depth decreases for both the rectangular and trapezoidal

90

channel cases. It can also be seen that the magnitudes of Reynolds shear compound usually larger in the rectangular compound channel than those in the stress are trapezoidal compound channel under similar relative water depth conditions. These well with those for the eddy viscosity. results correspond

Table 4.4

Mean values of the eddy viscosity in casesSTC-1 - STC-3 (10'5m2/s) Dr STC-1 Main STC-2 channel STC-3 STC-1 Floodplain STC-2 STC-3 0.37 0.50 0.24 0.37 0.50 0.24 vt 7.57 7.97 9.93 4.24 3.18 4.75

W*

Reynolds shearstressis It can also be seenfrom Figure 4.15 that the depth-averaged zero where the depth-averagedvelocity, as shown in Figures 4.7a and 4.7b, nearly in each case. The depth-averagedReynolds shear stressesincrease from the peaks MC-FP junction towards the left channel wall and the right channel wall. According to Nezu and Nakagawa (1993), the magnitude of the Reynolds shear stress 2'y,,near the wall approachesthe mean wall shear stress. Some calculated, depth-averaged, Reynolds shearstresses the main channelwall differ from the measuredmeanwall on as shown in Table 4.5 and this could be causedby the determination of shearstresses
aUd May on the wall. the velocity gradient Table 4.5 Measured mean wall shear stresses in compound channels (N/m)

Wall
Main channel

SRC-1
0.2293

SRC-2
0.2708

SRC-3
0.3509

STC-1
0.2419

STC-2
0.2795

STC-3
0.3519

Floodplain Sloped Junction Wall

0.0199 0.2334

0.0732 0.2769

0.1970 0.3512

0.1050 -

0.1442 -

0.2239 -

91

4.5 Apparent shear stress 4.5.1 Calculation method

The depth-averaged momentum equation for steady, uniform flow in the streamwise direction can be expressed by Equation 4.14 (Shiono & Knight 1991),

a PSHS0-2'b(1+s-22 =
Y

1HLWUV)a-zvc. U

(4.14)

A depth-averaged apparent shear stress (2'., ), which is expressed in Equation 4.15, was introduced to consider the effects of the secondary current and the turbulence on the lateral shear (Shiono & Knight 1991). In a symmetrical, trapezoidal, compound the depth-averaged apparent shear stress zos) is assumed to be zero at the channel, the main channel, so the depth-averaged apparent shear stress z) can be centre of from the centre of the main channel by Equation 4.15 (Shiono & Knight calculated 1991),

(Y)=-[WU-)d T.

-Zys]=-H

r[pgHS0

-zbl+s-2)'/2}1Y

(4.15)

is the lateral coordinate;H is the local water depth; s is the bank slope. where y
In this study, an asymmetrical, trapezoidal, compound channel, as illustrated in Figure 3.11, was used and the y coordinate starts from the left channel wall towards the right In this case, the boundary shear stress on the left channel wall needs to channel wall. be taken into account to calculate the depth-averaged apparent shear stress. Based on Equation 4.15, the apparent shear stress zj) is zero where the depth-averaged (iQS) at y=0 is equal to

(Ud) peaks. In this study, the apparent shear stress velocity the mean wall shear stress on the left wall

On the right wall (y = B), the

of the apparent shear stress zos) is equal to the mean wall shear stress on magnitude the right wall value of (zw,), )d but it is negative, namely, r,.. (y = B) at y=B This is because the is negative

(UV

is zero. The Reynolds shear stress 2'., at y=B y

92

due to the velocity gradient (aUd/ )y) in the y direction. During the above boundary conditions will be imposed. calculations,

the following

For the asymmetrical, trapezoidal, compound channel, the depth-averaged shear stress (r ) can be calculated using Equation 4.16:

-,

'IPSH(Y)SO 0

-2b(1+s-2f2)dy+Hew,

]/H(Y)

(4.16)

For the asymmetrical, rectangular, compound channel, the depth-averaged shear stress (las) in the main channel can also be calculated using Equation 4.16. To calculate the depth-averaged apparent shear stress on the floodplain, the mean wall shear stress on the vertical right wall of the main channel needs to take into further account. Equation 4.17 can be used to calculate the depth-averaged shear stress (r,. ) on the floodplain. f (PSx(Y)so -zb 0

(y)=[z.

(1+s-Z)'Z)dy+HzW1

+(H-h)zy,

J/H(y)

(4.17)

2', is the meanwall shearstresson the vertical right wall of the main channel. where n
4.5.2 Results and discussions Figure 4.16a shows the lateral distributions of the calculated apparent shear stresses in cases SRC-1 - SRC-3 and STC-1 .- STC-3. It can be seen that the apparent 2. stress decreasesfrom the left wall, reaches the lowest negative value at the MCshear FP junction and then increases towards the right wall. From Figure 4.16b, the peak in rectangular cases SRC-1, SRC-2 and SRC-3 are -0.67, -0.36 and -0.32 magnitudes N/m2, respectively. The peak magnitudes in trapezoidal cases STC-1, STC-2 and STC-3 are -0.56, -0.33 and -0.21 N/m2, respectively. Figure 4.16b shows that the peak the apparent shear stresses in the trapezoidal cases are smaller than magnitudes of those in the rectangular cases under similar relative water depth conditions. This indicates that the lateral shear is weaker in the trapezoidal cases than in the cases under similar relative water depth conditions. It can also be seen that rectangular the peak magnitude of the apparent shear stress decreases as the relative water depth )

93

increases, especially in the low relative water depth range, and this indicates that the lateral shear is weaker under conditions of greater water depth.

4.6 Secondary current

4.6.1 Calculation method As can be seen from Equations 4.14 and 4.15, the apparent shear stress r.. ) arises

from the secondarycurrent and the turbulence.Based on Equations 4.14 and 4.15, the contribution can be calculatedfrom Equation 4.18: secondarycurrent
-()d=
V.

za - zYx iUVd

(4.18)

Figure 4.17 shows the calculated secondary currents

in rectangular and

trapezoidalcompoundchannel cases. According to Prooijen et al. (2005), for a trapezoidal compound channel, the lateral (V. )and the floodplain (V. in the main channel on are expressedby velocities fp) x, xn
Equations 4.19a and 4.19b respectively. For a rectangular compound channel, the lateral velocity on the floodplain is also expressed by Equation 4.19b, but the lateral in the main channel is expressed by a new approach. As shown in Figure velocity 4.18, the secondary current is stronger in the upper part than in the lower part of the channel, but their magnitudes at the vertical level of the floodplain are the same. main If the lateral velocity in the upper part of the main channel is expressed by Equations 4.19c, then the lateral velocity in the lower part of the main channel can be expressed in a similar equation but using a reduction factor (=Z/(H h)) and an opposite value -

the maximum velocity in Equation 4.19c, which is expressed in Equation 4.19d. of

The depth-averaged secondarycurrent term -

UV)d

in the main channel and on the

floodplain can also be calculated by Equations 4.20a and 4.20b respectively. Combing Equation 4.18, the maximum lateral velocity can be further determined. For a with trapezoidal compound channel, the value of maximum lateral velocity in the main on the floodplain channel and be determined by Equations 4.21a and 4.21b can

Using the new concept described above, for a rectangular channel, the respectively. lateral velocity in the main channel and on the floodplain can also value of maximum

94

be determined by Equations 4.21c and 4.21b respectively. The value of maximum lateral velocity varies with the lateral position y.

V (Z) _ -V,,,,,,, cos nH c (H V(Z)=-v ,1 cos

(4.19a)

-h)

(4.19b)

V(Z)=-V

(H -h) }H_hZH ,,,, ccos

(4.19c)

V (Z) =

HZ h

V.

xinc

cost c

HZ h ,05

ZS H- h

(4.19d)

-UV)d

pU(Z)V(Z)dZ =-r H

r-h UV)d =-

pU(Z)V(Z)dZ
h

(4.20b)

Vmax, =H mc

(j - zyx)

( fpU(Z)cos)dZ

(4.21 a)

h(zas- zyx) V... __ tp r.. rl h pU(Z)cosl 7t h

Vmax, tnc

(4.21b)

)dZ
dZ + rhPuCOSL Z- (H - h) dZ h (4.21 c)

H F., -)
-h -Z H-h z pU(Z)cos 7r H-h)

Z is the distance from the main channel bed; H is the water depth in the main where

h is the water depth on the floodplain; U(Z) is the local streamwisevelocity channel; measuredby a pitot tube.

95

4.6.2 Results and discussions

In cases SRC-1 - SRC-3, the value of the secondary current (pUV )d decreases attains a

from the main channel towards the floodplain near the MC-FP junction,

at the junction edge and then increases from the edge towards the right negative peak irrespective of relative water depth conditions. These observations are similar to wall, those of Tominaga and Nezu (1991). This can be explained by the secondary current in structures the rectangular compound channel. Based on the turbulence

data of Tominaga and Nezu (1991), major secondary current cells can measurement be illustrated in Figure 4.18. Based on the work of Shiono and Knight (1991) and Omran and Knight (2006), the typical distributions of the streamwise velocity (U) and lateral velocity (V) can be illustrated in Figure 4.19. Figures 4.19a, 4.19b, 4.19c the 4.19d show the U and V distributions in the main channel, near the left, mainand wall, near the junction channel in the main channel side and on the floodplain,

The U distribution on the floodplain is assumed to be similar to that in respectively. the main channel. It can be seen from the velocity distributions shown in Figure 4.19 that the sign and W)d are mainly determined by U and V in the upper zone of the magnitude of This is because the magnitudes of U and V are generally larger than those in channel. the channel. On the floodplain, values for U are positive over the depth, other parts of V is positive in the upper parts and negative in the lower parts, so UV is positive in negative in the lower part, the sum of UV in the upper part is the upper part and larger than the absolute sum of UV in the lower part and this leads to the negative UV)d the floodplain. The magnitudes of U and V decrease from the junction on )d decrease from the junction

towards the left floodplain wall, so the values of -W

the floodplain wall. This analysis is also applicable to the variations of towards in the main channel. For example, the magnitude of negative V near the junction in the main channel is larger than that in other locations, positive is possible near the junction in the main channel side and the magnitude of UV)d (UV )d

becomes smaller from the junction towards the centre of the main channel. The larger )d V makes -(V negative near the left main channel wall. positive

96

Compared with Figure 4.15, the value of -

(UV

)d

in each rectangular case is larger

than rY, on the floodplain, but smaller than zyx near the MC-FP junction and near the left main channel wall. This indicates that the secondary current is more important than the turbulent shear on the floodplain, but is less important near the MC-FP junction.

It can also be seen that -

(pUV)d

profiles in the trapezoidal casesSTC-1 - STC-3

behave in a similar manner to that in the rectangular channel cases.In trapezoidal, (pUV)d compound-channel cases STC-1 - STC-3, the value of also attains a positive peak at around y=0.138 m and a negative peak at around y=0.158 m. The peak at the junction edgewas also observedby Shiono and Knight (1991). negative The value of V,,, was determinedusing Equation 4.19. Figure 4.20 shows the lateral a. distributions of V.,, in rectangular and trapezoidal, compound-channelcases.Except the channel walls, the maximum value of V,,, occurs near the MC-FP junction and at a,, this agreeswith the experimental observations (i. e. Tominaga & Nezu 1991). The
IU,,.,, for rectangular cases SRC-1, SRC-2 and SRC-3 are 3.4 %, 1.9 % VVax ratios of and 2.6 %, respectively. The ratio of V. /U,,, X for case SRC-3, relative water depth

Dr = 0.49, is approaching the value of 4% reported by Tominaga and Nezu (1991). The ratios V. 1U.., x for trapezoidal cases STC-1, STC-2 and STC-3 are 2.0 %, 1.9

% and 1.6 %, respectively. Under relative water depths 0.2 and 0.5, the ratios of V.. IU.,, were larger in the rectangular channel than in the trapezoidal channel and

this indicates that the secondary currents are stronger in the rectangular channel than in the trapezoidal one under. This is because turbulence intensities in three directions are stronger in a rectangular channel than in a trapezoidal one because of the wall in the shear layer zone as shown in Shiono and Knight (1989). The generation slope term of secondary currents in Equation 2.9 is then larger in the rectangular channel than in the trapezoidal one. Prooijen et al. (2005) assumed the transverse velocity (V) profile to be half-cosine and

V.. at the edge of the MC-FP junction for one FCF caseof relative water calculated

97

depth 0.15, but they found the calculated V... was one order of magnitude greater than the experimental one. They assumed the longitudinal velocity (U) profile to be )d logarithmic and the value of -W was to be that of ry,, , so these two

assumptionsmight be the main sourcesof their calculation error. 4.7 Boundary shear stress
4.7.1 Friction factor The local values of the friction factors have been illustrated in Figure 4.12. From Figures 4.12a and 4.12f, the friction factor decreases with-the relative depth, Dr, increases, especially on the floodplain. This indicates that the bed friction effect becomes weaker as the water depth increases. It can also be seen that the friction factor f is relatively constant in the main channel and on the floodplain under larger water depth conditions. Under Dr = 0.20, the peak values of the friction factor relative at different positions in the rectangular and trapezoidal cases and this could be occur by the secondary currents on the floodplain. The peak positions for cases SRCcaused 1 and STC-1 are at around y=0.22 m and 0.29 m respectively. In case SRC-1, one

secondary current cell is generated on the left floodplain and one counterclockwise, secondary current cell is generated because of the corner effect on the right clockwise floodplains. Under shallow water conditions, the clockwise secondary current might be suppressed by the turbulent shear near the MC-FP junction, so the counter-

secondary current extends towards the MC-FP junction, this moves the clockwise high-momentum fluid near the surface towards the channel bed and this leads to a larger friction factor on the left floodplain. In case STC-1, the turbulent shear is weaker than in case SRC-1, so a large secondary current cell might exist on the floodplain and extend to the whole floodplain. This leads to the peak position near the right floodplain wall.

According to Shiono and Knight (1991), f ocRe 4, and therefore the ratio f / f. fp c
3

depend on Dr 7. Based on the experimental data presented in Figure 4.12, the will

friction factors on the main channel bed f,,, and the floodplain f can be average fp

98

The relationships between f, calculated.

and f fn in the rectangular and trapezoidal n,

be expressed by Equations 4.22 and 4.23, respectively. cases can

3

f1 / f,

=1.4390Dr 7 -0.4531 nc
3

(4.22)

ff

r/fns

0.7371Dr 7+0.2433 =

(4.23)

4.7.2 Contributions to boundary shear stress

in Figure 4.10, the boundary shear stresses differ from the two-dimensional As shown (pgHS0 ). The bed shear stresses are smaller' than pgHS0 in the main channel value larger than pgHS0 on the floodplain. Equation 4.14 indicates that the difference and is caused by the depth-averaged Reynolds shear stress and secondary current gradients in the lateral direction. To examine the contributions of different forces to the

boundary shear stress, the normalised gradients of the Reynolds shear stress )/ay) )dflay) a ofH( pUV `Hzy. were calculated and the secondary current term ( PSHS0 PgHSO presentedin Figures 4.21 and 4.22. In these figures, T9 represents and are
i 1 -Z z zb +s/T

pgHS pgHS0

a H2yX /ay represents rS pgHS0

Tb, represents -

PSHS0

and T Sc represents

a[H( pUV)d'lay pgHS0

TB represents Tg +Tbs +Trs +Tsc The shear effect on the ' .

Reynolds stress is considered in these analyses. Figures 4.21a, 4.21b and 4.21c show the force contributions under the assumption of ,b=0.07 in rectangular, compound-channel cases. In case SRC-1, Term Trs is m, so the bed shear stress is

and Term Ts, is nearly zero at 0.04 <y<0.12 negative

than pgHS0. Near the MC-FP junction, Term T, increases sharply, attains a smaller s at the junction edge, then decreases to be around zero at 0.19 <y<0.27 positive peak

Term Tsc decreasestowards the junction edge, attains a negative peak at the m.
junction edge, then increases to be positive around y=0.18 m on the floodplain. The

99

magnitudes of Term T,., are around negative 40 % in the main channel, but around 380 % at the junction edge. The magnitudes of Term TSc are generally positive than those of Term Trr and this indicates that the turbulent shear is more smaller important than the secondary current to the bed shear stress. As a result, the bed shear is smaller than pgHS0 in the main channel but larger than pgHS0 on the stress floodplain.

Terms Trs and Tsc in the deeper cases, SRC-2 and SRC-3, behave in a similar to those in case SRC-1, but their magnitudesare smaller than thoseJn case manner SRC-1 because the turbulent shear becomes weaker as the relative water depth increases. As a result, the difference between pgHS0 and zb on the floodplain becomes smaller as the relative water depth increases.It can also be seen that the of Terms T, and Ts, are larger near the sidewalls. As the relative water magnitudes depth increases, the velocity gradient DU/3y is steeper near the walls and the Reynolds shear stressis therefore larger. Meanwhile, the corner effects become more as the water depth increasesand this generates stronger secondarycurrents significant the walls, hencethe magnitudesof Tsc are larger in the deepercases. near
Figures 4.22a - 4.22c show the force contributions in three trapezoidal, compoundunder the assumption that t,b = 0.07. The overall trends of Terms T channel cases TSc are similar to those in the rectangular cases, but they are more complex near and the MC-FP junction than in the rectangular cases. This could be caused by the

different secondary current structures over the sloped-wall region. As can also be seen from Figures 4.21 and 4.22, the magnitudes of TSc in the main zero except for the junction region and near the wall region, but channel are almost they are positive and remain relatively constant on the floodplain. This indicates that the depth-averaged velocity on the floodplain will be under-predicted using the SKM (Shiono & Knight 1991) unless secondary current effects are considered. model For each case, the magnitudes of TB are nearly zero in the main channel and on the floodplain, except for the junction region and near the sidewalls. The non-zero TB

100

could be caused by the several secondary current cells and the eddy viscosity model This method requires further improvement in the future to better predict the used.

depth-averagedapparentstress,Reynolds stress and the secondarycurrent acrossthe section in the compoundchannel. 4.8 Vegetated compound channel flow 4.8.1 Mean velocity and bed shear stress
To investigate the vegetation effects on the flow pattern and also gain basic

knowledge of vegetated compound channel flow, 237 circular wooden rods were used vegetation and placed at y=0.163 m (YB 0.53) along the floodplain. to model the = The lateral position of the MC-FP junction is y=0.156 (Y/B = .51). The diameter m

height of the rods are 9 mm and 100 mm respectively. The distance between each and is 40 mm. The relative water depth in this case is 0.52, which is similar to that in rod STC-3. Velocity and boundary shear stress were measured at the cross section x case 7.47m. =

4.23 shows the normalisedvelocity (U/Urn) pattern acrossthe section in STCFigure

4 case. The measurement section was located at the centre between two emergent It is clear that there are two high velocity zones, which are located in the main rods. and on the floodplain. channel In the main channel, the maximum velocity zone

around YB = 0.15 and Z/H = 0.55 and the peak velocity is 1.40 Um . The exists phenomenon is very obvious and this may be caused by the momentum velocity-dip transfer due to secondary currents. Based on the previous section of secondary in the trapezoidal compound channel, one large and strong, countercurrents secondary circulation might exist in the right side of the main channel and clockwise one small, clockwise secondary circulation might exist near the left wall of the main The velocity decreases from 1.40 U,, around YB = 0.15 to 0.60 U,,, at the channel. MC-FP junction and this indicates the strong shear layer in the right side of the main On the floodplain, the flow pattern is opposite to that in the main channel, channel. but its velocity is smaller. A large, clockwise secondary circulation in the left side of the floodplain and a small, counter-clockwise secondary circulation near the right side of the floodplain might exist.

101

Figure 4.24 shows the distributions of the depth-averaged velocity and bed shear a relative water depth Dr = 0.5. The velocity pattern in the emergent rod stress under is totally different from that in the no rod case, STC-3. The velocity is smaller in case the emergent rod case, STC-4, than in the no rod case, STC-3, at the same position the channel discharge in the rod case is about 67 % of that in the no rod case. whilst The velocity gradient (aU/ay) is steeper near the MC-FP junction in the rod case

than in the no rod case and stronger shear layers are generated in the main channel the floodplain. The bed shear stress is also smaller in the rod case than that in and on the no rod case at the same location. This indicates that the emergent rods greatly the channel discharge under similar water depth conditions and this is not good reduce fdr the relief of flooding. However, the bed shear stress is much smaller in the rod than in the no rod case, especially near the rods, and this is good for riverbed case protection.

4.25 shows the lateral distributions of (pgHS0- zb)/pgHS0 in the emergent Figure STC-4, and in the no rod case,STC-3, for a relative water depth Dr = 0.5. In rod case, the rod case, the measured bed shear stress is smaller than the standard twodimensional value pgHS0 everywhere in the channel. From the point of force balance, this is due to the drag force. In the no rod case,the measuredbed shearstress the left floodplain is higher than pgHS0 and this has been explained in the on previous section. In the rod caseSTC-4 (Figure 4.26), the friction factors are slightly larger in the main and on the floodplain than those in the non-vegetated case STC-3. This channel indicates that the emergentrods increasethe flow resistance noticeably. 4.8.2 Eddy viscosity and Reynolds shear stress
As mentioned in Section 4.8.1, there are two shear layers in the compound channel with one-line emergent rods along the edge of the MC-FP junction. The eddy

was calculated by considering the shear effect and using the assumption that viscosity 0.07. 11, = b

102

Using the same method described in Section 4.4.1, the shear layer widths in the main the floodplain are 0.0832 in and 0.0829 in respectively. These shear channel and on layer widths in the rod case STC-4 are larger than their value of 0.033 in in the no rod STC-3 and this is caused by the steeper velocity gradient (aU/ay) case in the rod

Figure 4.27a shows the eddy viscosity across the section in cases STC-4 and case. STC-3. In case STC-4, the eddy viscosity increases from the centre of the main to the MC-FP junction and decreases sharply approaching the rods. On the channel floodplain, the eddy viscosity increases from the rod position to the centre of the floodplain. This is because the eddy viscosity is not only dependent on all/ay, but

dependent on other parameters, such as U, H and f. In the no rod case STC-3, the also eddy viscosity remains relatively constant both in the main channel and on the

floodplain, but it decreasesfrom the main channel to the floodplain. The difference of between the rod case and the no rod case is also caused by the multiple eddy viscosity factors that determine the eddy viscosity. The shear effects on the eddy viscosity can be clearly seen from the dimensionless eddy viscosity, as shown in Figure 4.27b. In STC-3, the values of A. Ab are nearly zero, even near the MC FP the no rod case rf junction, and this is due to the smaller velocity gradients. In the rod case STC-4, the /2rb 2IS 4 in the main channel and 2.5 on the reach about maximum values of floodplain. This indicates that the shear contribution to the eddy viscosity is also

important in the rod case, even under the deep-water condition. Using A,, = 0.07, Reynolds shear stress (TY.,) was calculated from the data presented in Figures 4.24 and 4.26. Figure 4.28a shows the distributions of depth-averaged Reynolds shear stress, apparent shear stress and secondary current normalised by (pUV )d) in case STC-4. The secondary current (was calculated by using pgHS0 Equation 4.18. For comparison, Figure 4.28b shows the normalised forces in the nonSTC-3. In Figures 4.28a and 4.28b, TRQS TRrs and TRS, represent vegetated case , (pUV )J /pgHS0 /pgHS0 /pgHS0 zyX respectively. and zas , , From Figure 4.28a, the sign of TRrs corresponds well with the velocity gradient

from zero where the peak (DU/ay). In the main channel,the value of TRrsdecreases
towards the MC-FP edge and attains a negative peak of -1.5 at y= velocity exists 103

0.147 m. On the floodplain, it increases from zero at y=0.17 peak of 0.3 at y=0.23

in, attains a positive

m and then decreases to be negative near the right wall. From

Figure 4.28b, under similar water-depth conditions, it attains a negative peak of -0.5 the MC-FP edge and remains negative on the floodplain. This indicates that the near generate strong shear layers in the main channel and on the floodplain, emergent rods deep relative water depth conditions. even under

4.8.3 Apparent shear stress The method of Shibno and Knight (1991) will be modified to calculate the apparent stress in a vegetatedcompound channel and this is also a new application. In shear flow, the depth-averagedmomentum equation can be vegetated, compound-channel given as follows:
I

(PSSo Fi )H zb 1+Z2 S2

y {H [(pUV )d

--,r;

(4.24)

F; is the drag force per unit volume and is zero outside the area affected by the where drag force.
According to Igarashi (1984), the affecting area of a circular, emergent rod is around 4D x 4D, where D is the diameter of the rod. In case STC-4, the diameter of the rod is 0.009 m and the rods are located at 0.158 m<y chosen at 0.12 m <_y50.201 roughly <_0.167 m, so the affecting area was

m. The drag effect becomes weaker as the

distance from the rod centre increases, so the drag force is assumed to peak at the rod centre, y=0.163 m, and decrease from the rod centre to y=0.12 m and y=0.201 m.

The total drag force (F) in the channel was calculated from Equation 4.25. In traditional volume averaging, the drag force is assumed to be uniform in the whole This is easy to calculate, but it is not accurate enough. In this study, the water volume. drag force was assumed to be distributed linearly in the affecting area as illustrated in Figure 4.29a. The affecting area was divided into several small sub-areas. The drag (Fd;) was calculated using the assumption illustrated in Figure force in the sub-area drag force per unit volume in the sub-area (Fi) was calculated from 4.29a and the

Equation 4.26. Figure 4.29b presentsthe calculation results of Fd; and F,.

104

F=2N,

pCDDhU,

(4.25)

Nr is the total number of rods (=237), CD is the drag coefficient (=1), D is the where diameter of the rod (=0.009 m), h is the water depth on the floodplain (=0.0385 m)
Uc is the averaged streamwise velocity (=0.1679 m/s) within 0.12 m: 5 y :S0.201 and

m. Far
Vwr

F1 =

(4.26)

is VK1 the water volume of the i sub-area. where ;

The apparent shear stresses in the main channel and on the floodplain were calculated from the left wall and the right wall respectively. Mean wall shear stresses on the left

walls were used as boundary conditions. For example, the apparent and right channel in the main channelcan be calculatedby using Equation 4.27, shearstress

p(gS0 -Fr)H-zb

1+S2

+Hzwr

(4.27)

from the From Figure 4.28a, in the main channel, the apparentshear stressdecreases left wall towards the sloped wall of the main channel, however, once it attains a
of -1.0 at y=0.138 m, its magnitude increases again. On the floodplain, negative peak stress increases from a negative value of -1.5 near the MC-FP edge, the apparent shear peak of 1.3 at y=0.20 m and then decreases to a negative value near attains a positive In the non-vegetated case STC-3 (Figure 4.28b), the apparent shear the right wall. m and then increases slightly a negative peak of -0.2 at y=0.156 stress attains the right wall. This further indicates that the lateral shear is stronger in the towards than that in the non-vegetated case under similar deep water emergent rod case conditions.

105

4.8.4 Secondary current

(pUV )d/pgHS0) The secondary current (varies in a similar manner to that of the

/pgHS0 ). From Figures 4.28a and 4.28b, it can also be seen shear stress (2 apparent that the magnitudes of secondary current (pUV)d /pgHS0 are larger in the emergent

STC-4, than in the non-vegetated case STC-3, especially near the rods. The rod case, (pUV )d /pgHS0 are -1.5 and 1.0 for the rod and positive peak values of negative The negative and positive peak values of case. (pUV )d/pgHS0 are -0.7 and 0.2 for

(PUV )d/pgHS0 behaves in a more complex the non-vegetated case. Moreover, in the emergent rod case. The stronger secondary currents could be caused by manner large eddies near the MC-FP junction and the strong wakes around the rods. the lateral velocity (V. Figure 4.30 shows the maximum profiles in cases STC-4 and X) STC-3. From Figure 4.30, the V. in the rod case, STC-4, is generally much larger x for the rod

in the no rod case STC-3. The maximum ratios of V.,, /U. than that

the no rod case are 0.45 and 0.03 respectively. The sign of V.,, changes near case and this could be caused by the wakes or eddies around the rods. the rods and

Based on the measuredstreamwisevelocity and calculated results of -

the , of the lateral velocity (V) can be roughly estimated. The typical vertical profiles in the main channel and on the floodplain were illustrated proposed vertical profiles

(pUV)d

by Figures 4.31 and 4.32 respectively. 4.8.5 Contributions to boundary shear stress
As shown in Figure 4.25, the boundary shear stresses are smaller than the twodimensional value (pgHS0) across the section in the rod case STC-4. Figures 4.33a 4.33b show the contributions to the boundary shear stress in cases STC-4 and and pgHSo -F, H Tbs STC-3 respectively. In Figures 4.33a and 4.33b, T. represents ' pgHS0 ), -2 i represents -Z1(l+s pgHSO a H2's /ay represents pgHSO and TSc represents

T,, s

106

a[H(

pUV

)dUay. TB represents T8 +7bs +Trs +TSC The shear effect on the , . .

pgHS0

Reynolds stressis consideredin theseanalyses. The overall contributions are well-balanced in the main channel,except near the rods, i. e. at y=0.156 m and y=0.171 m. The remarkable difference between the rod case the no rod case exists in the junction region becauseof the non uniform flow and the rods. The drag force due to the emergentrods causessteepvelocity condition near then strong lateral shear near the MC-FP junction, this makes the gradient and ay Uay a(Hzyx aLH- pUV)d behaviours of very complex and then the behaviour , PgHS0 ,.. pgHS0
I

of -

zb(1+s-Z)z

PgHSo

4.9 Summary Narrow, rectangular, open-channel flow is characterisedby the strong velocitybulging towards the corners whilst the maximum velocity occurs around the centre region (Z /H=0.60) of the channel. The velocity-dip becomes remarkable as the

These flow behaviours describedin the literature were (=B/H) decreases. aspect ratio confirmed in this work. also
The distance ratio (X/R) of the longitudinal distance from the inlet (X) to the

diameter (R) can be used to select the measurement section for a fully hydraulic developed flow in open channel experiments. In these experiments, the appropriate (X/R) for flow development are 176 in the rectangular distance ratios channel and 150 in the compound channel respectively.

Non-vegetated, compound, open-channel flow is characterized by the velocitybulging near the MC-FP junction and the corners due to the momentum transfer via currents. In this study, velocity-bulging near the MC-FP junction was secondary demonstrated to be stronger under large relative water depth conditions, especially in the rectangular compound channel.

107

The lateral shear in the shear layer zone was found to play an important role in the exchange in the non-vegetated, compound open channel, especially under momentum water depth conditions. The shear layer width, 15, decreases as the shallow relative depth increases and the value of 8 is larger in the rectangular relative water channel than that in the trapezoidal compound channel. The dimensionless, compound depth-averaged eddy viscosity (A, peaks at the MC-FP junction and the peak value S) decreases as the relative water depth increases. For the rectangular compound /Alb the peak ratios of AAS under relative water depths of 0.22,0.35 and 0.48 channel,

29,3 and 0.2 respectively. For the trapezoidal compound channel, the peak ratios are /Ttb 37 2ls under relative water depths of 0.23, .Q. and 0.50 are 9,2 of and 0.2

The Reynolds shear stress(z,,,,) behavesin a similar manner to that of respectively. dimensionless,depth-averaged eddy viscosity (T, ). the
The apparent shear stress (zas) arises from the Reynolds shear stress (zy,, ) and the )d current (( pUV ). The method of Shiono and Knight (1991) was used to secondary the apparent shear stresses in the trapezoidal compound channel. This calculate method was modified to calculate the apparent shear stresses in the rectangular

channel using appropriate boundary conditions. The apparent shear stress compound the MC-FP junction, and the ratio of the apparent shear stress to pgHS0 peaks near decreases as the relative water depth increases, which indicates that the lateral shear becomes weaker under deep-water conditions. The peak value of zas is smaller in the trapezoidal, compound channel cases than that in the rectangular cases under similar, relative water-depth conditions. The secondary current (pUV)d was calculated from the apparent shear stress and ( pUV )d and V.,, profiles roughly agree with

Reynolds shear stress. The calculated

in the literature, but they are more complex near the MC-FP the measurements ( junction. The magnitudes of pUV)d and V.,, are also large near the MC-FP junction, even in shallow cases, and this indicates that the secondary current also

important role in the momentum exchange near the MC-FP junction in the plays an compound channel. 108

In non-vegetated, compound-channel cases, the bed shear stresses are smaller than in the main channel and larger on the floodplain and this is caused by the pgHS0 of the Reynolds gradients (aH ( aHr. /ay ) and secondary shear stress ( current

( )d/ay l ay 1ay ). The values of DH 2'yx and aH PUV pUV)d are much larger

the MC-FP junction than those outside this region and this indicates that the near )d/a, / (7 DH PUV can be neglected outside the MC-FP junction region effect of Ipg HSo

in 2D modelling. The emergentrods make the flow pattern totally different from that in the compound rods on the floodplain under similar, relative water-depth conditions. channel without In the compound open channel with one-line emergentrods along the floodplain, the flow is characterizedby two shear layers in the main channel and on the floodplain For relative water depth Dr = 0.5, the shear layer widths in the main separately. on the floodplain in the rod case are both about 0.083 m and the shear channel and is only 0.033 m. The maximum values of Tu /'Ib layer width in the nonvegetatedcase in the main channel and on the floodplain are about 4 and 2.5 respectively. Compared the non-vegetatedcompound channel,the channel dischargeand bed shearstress with remarkably in the compound channel with emergent rods along the are reduced floodplain under similar relative water depth conditions.
By distributing the drag force linearly in the affecting area, the depth-averaged,

shear stress and the secondary current were properly calculated. The apparent shear stress, Reynolds shear stress and secondary current peak near the MCapparent FP junction in the rod case and their peak values are larger than those in the nonand they behave with greater complexity near the MC-FP junction vegetated case, than those in the non-vegetated compound channel owing to the large eddies and wakes around the rods.

109

(a)

-X0.88-

1.07 0.95-

0,95

0.88

00

0.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

(b)

_ se_

NP

0
1
()
-1

0.2

0.4

y, g

0.6

0.8

1.07 0.88 1.01 0.95 ----0.88-

0 1

0.2

0.4

Y/B
1.14

0.6

0.8

.1

(d)
0 1E

0.95 1.01 0.95

0.2

0.4

YOB

0.6

0.8

(e)

o. as
0.88` 0.99`'----0.88 o. B2

o 0

0.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

Isovels of normalised velocity U/U, along the rectangular channel Figure 4.1 Case SR-1). (a) X/R = 85; (b) X/R = 127; (c) X/R = 176; (d) X/R = 235; (e) XIR = 282.

110

1
0.98

(a)
%"o 0.98 1. 89 .

0.89

X/R=50

000.2 1

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

0.9B

Oeg

1.07 9

X/R=100

000.2 1

0.4

Y/B
0.98

0.6

0.8

0.89 0.80

I.o;. 0 , o. o. s

X/R=150

0 1

0.2
ryb

0.4

Y/B
O9

0.6

0.8

1
1
/O

(d)

. cp 000.2

097

,.,5 ,. OB

wR=210

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

Isovels of normalised velocity U/U,, along the compound channel Figure 4.2 for Case SRC-3. (a) X/R = 50; (b) X/R = 100; (c) X/R = 150; (d) X/R = 210.

111

(a)
23 22 22 21 20 20 X19 26 24

(b)

.,

i '

;, .11

18 : --)16 D 14
"'

.'

41 en

18
, ' y

,.
f A

2.03 4.23

12 10
f

1.8 3.6

17 16 15 10 11 12 13 2.5InZI

5.63 6.76

5.4

8 6

7.2

14

15

16

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 2.5InZ`

Normalised velocity (U/U. ) distributions over the water depth at Figure 4.3 YB = 0.5 in case SR-1 and at YB = 0.3 in case SRC-i. (a) Case SR-1; (b) Case SRC-3.

0.5

01
0.99-0.84 0.89
1IIIIIIII1I1

a
C. ' "00.2
Figure 4.4

1.05 _- 0.94

0.99
O--

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

Isovels of normalised velocity U/Un at X/R =185 (Case SR-2).

112

Ca)

0.2
i ,'A
0.89

SRC-1

0 1
(b) = jz
0

0.4

Y/B o. es

0.6 eoo.

0.8
sz o.

os .

SRC-2
0.8

0
1/
I

0.2
l
24 ,

0.4

YOB

0.6
1.06 os7

0.8
-o.sao.es

(c)
000.2

-Eia

,6'
0.4 YOB 0.6

SRC-3 0.8 1

Isovels of normalised velocity U/Um in rectangular compound Figure 4.5 (a) SRC-1; (b) SRC-2; (c) SRC-3. channel cases.

(a)

STC-1
1 02

000.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

(b)
0"y3

STC-2

000.2 11
(a1Z C)
0.9

0.4
A

Y/B
'_

0.6
1.11

0.8
1.oz

_
02

0.930.84

7a

STC-3 Y/B 0.6 0.8 1 compound

0e
Figure 4.6

0.2

0.4

Isovels of normalised velocity U/Urn in trapezoidal (a) STC-1; (b) STC-2; (c) STC-3. channel cases.

113

0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35

(a)

n 0.30 90.25 0.20 -0.15 0.10 - 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 0
R1 SG -SRG2 SRC-3 Bed

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (m)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

(b)

STC-2 r--STC-3 Bed

STG 1

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (m)

0.2

0.24

0.28

0.32

Figure cases.

4.7

Lateral compound

distributions channel

Rectangular

of depth-averaged velocity cases; (b) Trapezoidal compound

. channels

Ud

(a)

(a)
U _ D 15 ----------0.06 0.05
j25'--------------------

(b)
0.08 0.071 0.069 0.071 0.061 0.047 0.044 0.033

-----"----------"----"----------/2 L U)

0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 01

SRC-1 STC-1 SRC-2 STC-2 SRG3 STG3

Y sta. Yisi y

Width of shear layer S in various compound channel cases. (a) Figure 4.8 Definition sketch for determination of 6; (b) Values of 6 in various cases.

114

0.50 N 0.45 E 0.40 --0.35 ul 0.30 p 0.25 rn

(a)

0.15 0.10 m 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 C'J 0.30 2 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 0.00

0.20 a>

---U-

SRC-1 SRC-2 SRC-3

Bed

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (m)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

(b)

f - -

STG 1 STC-2 STC-3 Bed

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (m)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

Figure

of bed shear stress rb . (a) Rectangular channel cases; (b) Trapezoidal compound channel cases. compound 4.9

Lateral distributions

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.04 -0.1 -0.2 0.08 0.1
-- ---k- -8-0--

SRC-1 SRC-2 SRC-3 STC-1 STC-2 STC-3

28 .

Figure 4.10

Lateral

distributions

of pgHS0 - zn for six cases.

115

0.020 0.018 0.016 0.014 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0.000 SRC-1 SRC-2 SRC-3 STC-1 Case STC-2 STC-3

Figure 4.11 (a)

O.W

Overall values of Manning coefficient in various cases (b)

0.05 0.04 -0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00

0.05 0.04 -0.03 0.02 -o0.01 0 0.00 Data

-. -Calculated

0.04

0.08

0.12 Y.

16

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (m)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

(c)
0.04 0.04

(d)
v. w
0.05 0.04
0.03 0.02

0.03 0.03 - 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00

0.01
0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 Y 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32

0.00

0.00

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (m)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

(e)
0.06
U. w

(f)
0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 000

0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 000

0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 Y(m) 0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y(m)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

Lateral distributions of measured and predicted friction factor. (a) Figure 4.12 Case SRC-1; (b) Case SRC-2; (c) Case SRC-3; (d) STC-1; (e) STC-2; (f) STC-3.

116

1.E-(
0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0

U)
E1. E-04

(a)
E-05 w
-- SRG1 SRC-2 -o--6 SRC- 1 shear SRC-2 shear

SRC-3 1. E-06 1. E-03 0 0.04

-U-

SRO-3shear -; m)

0.08

0.12

0.16

0.20

0.24

0.28

y El. E-04

(b)
U N

E-05 w
- -tSTG 1 STG2 STG3

1.E-06

Figure 4.13

Lateral distributions

of e, in compound channels. (a) Rectangular

(b) Trapezoidal cases. cases; (a)

3L

(b)
JG

28 24 20 16 12
8 4 0 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.1210.16) 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32

28 24 20 16 12

8
4 0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Relative Water Depth 0.6

Figure 4.14

in compound channels and peak frs Ab under various relative water depth conditions. (a) 2, /2, ; (b )Peak value b ITIb of Ats of

Lateral

distributions

TA,

117

0.6 1 0.4 t'L 0.2 N 0.0 -0,20

-0.4 0.6

0 -tSTG1

0.04
SRC-2 SRC-3

0.08

0.20

0.24

0.2

0.

SRC 1

STG2 STG 3

-1.0

Figure 4.15

Lateral distributions
0.6

of Reynolds stress in compound channels.

(a)

cv 0.4 E 0.2 0.0 -0.2( r -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0

0.04
--e-- a--o-SRC-1 SRC-2 SRC-3 STG 1 STC-2 STC-3

0.c
(b)
N -0.1 2 2 -0.91 cn -0. ' -0.4 -0. E E -0. -0.7 E -0.
--o SRC - STC 0.3 0.4 0.5 06

Im <

Lateral distributions of apparent stress in compound channels and Figure 4.16 dip apparent stresses in various relative water depth conditions. (a) Apparent stress; (b) Dip value of apparent shear stress. shear

v. 0.

10.
-0. -0. -0. -O. -1.

A-

0.04

SRG1 SRG2 -tSRG3 - STC- 1 - STG2 - - .r- STG3

Figure

4.17

Lateral

distributions

of secondary

current

term -

(pUV)d

in compound channels.

118

Figure 4.18

Secondary current cells in a rectangular

compound channel.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

VV

distributions of U and V in different locations of a compound channel. (a) Main channel; (b) Near left wall; (c) Near rectangular junction; (d) Floodplain. Figure 4.19
0.02

Typical

0.01

. 0.00 E -0.01

0.04

t -A-s-

SRC-1 SRC-3 STC-2

-s---h-

SRC-2 STG1 STC-3

-0.02

Figure 4.20

Lateral distributions

in of V,,,,,,, compound channels.

119

SRC-1

(a)

..

CC
U
O

LII! I!!
0.28
-+---T,g 'rrs
T; sc -1

16 /
-1
-G

0.20

0.24

SRC-2
r

L C

'

(b)

c c0.1,111
-1

1-

0.1

0.20

0.24

0.0.2

-2
V -3

4 3 2 (c) 01 c0 0 U0 -SRC-3 .. T,g Trrs Esc

0.20

0.24

28

0.32

-2 -3

Figure 4.21 in rectangular

of different forces to the difference of pgHS0 - rb compound channel cases. (a) Case SRC-1; (b) SRC-2; (c) SRC-3.

Contributions

120

4 3
c 0

STC-1

LiiT,
CIO" 0 2

T, 6s rs T,sc

(a)

10.
2 3
4

v rr (I? -III lv-

OF;

n pn

'

T'T

n 24

{ T, e

---tSTC-2

T, 6gs T, rs T,sc TB

(b)

C O1

'

-1

CC V

0.0.0.20

-1
-G

.20.32

4 -" a
r L

Tg T, bs

STC-3

Tc

(c)

O1

C O U

:: 0. . 16 0.20 0.24

: 0.2

-2
1

Figure 4.22 in trapezoidal Case STC-3.

forces to the difference of pgHSo zh compound channel cases. (a) Case STC-1; (b) Case STC-2; (c) of different

Contributions

121

1
2 N

ii
C 1.40

ooo
29. r'O

\
o y ^/ 0,9 1.00

00.

0 6p

p.

2O/ 1.10

STC-4
L , nn rtei

00 LFigure 4.23
0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 90.10

YOB Isovels of normalised velocity U/U,,, in emergent rod case STC-4.

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

-0
0.00 _-U

IJd-STG4Tb-STG
dad -s-

Tb-STG

0.00

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (m)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

Lateral distributions of depth-averaged velocity and bed shear Figure 4.24 in vegetated and non-vegetated channels under Dr = 0.5. stress
1

0.8
0.6 0.4---A0 E-] STG4 STG3

20.0 -0

0.04

0.08

0.12

.10.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

Figure

4.25

Lateral 0.060.05 0.04

distributions

of

(pgHS0

)/pgHS0 - rb

under Dr = 0.5.

w-0.03 0.02 0.01 - [--A-: r7STC-4 STG3 0

0.00 Figure 4.26 Lateral

0.04

0.08

0.12

10.116>

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

distributions

of friction

factor under

Dr = 0.5.

122

1. E-0 U,

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16

0.20

0.24

0.28

0. [3.

(a)

81. E-0
U

i
w E-0 1.
5. u 4.03.0- -

STG4 STG3

Y (m)

Ttsl (b)

2.0
1.0

LSTC STG3

0.0

0.00

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (m)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.3:

Figure 4.27

in vegetated b Dr = 0.5. (a) Eddy viscosity T, ; (b) Tt, ITn and non-vegetated channels under . of eddy viscosity e, and

Lateral distributions

Tts/T,

(a)

U, w
00. 0 L

1. 0-

5
PM

0aO
a)

-o. W E-1.
0 Z1 -2. 5
0

:,
L_TRs

0.04

0.1

-., 11--0.20 0.24

0.284

0.2

-f-

mac

STC-4

1.5

1.0

(b)

U) 0.5

0.0 U, 0 Co E
0 z -0.5
-1.0 -t-

0.04 TRrs

0.08

0.1

0.1

0.32

TRa STG3

-1.5

Distributions of normalised forces in vegetated and non-vegetated Figure 4.28 under Dr = 0.5. (a) Case STC-4; (b) Case STC-3. channels

123

0.3 0.25 0.2

(a)

0.15 0.1
0.05 0

12

14

16 Y (m)

18

20

70 6050 40 30

(b)

20] 10l 0 12 12.9 13.8 14.7 15.6 17.1 18.6 20.3 Y (m)

Distributions of drag force in the affecting area. (a) Drag force per Figure 4.29 length; (b) Drag force per unit volume. unit

0.10 0.080.060.04 , 0.02 E 0.00 40. 0 0.0 > -0.06 -0.08 -0.10 -0.12 -0.14

V 0.04 0.08 10. 6

7 24 . 0.28 C

-o 1

STC4 STC3

Figure 4.30

Lateral distributions

of V,,, in cases STC-4 and STC-3.

124

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure

of U, V and (pUV)d in the main channel. (a) U; (b) V; (c) . 4.31 Vertical

distributions

(pUV )d

at y=0.12

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure

4.32

Vertical

the floodplain. on

distributions of U, V and (pUV)d (a) U; (b) V; (c) .

(pUV)d

at y=0.186

125

4 32
U) 0

(a)
0 U

. C

10. -)01--&0.04 2 3 4 g 5f-T, T, s

6 7 8 "-T, rs T,sc -- TB

0.08

0.1

.1000.24

0.28

0.32

STG4 j"

t 4
2

(b)

U) c o .n
C -G V

0.0

04

0.08

0.1

02

-4 --rjAT, -E -c
rs STC-3 Esc

T,bs

Contributions of different forces to the difference of pgHS0 - rb Figure 4.33 in cases STC-4 and STC-3. (a) Case STC-4; (b) Case STC-3.

126

Chapter 5 Large Compound Channel Experiments

In this chapter, based on the turbulence measurementdata undertaken in the large
the turbulent characteristics of flow in compound channels with compound channel, on the floodplain are presented. Section 5.1 describes the and without vegetation

flow and Section 5.2 exploresthe secondarycurrents in the compound channels. mean In Section 5.3, vorticity distributions and vorticity balance are further analysed to the generation of secondary currents under various flow conditions. In explain Sections 5.4 and 5.5, the turbulent intensities, turbulent kinetic energy and Reynolds
illustrated. In Section 5.6, the depth-averaged Reynolds shear stress, shear stress are eddy viscosity and secondary currents are presented. In Section 5.7, velocity

spectra are presented. In Section 5.8, the contribution of large correlation and energy

to the momentum exchangeare discussed.Section 5.9 summarisesthe results eddies for the large, compound-channelflow. 5.1 Mean Flow Turbulent characteristicsfor five caseswere investigatedin this section. In casesLC-1 LC-2, there were no rods on the floodplain and the relative water depths were and 0.41 and 0.5 respectively. In casesLC-3 and LC-4, there were submergedrods on the floodplain and the relative water depthswere 0.44 and 0.52 respectively. In caseLC5, there were emergentrods on the floodplain and the relative water depth was 0.22. The detailedflow conditions for the five casesare listed in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Experimental Conditions for Large Channel
U.(m/s) 0.0495 0.0535 0.0509 0.0544 0.0421

Case LC-1 LC-2 LC-3 LC-4 LC-5

H(m) 0.255 0.312 0.27 0.312 0.192

R(m) 0.125 0.146 0.132 0.151 0.091

Um(m/s) 0.7808 0.7892 0.5767 0.5695 0.5301

Re 390847 461225 305509 344559 192018

n 0.0146 0.0155 0.0633 0.0743 0.0367

Vegetation

No

Submerge d Emergent

127

5.1.1 Non-vegetated floodplain Figure 5.1 shows the isovel lines of the longitudinal mean velocity (U) normalised by (Ur) for cases LC-1 - LC-5. In case LC-1 (Figure the cross-sectional average velocity 5.1a), strong bulging in the velocity contour lines is observed from the bottom around Y/B = 0.2 in the main channel. According to Nezu and Nakagawa (1993), the

bulging is caused by the secondary currents in open channels. Figure 5.2 velocity the secondary current patterns for these cases. In case LC-1, the velocity shows bulging is caused by two main secondary circulations as shown in Figure 5.2a. The for the bulging is that the clockwise secondary currents carry fluid with lower reason from the bed to higher momentum regions and also move fluid with momentum higher momentum from the upper centre region down to the right corner of the main

These large clockwise circulations were also observed in the symmetrical, channel. channel by Shiono and Knight (1989). Tominaga and Nezu trapezoidal, compound (1991) also observed the small counter-clockwise circulations near the left corner of in the deep, rectangular,compound-channelexperiments,but these the main channel in case LC-1 than theirs. As a result, the velocity contour circulations are stronger lines'bulge more strongly in this case.According to Nezu and Nakagawa (1993), the are stronger in narrower channels becauseof the stronger corner secondary currents (=B/H) is 3.6 and is higher than that in the case In this case,the aspectratio effects. Tominaga and Nezu (1991), hencethe velocity isovel lines bulge strongly near the of left corner.
Figure 5.1a also indicates that the velocity isovel lines bulge strongly around

Y/B = 0.2 than around the junction of the main channel and the floodplain (MC-FP). This can be explained by the strengths of the secondary currents in these regions, the secondary currents are stronger near the bed around Y/B = 0.2 than at the where MC-FP junction as shown in Figure 5.2a. As shown in Figure 5.1b, in case LC-2, strong bulging can also be recognised around is directly influenced by the momentum exchange due to strong Y/B=0.2, which near the bed of the main channel. From Figure 5.1b, weak bulging secondary currents the MC-FP junction and the velocity-dip phenomenon occurs near the free exists near in the main channel. From Figures 5.1b and 5.2b, the velocity patterns also surface

128

the secondary current patterns in case LC-2. This further confirms that agree well with distributions are also influenced by the secondary currents in this case. the velocity 5.1.2 Vegetated floodplain Comparing the rod case LC-3 of Figure 5.1c with the no-rod case LC-1 of Figure 5.1a, the velocities on the vegetated floodplain become much smaller than those for floodplain. This is because the submerged rods exert additional the non-vegetated drag force on the water flow on the floodplain, increase the flow resistance on the floodplain and consequently decrease the velocities on the floodplain. As a result of the self-adjustment process, the velocity gradient in the transverse direction at the MC-FP junction becomes steeper than that in the no rod case LC-1.

In case LC-3 (Figure 5.1c), the bulging near the main channel bed becomes slightly than that in caseLC-1 and its position moves further towards the left wall of weaker The velocity-dip is remarkable near the free surface in the main the main channel. this is causedby the secondarycurrents near the free surface as shown in channel and Figure 5.2c. Unlike caseLC-1, the velocity-bulging is not clear at the MC-FP junction this is causedby the opposite secondarymotions from the main channel and the and floodplain, as shown in Figure 5.2c. No. referencesare currently available on velocity in compound open channels with submergedvegetation on the floodplain. patterns Nezu and Onitsuka (2001) observedthe flow behaviour in a rectangular open channel submergedvegetation on a simple channel bed and found the with partly-covered, isovel lines bulge considerably toward the upper region of the vegetation. velocity The flow behaviour is obviously more complex in the compound open channel with on the floodplain than in the simple open channel. submergedvegetation
In the deeply-submerged rod case LC-4 (Figure 5. ld), the velocity patterns are greatly different from those in cases LC-2 and LC-3 and this can be explained by the various patterns in these cases. As shown in Figure 5.2d, the secondary secondary current the free surface moves fluid with higher momentum from the main currents near to the floodplain, hence the velocity-dip cannot be seen in case LC-4. The channel junction vortex on the floodplain side causes the velocity-bulging strong, clockwise, MC-FP junction and the lateral shift of the bulging position. This junction near the

129

be caused by the secondary currents and the three dimensional rod vortex might wakes. In cases LC-3 and LC-4, the velocity-bulging near the MC-FP junction might also be by the concept of an imaginary compound channel. Based on the explained the velocities below the rod top on the floodplain are much measurement results, lower than those in other parts of the channel and can be assumed to be zero, hence below the rod top can be assumed to be part of the imaginary floodplain the region bed and an assumed compound channel is configured. The vertical positions of the imaginary floodplain bed are at the top of the submerged'rods and the imaginary MCFP edge is located 1cm away from the actual MC-FP edge. In case LC-3, the water depth on the imaginary floodplain is 2cm, the relative water depth of the imaginary is 0.07 (=0.02/0.27). In case LC-4, the water depth on the channel compound imaginary floodplain is 5cm and the imaginary relative water depth is 0.16

(=0.05/0.31).

The velocity-dip

phenomenon near the water surface in the main

becomes less remarkable in case LC-4 than in case LC-3 because the relative channel depth of the imaginary compound channel in case LC-4 is higher than that in water LC-3. The lateral position of velocity bulging in the actual channel is located just case the imaginary MC-FP junction and this explains the position shift of the velocityat bulging in case LC-4. Figure 5.1e shows the isovel lines of the longitudinal mean velocity (U) normalised by the cross-sectional average velocity (U, n) in case LC-5. The emergent rods cause velocities near the MC-FP junction and on the floodplain. From Figure much smaller 5.1e, the isovels bulge slightly toward the sloped main channel bed near the MC-FP junction this is caused by the secondary currents as shown in Figure 5.2e. and

Compared with the previous four cases, the bed vortex is the weakest in case LC-5. Among the five cases, the Reynolds number is the smallest and the bed-generated bed is the weakest in case LC-5. This also indicates that the bed vortex turbulence becomes stronger as the relative water depth increases in this narrow compound channel. The velocity patterns, especially near the water surface and MC-FP junction, in case LC-5 are different to those noted by Shiono and Knight (1989) under similar relative

130

depths. Shiono and Knight (1989) obtained their velocity results in a wide, water trapezoidal, compound channel with a non-vegetated floodplain. This symmetrical, indicates that the emergent rods on the floodplain altering the velocity currents. It can also be seen from figures 5.1a - 5.1e that the velocity patterns in case LC-5 are play a very important role in

distributions and also in producing characteristic secondary

different to cases LC-1 - LC-4. This indicates that the rods on the floodplain the velocity distributions. complicate 5.2 Secondary Currents Secondary currents play an important role in momentum exchangeand hence directly influence the longitudinal velocity distributions in open channels. As described in Section 3.2.3.7, the measured velocities are usually resolved by rotating the coto obtain the velocities in the required directions. The rotation angles ordinate system for the five casesare listed in Table 5.2. Table 5.2 LC-1 x-y x-z -1.3 -0.3 Rotation angles for casesLC-1 - LC-5 (Degrees) LC-2 0.75 -0.3 LC-3 0.5 -0.5 LC-4 0.5 -0.3 LC-5 -1.0 -0.3

For uniform flow, the cross-sectional secondary currents satisfy the continuity However, the velocities near the sidewalls and free water surface cannot be equation. due to the measurementlimit of ADV. The measurementresults for the measured
cannot be strictly checked by using this method. In spite of the secondary currents

drawback, the secondary current patterns can be roughly recognised from above
Figure 5.2. In cases LC-1 and LC-2 (Figures 5.2a and 5.2b), a pair of bottom vortices is generated

Y/B = 0.2 in the main channel. As describedin section 5.1.1, thesesecondary around
fluid with lower momentum from the bed up to the centre of the main currents move

131

and move fluid with higher momentum down to the corners of the main channel channel. The velocity-bulging (Figures 5.1a and 5.1b) coincides well with the

patterns in this region (Figures 5.2a - 5.2b). The secondary current secondary current very clear near the MC-FP junction, but it seems that there is a patterns are not circulation in this region. In a wide, trapezoidal, compound channel, Shiono clockwise Knight (1989) showed that there is a large, clockwise circulation in the main and there is a pair of vortices near the MC-FP junction. In cases LC-1 and channel and LC-2, the channel is a relatively narrow, trapezoidal, compound channel, which the secondary current patterns different to those found in Shiono and Knight makes (1989). Tominaga VS = (V z and Nezu (1991) used the ratio of the maximum Ux

magnitude

of to

2)12 to the maximum +W

streamwise velocity

Vs.,,, /U,,, , aX aX

the magnitude of the secondary currents. From Figures 5.2a and 5.2b, the characterise in no rod casesLC-1 and LC-2 are both about 3%, while the ratio Vs,,,, /U. of ratios X VS, /U,,, near the water surface is larger in case LC-2. of a, =x In cases LC-3 and LC-4 (Figures 5.2c and 5.2d), a large, clockwise vortex is clearly in the main channel and this clockwise vortex changes its rotation recognised direction near the MC-FP edge due to the strong wakes around the rods. In the submerged case LC-3 (Figure 5.2c), the secondary current patterns near the shallow, MC-FP junction are not clear and this might be caused by the rod wakes in this In the deep, submerged case LC-4 (Figure 5.2d), the clockwise, secondary region. near the MC-FP junction can be easily identified. Nezu and Onitsuka (2002) currents the large secondary circulations in partly-vegetated, rectangular channels, observed but they did not report the vortex near the junction between the non-vegetated and zones. This shows that the submerged rods on the floodplain make the flow vegetated behaviour much more complex. It can be clearly seen that the ratios of V,,.,, 1U.., in

cases LC-3 and LC-4 are larger than 10%, especially near the MC-FP submerged junction and the main channel bed regions, which are much larger than those in the no LC-1 and LC-2. This indicates that the submerged rods on the floodplain rod cases increase the anisotropy of turbulence and consequently strengthen the secondary in the vegetated compound channel. currents

132

In the emergent case LC-5 (Figure 5.2e), a large counter-clockwise vortex can be identified in the main channel and this secondary current pattern matches well clearly the velocity patterns shown in Figure 5.1e. Owing to the ADV measurement near with

insufficient velocity data make it hard to seethe secondarycurrent the water surface, the floodplain. patterns on
According to Nezu and Nakagawa (1984), secondary currents in uniform, rectangular generated by the anisotropy of turbulence and the strength of the channels are is normally expressed by the gradient of the normal stress secondary current difference a wZ - v2)/ayaz. The higher the value of the gradient of the normal stress )/ayaz the stronger the secondary current. In other words, difference, wZ - v2 exist where the (v2 - w2 ) isovel lines are denser. stronger secondary currents

Figures 5.3a - 5.3e show the magnitudes of the term vZ - w2)/U; in casesLC-1
LC-5 respectively. In the no rod cases LC-1 and LC-2 (Figures 5.3a and 5.3b), the denser isovel lines exist around Y/B = 0.2 near the bottom region in the main The peak magnitudes of v2 - w2 channel. )/U. in cases LC-1 and LC-2 are 2.9 and

3.0 respectively. In the submerged-rod cases LC-3 and LC-4 (Figures 5.3c and 5.3d), )IU; isovel lines exist between the MC-FP junction and the rods. densest v2 - w2 the )/U: in cases LC-3 and LC-4 are 7.0 and 5.7 The peak magnitudes of v2 - w2 In the emergent-rod case LC-5 (Figure 5.3e), the denser v2 - w2)IU; respectively. isovel lines not only exist between the MC-FP junction and the rods, but also extend )U; the free surface region in the main channel. The peak magnitude of v2 - w2 to in case LC-5 is 4.3 near the rods. In all the five cases, the dense isovel lines of yU: well to the strong secondary currents in these regions which correspond v2 - w2 causes noticeable velocity-bulging and velocity-dip phenomena.

The results of v2 - w2U. confirm that the anisotropy of turbulence is the main
of the secondary current in the straight compound channel, generation mechanism the vegetation effect exists. Moreover, under similar relative water-depth even when the vegetation increases the anisotropy of turbulence in the compound conditions,

133

the secondary current in the vegetated channel is stronger than channel; as a result, that in the no rod one. It should be noted that the magnitudes of the secondary currents are only several of the mean longitudinal velocities and it is very difficult percent to measure them (LDA).

even when using a sophisticated Laser Doppler Anemometer accurately,

During the velocity measurements, much noise was experienced using ADV. The SNR (signal-noise ratio) values were higher than 20 and this indicates that the effect the boundary is suppressed by the echoes from particles in the water. The possible of the noise come from the nominal .velocity range and steep velocity gradient sources of :.,.
Y.

in the sampling volume, especially in the strong shear layer zone. If the practical .Y: are much lower or higher than the set nominal velocity range, much noise is velocities introduced. As suggestedby Nortek (2004), the measuredvertical velocity (w) has the lowest uncertainty. There are noticeable uncertainties with respect to the transverse (v) becausethe longitudinal velocity (u) and the transversevelocity (v) have velocity range, but v is usually less than 10% of u. Despite this, all results the same velocity to agreewith those in the literature. seem 5.3 Vorticity 5.3.1 Vorticity equation
Vorticity analyses are used to explain the secondary current profiles in section 5.2.

For steady and incompressibleflow, the generationmechanismsof secondarycurrents be understoodby analysingthe longitudinal vorticity equation (Equation 5.1). can

av_ av_ av van]+vDQ+wasp, ' ax Zay 3aZ _ ax ay az

aw a acv-az + a2w )J;;a2 a2 22 -v x aZayaz

a2f2la2fll ap a2g2l + ax2 + aye azZ +g ay P.
where the three componentvorticity vectorsare:

(5. )

134

(5.2)
As reviewed in Chapter 2, the secondary currents in a straight channel are generated

by the non-homogeneity (or anisotropy) of turbulence.For uniform straight compound flow, channel terms

asp, au
ax ' ax

a acv aw ax az _ ay

and

asp,are
ax

zero and

DU aU_ (Nezu 2005), Equation 5.1 can be further simplified to Equation 0Z -K2 az ay 5.3 if the fluid density is constant.
r.

aQ,

22_a22a

vaIIay +W
LYJl

(w
y

a2

az

ayaz A2
a2c j+

-v
L

ZZ

aye vW

Al

A3
D201

aye az2
A4

(5.3)

In the above equation, Term Al representsthe advection of the longitudinal vorticity by the main flow. Term A2 representsthe generationof the secondarycurrentsby the turbulence, while Term A3 represents the generation of secondary anisotropy of by the shear stress.Term A4 is the viscous term, which is only important currents close to the wall.
5.3.2 Vorticity distributions

Before analysing vorticity balance, a brief description of the vorticity field is given below. The longitudinal vorticity fields in the five casesare presentedin Figures 5.4a 5.4e. The values of the vorticity are multiplied by 100 and divided by (U,,,/H ). A
value represents a clockwise circulation of the secondary current while a positive represents a counter-clockwise circulation. Due to ADV measurement, negative value fields near the free surface and the right and left walls cannot be calculated. vorticity In case LC-1 (Figure 5.4a), there is a negative vorticity with a value of -20 and a with a value of 20 around Y/B = 0.2 near the main channel bottom, positive vorticity

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indicates that there are counter-clockwise and clockwise secondary cells in this which The values of vorticity near the MC-FP junction are negative in the main region. side and this indicates there are counter-clockwise secondary cells in this channel Due to ADV measurement, the vorticity fields on the floodplain cannot be region. for this case. The general information obtained from Figure 5.4a coincides calculated with the secondary current patterns shown in Figure 5.2a. In case LC-2 (Figure well 5.4b), both the junction vortex and the bottom vortex can be easily identified because data are available. more In the shallow, submerged case LC-3 (Figure 5.4c), most- values of the vorticity are in the main channel and this indicates that there is a clockwise secondary cell positive in the main channel. There is a negative vorticity field near the water surface in the which indicates that there is a counter-clockwise secondary cell. The main channel, fields with values of 40 and 60 exist at the MC-FP edge and the positive vorticity of the main channel respectively. The negative vorticity field with a value sloped wall near the water surface. The vorticity fields in case LC-3 indicate that the of -10 exists currents are more complicated near the MC-FP junction than those in the secondary LC-1 and this is caused by the submerged rods on the floodplain. In the no rod case deep, submerged case of LC-4 (Figure 5.4d), the secondary cells are similar to those in the shallow, rod case LC-3. In the emergent-vegetated case LC-5 (Figure 5.4e), most of the values of the vorticity in the main channel, except for a small region around Y/B = 0.3 near the are negative bed and the sloped middle bank, which indicates that there is a large main channel secondary cell in the main channel. This information also agrees counter-clockwise the secondary current patterns shown in Figure 5.3e. The results of the well with longitudinal vorticity in the five cases indicate that the measured secondary current reasonable under these flow conditions. patterns are roughly 5.3.3 Vorticity balance

In this section the vorticity balance is carried out to explore the contribution of each
term in Equation 5.3 to the generation of secondary currents for the five cases. Thus, term in the longitudinal vorticity equation was calculated and shown in Figures each

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5.5 - 5.9 for cases LC-1 - LC-5. The values of each term in the longitudinal vorticity by 100 and divided by (U,,,/H )2. equation are multiplied Figures 5.5a - 5.5d show the magnitude distributions of terms Al, A2, A3 and A4 in the longitudinal vorticity equation in case LC-1. Figure 5.5a shows respectively that the values of term Al are higher around Y/B = 0.2 near the bed of the main

the secondary currents are stronger, than in other areas of the channel. channel, where This is because term Al is directly related to the secondary velocities and vorticity the magnitude is high where the secondary currents are strong and gradients and vorticity are steep. The contributions of the anisotropy of turbulence A2, gradients

Reynolds shear stress A3 and viscous term A4 to the generation of secondary currents be evaluated using their respective normalised values. The magnitudes of Term can A2 are much larger near the bottom and sidewall of the main channel than in other 40% of (U,,,/H )2 The magnitudes of term A2 in the centre are areas and are about . less than 10% of (U,,,/H)2. The magnitudes of term A3 are also very small and are larger near the centre bottom and sidewall of the main channel, but less than 10% of (U, n/H)2. The magnitudes of term A4 are much smaller as compared with terms A2

(Um/H )2 The A3 and are less than 0.1% of above data indicate that the and . turbulence is the dominant driving force of secondary motion. The anisotropy of Reynolds shear stress term is less important than the anisotropy of turbulence and the term is negligible. viscous From Figures 5.6a - 5.6d, the magnitudes of terms Al, A2 and A3 are slightly larger in case LC-2 than those in case LC-1, especially near the bed and the sloped wall of because the relative water depth in case LC-2, which, at 0.50, is the main channel, larger than that in case LC-1. In other areas, the magnitudes of each term in cases LC1 and LC-2 are almost the same because the difference of relative water depth between the two cases is not large. In the submerged rod case LC-3 (Figures 5.7a - 5.7d), the magnitudes of term Al are larger near the sloped wall of the main channel than in other areas, which indicates the advection of secondary currents is stronger in this region. The magnitudes of that A2 are larger near the MC-FP junction and around Y/B = 0.16 near the main term

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bed. The magnitudes of term A3 are slightly smaller than those of term A2 channel the MC-FP junction near in the main channel side, while, in case LC-1, the

of terms A3 are much smaller than those of term A2 near the MC-FP magnitudes junction. The above information indicates that stronger secondary currents are

the MC-FP junction, and that the shear stress term is more important generated near for the generation of secondary currents in case LC-3 than in case LC-1. In the deep, submerged-rod case LC-4 (Figures 5.8a - 5.8d), the overall trend of the distributions magnitude of the four terms are similar to those in the shallow,

case LC-3 case and this indicates that the secondary currents are submerged-rod in a similar manner in cases LC-3 and LC-4. However, the magnitudes of generated term A2 in case LC-4 are larger than those in case LC-3 near the MC-FP junction in side, which indicates that in case LC-4 stronger secondary currents the main channel in this region than for case LC-3 because the water depth is larger in are generated LC-4. case

In case LC-5 (Figures 5.9a - 5.9d), the magnitudes of term A2 are larger than other in the channel and this indicates that the anisotropy of turbulence is also the terms dominant mechanismfor generatingsecondarycurrents in the compound channelwith rods on the floodplain. emergent
Based on the above results, the anisotropy of turbulence (term A2) is the dominant secondary currents in the compound channel and the shear stress (term A3) is origin of more important floodplain in the compound channel with submerged vegetation on the

than in the non-vegetated compound channel. It was also seen that the

current pattern is directly related to the magnitude distributions of secondary ). Nezu (v'2 and Onitsuka (2002) investigated the secondary currents in partly- W-2 vegetated rectangular channels and suggested that the anisotropy of turbulence (v'2 increases with the Froude number, but the contributions of different terms - W'2) to the generation of secondary currents were not analysed. In cases LC-3 - LC-5, the Froude numbers are 0.38,0.33 and 0.39 respectively. As described in Section 5.2, the (v'2 2) differ greatly in these five cases. It seems that this magnitudes of -w is not totally applicable to vegetated compound channel flows due to the suggestion mechanisms in compound channels with roughened floodplains. more complicate

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5.4 Turbulent

Intensities and kinetic energy intensities

5.4.1 Case study on turbulent

Turbulent intensities ur defined as the r.m.s. values of velocity fluctuations, are very
important for the analysis of flow structures. Higher turbulent intensities mean that forces exist. Data for case LC-1 are only used to analyse the vertical stronger shear lateral distributions of turbulent intensities. and

Figures 5.1Oaand 5.10b show the vertical distributions of turbulent intensities at y= As the turbulence is -dissipated away from the 0.31 m and y=0.73 m respectively. bed, the turbulent intensities decay gradually. Strongershearproduceshigher channel intensities near the boundaries. It can be seen that the turbulent intensities turbulent decay with the vertical distance from the channel bed and the show an exponential best-fitting expressions turbulent intensities at y=0.31 m and y=0.73 m are shown of in Equations 5.4a - 5.4f. The estimatedsemi-empirical coefficients differ from those Nezu and Nakagawa (1993) becausethe compound-flow conditions in this study of different from the wide-flow conditions of Nezu and Nakagawa(1993). are '1U, = 2.73exp(-1.29) R2 = 0.98, y--0.3lm u , 2.43exp(-1.25), v'/U, = R2 = 0.98,y--0.3lm (5.4a)

(5.4b) (5.4c) (5.4d) (5.4e) (5.4f)

'1U. =1.17 exp(- 0.80) R2= 0.82,y--0.3lm w , u'1U, =1.30exp(-0.87), R2 = 0.99,y=0.73m

V7U. =1.23 exp(-1.09) R2 = 0.96,y--0.73m , ; /U. = 0.43exp(- 0.04e), R2 = 0.44, y--0.73m u

w are the longitudinal, lateral and vertical turbulent intensities where u, v' and Z and H are the vertical distance and U. is the shear velocity, =Z/H, respectively,

depth abovethe channelbottom. water

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Figures 5.11 a-5.11 c show the lateral distributions of turbulent intensities (u' v' and , different vertical positions in case LC-1. In Figure 5.11, "-, f, 0, and d' at w') "Z = 0.193m, Z=0.16m, represent Z=0.1m, Z=0.043m and Z=O. Olm"

The turbulent intensities increase from around y=0.07 respectively. first local peak at around y=0.17 around y=0.34

m, and attain the

m, they then decrease to the local lowest value at

then they increase to the local peak value around the MC-FP m,

junction and decreasefrom the junction edge towards the right channel wall. The the lowest turbulent intensities coincides well with the position of the position of is similar to others in the literature. The two peak positions maximum velocity, which turbulent intensities, one near the main channel bed and the other near the MC-FP of ! "` junction, coincide well with the strong vortices in the compound channel as shown in Figure 5.2a. In each local peak region, the strong momentum exchange causes turbulent velocity fluctuations and consequentlythe turbulent intensities remarkable the local highest value. reach Figures 5.11a - 5.1lc also show that u' > v' >w for almost all the points, but that the w/u' vary with position. For turbulent intensities at y--0.31m in the ratios v*/u' and /dare 0.93 and 0.52 respectively. main channel, the averagevalues of v'/u' and u; For turbulent intensities at y--0.73mon the floodplain, the averagevalues of v'/u' and 0.90 and 0.42 respectively.The ratio v'/u' is larger than 0.55, but the ratio w'/u' are w/u* is smaller than the value of 0.71 suggested Nezu and Nakagawa(1993). This by is because the investigated channel is relatively narrow under the experimental conditions. 5.4.2 Distributions of turbulent intensities Figures 5.12 - 5.14 provide an overview of the turbulent intensities u', v' and w in five cases,normalisedby the averageshearvelocity U. (= the gRS0).
profiles in cases

1r,

Figures 5.12a - 5.12e show the longitudinal, turbulent-intensity

LC-1 - LC-5 respectively. In the without-vegetation cases LC-1 and LC-2 (Figures 5.12a and 5.12b), it is noticeable that the highest value of 2.20 occurs around Y/B = 0.2 - 0.25 near to the bed of the main channel due to the strong bed-generated

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turbulence. Other high values occur close to the sloped wall of the main channel and to the MC-FP junction. These results are different from those in compound near with uniform roughness and this can be explained by the shear strength channels different conditions. For the investigated channel, the bed of the main generated under made with a rough vegetation lining and the floodplain was made with a channel was wood plate and this channel configuration leads to a small velocity difference smooth between the main channel and the floodplain and consequently to weaker shear near the MC-FP junction. Stronger shear occurs around Y/B = 0.2 - 0.25 near the main bed rather than near to the MC-FP junction and, consequently, larger velocity channel fluctuation exists in this region. The values of turbulent intensity u* are even smaller MC-FP junction in "caseLC-2 than those in case LC-1. ner the In the shallow, submerged case LC-3 (Figure 5.12c), the highest value of 4.50 occurs the MC-FP junction. Other high values occur close to the sloped wall and the bed near the main channel. This is because the submerged rods exert huge flow resistance to of the floodplain flow and this leads to a significant velocity difference between the main and the floodplain and consequently strong shear near the MC-FP junction. In channel the deep submerged case LC-4 (Figure 5.12d), the distributions of the longitudinal turbulent intensity are similar to those in case LC-3, but the magnitudes are smaller than those in case LC-3. In the emergent case LC-5 (Figure 5.12e), the highest value of 4.00 occurs near the

MC-FP junction. Other high values also occur close to the bed of the main channel.
Figures 5.13a - 5.13e show the lateral turbulent intensity profiles in cases LC-1 LC-5 respectively. The patterns of turbulent intensity v' are similar to those of intensity u as shown in Figures 5.12a - 5.12e, but the highest values of v' turbulent lower than those of u'. In the without-vegetation cases LC-1 and LC-2, the peak are of v*2 occurs around Y/B = 0.2 near the bed of the main channel and the value highest values are 2.00 and 1.80 respectively. In the vegetation cases of LC-3 - LC-5, the peak value of v'2 occurs near the MC-FP junction and the highest values are 3.20, 2.80 and 2.25 respectively.

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Figures 5.14a - 5.14e show the vertical turbulent-intensity profiles in cases LC-1 LC-5 respectively. In cases LC-1 and LC-2, the peak value of the vertical turbulent intensity w occurs around Y/B = 0.2 in the main channel, which corresponds to the bottom-vortex in this region. The highest value of w' is 0.90 in case LC-1 and strong 0.80 in case LC-2. In the submerged-rod cases LC-3 and LC-4, the turbulent intensity w also decreases from the MC-FP junction to other areas. The highest values of w' in cases LC-3 and LC-4 are 2.20 and 1.60 respectively. In the emergent-rod case LChighest value of w is 0.90 near the MC-FP edge. 5, the 5.12 - 5.14, turbulent intensities u', V and w behave in a similar From Figures It can be seen that the bed roughness has an important effect on the manner. distributions of turbulent intensities in the compound channel and the rough grass leads to peak turbulent intensities occurring near the main channel bed rather mattress the MC-FP junction. The submerged rods on the floodplain cause significant than near difference between the main channel and the floodplain. Strong shear, and velocity momentum exchange, occurs near the MC-FP junction where the consequently strong intensities peak. In the submerged-rod cases, the peak turbulent intensities turbulent 1.5 - 2.0 times those in the non-vegetated cases. In the emergent-rod case, are about main channel bed and the emergent rods lead to strong shear near the main the rough bed and the MC-FP junction, also strong momentum exchange causes the channel intensities to peak in these regions. turbulent The characteristics of the turbulence intensity are reflected in the distinctive

differences between the velocity fluctuations in the five cases. Figures 5.15,5.16 and 5.17 show typical velocity data set in the main channel and at the floodplain edge for U, V and W respectively. For cases LC-1 was located at Y=0.25 channel LC-4, the sampling point in the main m and the sampling point at the m. For case LC-5, the vertical

m and Z=0.19

floodplain edge was located at Y=0.55

m and Z=0.19 m.

the sampling point was Z=0.18 position of

From Figures 5.15 - 5.17, three characteristics of the velocity fluctuations can be Firstly, owing to the stronger momentum exchange at the floodplain edge, recognised. fluctuation, especially the lateral velocity V, is larger than in the main the velocity this corresponds well to the larger turbulent intensities at the floodplain channel and

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Secondly, the submerged rods cause larger velocity fluctuations in cases LC-3 edge. LC-4 than that in the non-vegetated LC-1 and LC-2 cases, especially at the and floodplain edge. Thirdly, the emergent rods cause larger velocity fluctuations at the floodplain edge in case LC-5, especially for the streamwise velocity U. 5.4.3 Distributions of turbulent kinetic energy

Figure 5.18 shows the turbulent kinetic energy distributions normalised by U for the five cases. As turbulent intensity u' makes the dominant contribution to turbulent kinetic energy k, the distributions of turbulent kinetic energy k are similar to those turbulent intensity u. of
In case LC-1 (Figure 5.18a), the turbulent kinetic energy ranges from 5.00 U. near bottom to 0.95 U. near the free water surface. In case LC-2 (Figure 5.18b), the centre kinetic energy ranges from 4.50 U; near the centre bottom to 0.5 U; the turbulent the free surface on the floodplain. near In the vegetation cases LC-3 - LC-5 (Figures 5.18c - 5.18e), the turbulent kinetic decreases from the MC-FP junction to the main channel and also energy mainly decreases from the bed and the right corner of the main channel to outside the junction This indicates that both the bed-generated turbulence and shear-generated area. turbulence are important to the energy production under these flow conditions. The of turbulent kinetic energy are 12.80 U; , 9.00 U; and 5.80 U: maximum values the MC-FP junction in cases LC-3, LC-4 and LC-5 respectively. The minimum near turbulent kinetic energy are 2.00 U; , 1.00 U; and 1.00 U; in the main values of for cases LC-3, LC-4 and LC-5 respectively. Nezu and Onitsuka (2001) channel undertook turbulent measurements in a rectangular channel with submerged

in the channel corner. The water depths in the channel and above the top of vegetation 7 cm and 2 cm respectively and the nominal, relative water-depth the vegetation were 0.29 (= 2/7). They reported that the maximum values of turbulent kinetic energy was Froude numbers 0.10,0.24 and 0.40 were 22,24 and 26 times U; respectively. under In their study, the minimum values of k/U were around 1.0 - 2.0. In this study, the depths were larger than that of Nezu and Onitsuka (2001), so the relative water

143

values of k/ U; for submerged cases LC-3 and LC-4 were smaller than maximum those of Nezu and Onitsuka (2001).

5.5 Reynolds Shear Stresses

Reynolds shear stresses z. (= -pvw), vertical -r,, (_ -puv) and z,, (= -puw) represent the transfers of

transfer of lateral momentum and the lateral and vertical

longitudinal momentum respectively. Reynolds shear stress zy, is directly related to the lateral gradient of the longitudinal velocity (DU/ay), the vertical gradient of the longitudinal velocity (aU/az) also z, is directly related to whilst zy is directly related

the vertical gradient of lateral velocity (aV/az ). Figures 5.19 - 5.21 give an to of the Reynolds shear stressesnormalised by pU;. overview

5.5.1 Lateral transfer of longitudinal momentum

Figures 5.19a - 5.19e show the distributions of the normalised Reynolds shear stress z/ pU. in cases LC-1 - LC-5 respectively. In case LC-1 (See Figure 5.1a), most m and y>0.31

DU/ay, are negative in the zones 0.07 <y<0.19 velocity gradients, in the zone 0.19 <y<0.31 m and positive z/ pU.

m. The zones of the negative and positive

correspond to the zones of the negative and positive velocity gradients around Y/B = 0.2 near the bed

)U/ay respectively. The absolute values of zyx / pU:

the main channel are larger than those near the MC-FP junction. In case LC-2 of (Figure 5.19b), the normalised Reynolds shear stresses zyx/ pU; vary in a similar

to those in case LC-1 because the relative water depths of both cases are not manner different. much In the shallow, submerged case LC-3 (Figure 5.19c), the absolute values of r/ pU:

high near the MC-FP junction because strong shear flow and wakes are are very by the submerged rods in this region. The normalised Reynolds shear stress generated decreases from the MC-FP junction to the main channel and floodplain. In the deep LC-4 (Figure 5.19d), the distributions of z/ submerged case pU; are similar to

those in case LC-3, however, the magnitudes are smaller than those in case LC-3. This

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indicates that the strength of the lateral shear decreases as the relative water depth

The absolutevalues of ryx/ pU.2 near the bed of the main channel are much increases.
with the MC-FP junction because the difference in velocity smaller as compared is smaller than that near the MC-FP junction. gradients In the shallow, emergent case LC-5 (Figure 5.19e), the normalised Reynolds shear are larger near the MC-FP junction than near the bed of the main channel due stresses to the stronger shear near the MC-FP junction. However, the magnitudes are smaller than those in the submerged cases of LC-3 and LC-4 and this indicates that the shear is weaker in case LC-5 than in casesLC-3 and LC-4. strength In the non-vegetated cases LC-1 and LC-2 (Figures 5.19a and 5.19b), the magnitude the Reynolds shear stress ryx decreases away from Y/B=0.20 of towards other

the peak value increases as the relative water depth decreases. In the areas and cases LC-3 and LC-4 (Figures 5.19c and 5.19d) and the emergent-rod submerged-rod (Figure 5.19e), the magnitude of zyx decreases away from the MC-FP junction case and the peak value increases as the relative water depth decreases. towards other areas

5.5.2 Vertical transfer of longitudinal momentum

Figures 5.20a - 5.20e show the distributions of normalised Reynolds shear stress / pU; in cases LC-1 - LC-5 respectively. In case LC-1 (Figure 5.20a), almost all zu the values of zc / pU; at z _<0.043 m are positive because almost all the values of aU/az are positive. Large values of zu / pU; occur near the main channel bed and MC-FP junction due to the strong shear from bed-generated turbulence and shearthe turbulence respectively. Close to the bed of the main channel, the values of generated zXZ pU; stress about 0.8 which indicates that the magnitude of the Reynolds shear are that of the bed shear stress on the channel bed. The zero shear approaches

to exist where 0.8 < z/H < 1.0 where aU/aZ = 0. In case LC-2, stress zone seems appears at about z/H = 0.8 throughout the main channel. The zero shear stress magnitudes of r IpU. 2 are slightly smaller than those in case LC-1. It can also be

the maximum values for Reynolds shear stress zu near the MC-FP junction seen'that

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0.24 pU. because the velocity isovels are almost parallel and the values of are only

DZ DUI

are then small.

In the shallow submerged vegetation case LC-3 (Figure 5.20c), the highest magnitude of r/ pU: the MC-FP junction, occurs near other large magnitudes of z/ pU; occurs

to the bed of the main channel and zero magnitude of z, IOU; occur close the water surface. Negative z near

was also observed near the sloping wall of he

and this might be caused by the wakes. The wakes move high-velocity main channel fluid down to the sloped wall and this could cause higher U velocity at a lower

the sloped wall. These distributions of zXZalso show the good vertical position near relationship between z,, and DU/DZ. In the deep, submerged case LC-4 (Figure

5.20d), the distribution of z, is similar to that in caseLC-3, but the shearstressat the the MC-FP edge is higher than that in case LC-3 and this could be mid-depth of by the different three-dimensionalwake structuresunder various water depth caused conditions.
In the emergent case LC-5 (Figure 5.20e), the Reynolds shear stresses z are large

the main channel bed and the right bisector of the main channel. Positions of zero near shear stress are mainly Z/H=0.70 located in the upper parts around Y/B=0.15 and

where the maximum U velocity exists.

In the non-vegetated cases LC-1 and LC-2 (Figures 5.20a and 5.20b), the Reynolds z,, decrease from around Y/B=0.20 shear stresses 0.25 near the main channel -

bed towards the water surface. In the submerged-rod cases LC-3 and LC-4 (Figures 5.20c and 5.20d), the submerged rods have different effects on the distribution of z, water depths. In the shallow case LC-3, rzx decreases from the main at various bed towards the water surface, it also decreasesfrom peak positive value near channel bed to a negative value near the MC-FP junction. In the deep case the main channel LC-4, zzx decreases from the MC-FP junction towards the main channel and the

floodplain. In the shallow, emergent-rod case LC-5 (Figure 5.20e), the distribution of

146

is not influenced by the emergent rods and behaves in a similar manner to that in z,, the non-vegetated cases LC-1 and LC-2, but the r isovels are smoother.

5.5.3 Vertical transfer of lateral momentum

Figures 5.21a - 5.21e show the distributions of normalised Reynolds shear stress zy, / pU; in cases LC-1 -- LC-5. In the non-vegetated cases LC-1 and LC-2 (Figures

5.21a and 5.21b), the magnitudesof z,, /'0 U are very small; the highest value is 0.19 the sloping wall of the main channel. The values of ryz are much smaller as near ry., and z,, which indicates that the vertical transfers of lateral compared with are much weakerthan the other two kinds of momentum transfer. momentum
In the submerged rod cases LC-3 and LC-4 (Figures 5.21c and 5.21d), large values of zyZ/pU: near the sloping bank of the main channel and the MC-FP junction occur

due to the strong shear generated by the wakes in these regions. Their magnitudes are the order of Z, / pU, of dimensional. and this indicates that the wakes are totally three-

In the emergentrod case LC-5 (Figure 5.21e), the highest magnitude of r/

pU; is

0.4 near the MC-FP junction. The vertical transfer of lateral momentum is about
in case LC-5 as compared with the submerged casesLC-3 and LC-4. weaker 5.6 Depth-averaged parameters

5.6.1 Depth-averaged velocity longitudinal velocity distributions of casesLCFigure 5.22 shows the depth-averaged
1- LC-5. The depth-averaged velocity (Ud) was determined using Equation 5.5,

Udz Ud H (5.5)

Where U is the local longitudinal velocity, H is the local water depth and z is the distance above the channel bed. vertical

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In cases LC-1 and LC-2, there are distinct dips around Y/B = 0.2 in the depthdistributions due to the strong bottom vortex previously described averaged velocity in section 5.1.1. It can also be seen that the velocity curve becomes slightly smoother water depth increases. This is because the effect of bed friction becomes as relative the water depth increases and then the velocity difference between the main weaker as the floodplain decreases as relative water depth increases. Figure 5.23 channel and further shows the Manning coefficient for the grass mattress decreases as the water depth increases.

In casesLC-3 and LC-4, the velocity curves are steepernear the MC-FP junction as
to those of cases LC-1 and LC-2 and this is because the velocity on the compared floodplain is significantly reduced by the submerged rods, as explained in Section 5.1.2. There are tiny dips around Y/B = 0.16 and the positions of the velocity dips

towards the left wall. The depth-averagedvelocities peak above the shift slightly the floodplain for which there are two possible explanations. submerged rods on Firstly, there are decreasesin the water depth above the rods, which cause local This can be seen from Figures 5.24a and 5.24b which show the velocity peaks. longitudinal and lateral water level profiles around one rod on the floodplain. Secondly, the measurements were carried out between two longitudinal rods and one lateral rod. The rods make the mean velocities very low below the rod top surfaces theselow velocities contribute to the lower depth-averaged velocities. and
In case LC-5, the emergent rods also increase the flow resistance on the floodplain a result, increase the velocity difference between the main channel and the and, as floodplain. As the channel in LC-5 is wider than in the other four cases, there is no dip in the main channel and this could be because the corner effect is weak velocity under this shallow-water condition. 5.6.2 Depth-averaged eddy viscosities The depth-averaged Reynolds shear stress, zyX , was calculated from the data in Figure 5.19 using Equation 5.6a, presented

zx=H

zyxdz

(5.6a)

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The depth-averaged eddy viscosity, E, was calculated from Equation 5.6b,

Zyx

Ei

p aUd/ay

(5.6b)

The dimensionless depth-averagededdy viscosity (fir) and the dimensionless eddy due to the transverseshear were calculated from Equations 5.6c and 5.6d viscosity respectively,

` ..

U. H

(5.6c)

H. (JJS)2a Ud ifs =

H
U. H

ay

(5.6d)

Y'), (gRS0 U. is the shear velocity (_ other parametersare same to those in where Section 4.4.1. The local eddy viscosity, eu, was calculatedusing Equation 5.7a,
Zu

Eu =

(5.7a)

av/az

The depth-averaged eddy viscosity, Ezx9was calculated using Equation 5.7b,

E=1f

Eudz

(5.7b)

Reynolds shearstress zyx in all Figure 5.25 shows the distributions of depth-averaged
the five cases. In the non-vegetated cases LC-1 and LC-2, ryx local peaks around y= 0.16 m, y=0.22 m and y=0.42 m correspond to the large velocity gradients in the

lateral direction. The Reynolds shear stresses are relatively low near the MC-FP junction as compared to those in the literature (i. e. Shiono & Knight 1991).

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In the submerged-rod cases LC-3 and LC-4, ryx peaks near the MC-FP junction. The highest magnitudes of zy., are about -6.5 in case LC-3 and -5.0 in case LC-4. The submerged rods greatly change the patterns of zyx as compared with the nonand these results from the stronger shear near the MC-FP junction vegetated cases by the rod effects. Although there are tiny peaks in the main channel, generated high Reynolds shear stresses occur near the MC-FP junction in cases considerably LC-3 and LC-4. As the water depth increases, the depth-averaged Reynolds shear decreases slightly. Under similar relative water-depth conditions, the peak stress magnitude of r in the submerged-rod case is about 6 times that in the non-vegetated

this indicates that the submerged rods on the floodplain generate a stronger case and layer near the MC-FP junction. shear In the shallow, emergent case LC-5, the depth-averaged Reynolds shear stresses ry, X small in the main channel and peak near the MC-FP junction. These are relatively are similar to those in non-vegetated, shallow, compound channels because patterns don't change the flow patterns much under this relative water the emergent rods depth.

Figure 5.26 shows the dimensionless depth-averaged eddy viscosity profiles of 2, and different flow conditions. In Figure 5.26,2 under ! was determined with was calculated with ts

Equation 5.6c using the measured data of zyx and U, and

Equation 5.6d using the measured data of U. It can be seen from Figures 5.26 that the dimensionless depth-averaged eddy viscosities and A increased from the right

bisector to the edge of the MC-FP junction due to the increased shear main channel % and T, are similar near the MC-FP strength. In most cases, the magnitudes of 5 junction and this indicates that large eddies play a dominant role in the lateral shear the near the MC-FP junction. The depth-averaged eddy viscosity, e., , and the near depth-averaged eddy viscosity, E, , are of the same order, which indicates that the of the longitudinal momentum is also important and this might be vertical exchange due to the three-dimensional wakes in the submerged rod cases.

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5.6.3 Depth-averaged

secondary current

)d The depth-averaged, secondary current term, - p(UV was calculated from ,

Equation 5.8,

P(UV)d =-H

UVdz ,r

(5.8)

Figure 5.27 shows the distributions of the depth-averagedsecondary current term in different cases. The positions of the bump in cases LC-1 - LC-5 - p(UV)d Y/B = 0.35,0.30,0.52,0.52 and 0.28 respectively. In the submergedcasesof LCare it is noticeable that the signs of the term - p(UV )d change where the ' 3 and LC-4, rod exists on the floodplain and this could be causedby the wakes in this submerged
region.

5.7 Energy spectrum 5.7.1 Introduction

According to Hinze (1975), turbulence is composed of various sized eddies, which be expressed by an energy spectrum. A distribution can of energy between

frequencies is usually called an energy spectrum. The energy spectrum can give information on the contribution of eddies to the turbulent kinetic energy. The valuable intensity u, can be obtained by integrating the energy spectrum through the turbulent frequency (t) domain, entire

ur =(, b Er(f)df)V2 El (f) is the energydensity at frequencyf. where

(5.9)

The energy spectrum Ei(f) can be obtained by two methods. The first method is by the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to the temporal series of instantaneous applying The second method is by applying the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to the velocities.

function. velocity correlation

151

function Rr (t) at a fixed point is the velocity correlation function An auto-correlation

by u;2: normalised
ut _ ut t u1(+z

(t\ R1 J

(5.1 0)

is the averageturbulent kinetic energy of i component, t is the time and 2' where ui2 is the time lag. first pointed out that the velocity correlation function Q; (r) and energy Taylor (1938)
function Et (f) can be expressed by Fourier cosine transforms of each other spectrum

in Equations 5.11a-5.1 lb. as (z) fEi (f) cos(2; Q = zfz)1f (5.11a)

Ei (f) =4fQ, (z)cos(2 'r)dz'

(5.1lb)

This secondmethod is usedto obtain the energy spectrumin this study.

In general, the energy spectrum can be divided into three distinct sub-ranges. The first is the energy production range, in which the turbulent kinetic energy is sub-range by large, energy-containing eddies. The second sub-range is the inertial subproduced in which the turbulent kinetic energy production rate is in equilibrium with its range, dissipation rate. In this sub-range, the energy spectral behaviour follows the Kolmogoroff law (- 5/3 law). The third sub-range is the viscous sub-range, in which

turbulent kinetic energyis finally dissipatedinto heat. the

5.7.2 Velocity correlation Velocity correlation can give some valuable information on eddy scales. Based on its definition, the velocity correlation function is one when the time lag (z) is zero. If the function curve decreases rapidly from one to zero, the velocity velocity correlation has good correlation only within the smaller time lag range, which indicates that the is mainly composed of small eddies. On the other hand, if the velocity turbulence

152

function curve drops slowly from one to zero, the turbulence is mainly correlation large eddies. Moreover, if the velocity correlation function curve composed of the axis of time lag z, there exists some periodicity oscillates about in the flow

This concept can be applied to roughly evaluate the relative sizes of the pattern. in the turbulence. eddies Velocity floodplain, data at the vertical position of Z=0.19 m, which is 0.04 m above the

are used to analyse the velocity correlation and the energy spectrum in

LC-1 - LC-5. This is based on the following two considerations. Firstly, to cases the ADV transducers are submerged during the measurements, the safe ensure minimum depth should be larger than 5 cm, which is required for ADV, water

because the water surface fluctuated by around 1 cm during the experiments. Secondly, the main works were on the deep-water depth cases, in which the minimum depth on the floodplain was 0.055 in. For the shallow, emergent-rod case LC-5, water data at Z=0.18 velocity m was used and the data were obtained using a small tank on

The lateral positions of the measurement points range from Y= the water surface. 0.25 m to Y=0.58 m and the interval between two points is 0.03 m. Figures 5.28

5.32 show the velocity correlation curves in the cases LC-1 - LC-5. Figures 5.28a - 5.28c show the respective longitudinal, lateral and vertical velocity auto-correlation curves in case LC-1. In the longitudinal velocity correlation R.,,,

(Figure 5.28a), the curve of Y=0.25 curves

m drops fastest, whereas the curve of Y=

0.55 m drops slowest and oscillates about the axis of time lag. The information in Figure 5.28a indicates that there are large eddies at Y=0.55 there are small eddies at Y=0.25 and m at the MC-FP junction,

m, where the velocity is the maximum locally

in the main channel. In the lateral velocity correlation R,, curve (Figure 5.28b), the

different lateral positions are almost the same and so there are no obvious curves of horizontal, large eddies at this vertical plane. In the vertical correlation Rw curve w
(Figure 5.28c), the curve of Y=0.25 compared with in drops rapidly from one to zero when about the vertical velocity the other curves. The information

function might indicate that the vertical eddy sizes might be slightly larger correlation the MC-FP junction than those near the centre of the main channel. near

153

Figure 5.29 shows the velocity correlation curves in case LC-2. The longitudinal curves (Figure 5.29a) also drop slower as the lateral position velocity correlation from the centre of the main channel to the MC-FP junction. The lateral and moves velocity correlation curves (Figures 5.29b - 5.29c) are also similar to those in vertical case LC-1. Figure 5.30 shows the velocity correlation curves in case LC-3. In the longitudinal curves (Figure 5.30a), the curve of Y=0.49 velocity correlation m oscillates with a

3 seconds. The information from R.,,, indicates that the strongest shear period of might exist at' Y=0.49 m in the case of vertical level Z=0.19 m. In the lateral

correlation curves (Figure 5.30b), the curve of Y =. 0.49 m decreases slower velocity than the other curves and the oscillation is similar to that in Ru curve. The vertical ,, curves are similar at different lateral positions (Figure 5.30c). velocity correlation Compared with the LC-1 case, the periodicity of large eddies is more obvious in case LC-3 under similar relative water depths. The above information indicates that there horizontal large eddies in this case and that the eddy sizes decrease from the are some MC-FP junction to the centre of the main channel.

Figure 5.31 shows the velocity correlation curves in case LC-4. In the R,,,,,curves (Figure 5.31a), the curve of Y=0.49 m also drops slowest and there is a modulation
r =1.3s . In the Rv. curves (Figure 5.31b), the curves of different lateral around v positions are similar and the weak modulation exists around r=0.8s. (Figure 5.31c), the curve of Y=0.49 curves there is a modulation around r=0.6s and In the R, y,,,

m oscillates about the axis of time lag

Compared with the LC-3 case, the . is more pronounced in the vertical direction. oscillation Figure 5.32 shows the velocity correlation curves in case LC-5. In the R., curves (Figure 5.32a), the curve of Y=0.55 in drops much slower than the other curves and

about the axis of time lag. In the Rv curves (Figure 5.32b), oscillates greatly v can just be recognised at Y=0.55 oscillations there are very weak oscillations at Y=0.55 m. In the RW curves (Figure 5.32c), w in. This information indicates that

154

horizontal large eddies exist in the LC-5 caseand large eddy sizes are dominant at the
MC-FP junction. In conclusion, the velocity correlation function gives valuable information about the flow pattern in a different way and this information coincides with the hydraulic

behaviours in various cases. Large oscillations occur at the MC-FP junction in the LC-5 case, relatively large oscillations occur at the MC-FP junction in cases LC-3 and LC-4 and few large oscillations occur at the MC-FP junction in cases LC-1 and LC-2.

5.7.3 Energy spectra

In this section, the energy spectrum was calculated by applying_ the Fast Fourier function Qr (r). The FFT algorithms were Transform (FFT) to the velocity correlation ExploreV software from Nortek. Figures 5.33 - 5.37 show the energy performed with in cases LC-1 - LC-5 respectively. spectrum Figures 5.33a - 5.33c show the respective energy spectra for the longitudinal, lateral in case LC-1. In Figure 5.33a, each u energy spectrum log-log and vertical velocities between 0.1 and 1 Hz. The frequencies corresponding to each peak curve peaks decrease with the lateral distance, which indicates that the eddy sizes become larger the MC-FP junction. towards At the peak frequency, the spectrum magnitude

increases with the lateral distance from the left wall of the main channel and this indicates that the u velocity fluctuation becomes stronger and consequently the values for the turbulent intensity u' are larger towards the MC-FP junction. Information from (Figure 5.33b) and the w spectrum (Figure 5.33c) is similar to that the v spectrum from the u spectrum, but the peak magnitudes of the v spectrum are smaller than those of the u spectrum and the peak magnitudes of the w spectrum are also smaller than the v spectrum. This information from the energy spectra coincides with the those of turbulence analyses in the previous sections. Figure 5.34 shows the energy spectra in the LC-2 case. The spectrum patterns are to those in case LC-1, in which the flow pattern is similar to that in LC-1 case. similar It should be noted that, although Tukey's weighting function was used to smooth the

the spectrum curves in the high frequency zones are still noisy and this spectrum,

155

be due to the data quality. In general, the noise increases as the sampling might frequency increases while using ADV. Figure 5.35 shows the energy spectra in case LC-3. In Figure 5.35a, the peak frequencies of each spectrum curve are within 0.1 - 1.0 Hz and the spectrum

increases with the lateral distance. Compared with the LC-1 case (Figure magnitude 5.33a), the spectrum magnitude is larger and the magnitude difference between Y= 0.25 m and Y=0.55 m becomes more noticeable. This is because the shear is stronger in case LC-3 than in LC-1. For the v spectrum (Figure 5.35b) and the w spectrum (Figure 5.35c), the spectrum magnitude also increases with the lateral distance and the difference between the centre of the main channel and the MC-FP junction magnitude is noticeable. The magnitude of the w spectrum for Y=0.49 m is higher than the other four w spectrum curves. This is possibly due to the three dimensional nature of the the MC-FP junction. wakes near Figure 5.36 shows the energy spectra in case LC-4. The spectrum patterns are similar to those in case LC-3. However, the magnitudes of the u spectrum and the w spectrum in low frequency zones at Y=0.49 m are larger than those at Y=0.55 m. This

indicates that, in the compound channel with submerged rods on the floodplain, the shifts slightly towards the main channel as the water depth increases. shear centre In case LC-5 (Figure 5.37), the peak frequencies of each spectrum curve are within 0.1 - 0.5 Hz and the spectrum magnitude also increases with the lateral distance. This indicates that the frequency range of the energy-containing (W'2) eddies is wider than those of the U'2 and v'2 energy-containing eddies, so the horizontal large eddies more to the turbulent kinetic energy in this case. contribute 5.8 Eddy contributions to momentum exchange

5.8.1 Cross energy spectra To study the momentum exchange in the shear layer, the cross energy spectra were using the fluctuation data of u', v' and w'. Figures 5.38 - 5.42 show the calculated cross energy spectra and phase relationships in cases LC-1 - LC-5. respective

156

5.38a shows the u', V spectra and the uV cross spectra and Figure 5.38b Figure between uI and V in the no rod case LC-1. In Figure 5.38a, shows the phase relation V spectrum peak in the low frequency both the uV cross spectra and the zone ( 0.5 <f<1 Hz) both peak frequencies are almost the same. The peak and

V spectrum are also of the uV cross spectra and the of the same order. magnitudes While, the u' spectrum peaks around f=0.15 times those in the uV Hz and its peak magnitude is about 4

V spectrum. These spectra cross spectra and the results

is more sensitive to V. In Figure 5.38b, the phase indicate that the uV cross spectra between u' and V gives approximately 0 in this low frequency zone, whereas relation it is random in the high frequency zone. This information indicates that the lateral is generated by the large horizontal eddies and the contribution to the Reynolds shear Z'y,,is mainly related to the motion of low frequency eddies. From Figure shear stress between u' and w gives approximately r 5.38d, the phase relation in the low

frequency zone, which indicates that the vertical shear is generated by the bedturbulence and the contribution to the Reynolds shear stress r. generated is mainly

to the motion of low frequency eddies. From Figures 5.38a and 5.38c, the uV related are of the same order in the low frequency zone and this spectra and u'w spectra indicates that both lateral and vertical momentum- exchange are both important in this case. deep, no rod case LC-2 (Figure 5.39), the phase relation between u' and V is In the 0 in the low frequency zone (0.4 <f<0.8 about Hz) and the relation between u' and

w is 7r. The above phase relationships are same to those in case LC-1, which indicates that the production mechanism of the shear is the same to that in case LC-1. The peak frequency f is lower and the peak magnitudes of the energy spectra and the also lower as compared with case LC-1, possibly indicating that the cross spectra are frequency is just one characteristic low frequency, but not the decisive parameter peak to describe and quantify the momentum exchange. In the submerged rod case LC-3, Figure 5.40a shows a good correlation between the

Iv. spectraand v' spectrumand Figure 5.40b shows the 'r phaserelation between U
This indicates that the lateral shear is generated by the wakes and the u. and vI .

157

to the Reynolds shear stress ry,, is mainly related to the low frequency contribution of the wakes (0.2 <f<0.7 motion Hz). Figure 5.40c shows that the fluctuation of the

w is very weak. The phase relation between u' and w' is around 0 in vertical velocity the low frequency zone, which indicates that the vertical shear is possibly generated by the wakes and the contribution to the Reynolds shear stress 2'", is mainly related to the motion of the wakes. The peak magnitude of u'v' is about 3 times of that of u'w', but both of them are larger than those in cases LC-1 and LC-2. These results indicate that the momentum exchange is stronger in the lateral direction than in the vertical direction in case LC-3 whilst the momentum exchange is stronger in the lateral : direction than in case LC-1, as well as in the vertical direction. I r'
HI

rf 7

In the deep, submerged case LC-4 (Figure 5.41), the low frequency falls in the range of 0.2 <f<0.75 Hz. In the low frequency zone, the phase relation between u* and v',

between u* and w are similar to those in case LC-3, which indicates that the and that around the rods is also generated by the wakes. The peak magnitude of u'v' is shear 10 times of that of u' w' The peak magnitude of uV in case LC-4 is about 0.6 nearly . times of that in case LC-3, indicating that the momentum exchange is weaker in the LC-4 case due to the increased water depth. In the emergent-rod case LC-5 (Figure 5.42), both the u 'v' and u' w' cross spectra around f=0.27 peak Hz. In the low frequency zone, the phase relation between u'

is ; ', and the phase relation between u' and w' is 0. This indicates that the and v' mechanism of the shear around the emergent rods is same to that around production the submerged rods. 5.8.2 Eddy contributions to momentum exchange

As discussed in section 5.8.1, the momentum exchange in compound channel flow is done by the low frequency motion. The characteristic frequency and the mainly of low frequency motion to the momentum exchange are investigated in contributions this section.

158

5.8.2.1 Determination

of characteristic frequency

Based on the Fourier Transform relation between the energy spectrum and the velocity auto-correlation, Hinze (1975) obtained the following interesting results

in Equations 5.12 and 5.13. expressed

fR(t)dt E=

Eu(. lm2 = 4u 2 f-3o

OS

(5.12)

0.5

ZE

1
2u'2

('at

(t) 2a2Ru u(t) _1 r-o r0

2 ail _

22
u'2

(5.13)

f f2Eu(f)df

From Equation 5.12,3E

has a time dimension (s) and is directly related to the low

frequency (f --> 0 Hz), hence, SE can be regarded as a characteristic time scale of turbulence related to the low frequency motion. Larger eddies correspond to

fluctuations at low frequencies, so ZE can be further regarded as a characteristic time larger eddies, which is usually known as the macro-timescale. scale of From Equation 5.13, it is obvious that rE also has a time dimension (s) and is a of the most rapid changes that occur in the fluctuations of u(t). Smaller measure to fluctuations of high frequencies, so zE can be further regarded eddies correspond a characteristic time scale of smaller eddies which is usually known as the microas timescale. The characteristic frequencies can be calculated from SE and rE .

As large eddies are important to the generation of Reynolds stress, only the macrotimescale and characteristicfrequency are discussedin this section. It should be noted
that Equation 5.12 was not used in this study because its accuracy remains uncertain the following grounds: on 1) Taylor's frozen-turbulence hypothesis was used to calculate the energy

by applying FFT to velocity auto-correlation (Hinze 1975). spectrum

2) Homogeneousand isotropic turbulence was assumedwhile the turbulence in

this study is anisotropic.

159

Peak frequency and energy percent methods were used to determine the characteristic frequency of the large eddies. Details of these two methods will Sections 5.8.2.2 - 5.8.2.3. 5.8.2.2 Peak frequency method For the peak frequency method, the peak frequency is estimated from the v energy because the lateral momentum exchange is dominant in compound channel spectra flows and this is also one of the objectives of this research work. As described in 5.7.1, turbulent kinetic energy is produced due to large energy-containing section For simplification, eddies. frequency. the peak frequency was used as the characteristic "' be described in

Figure 5.43 shows the peak frequencies at different positions in cases LC-1 - LC-5. The average characteristic frequencies in these cases are 0.93,0.90,0.42,0.52 and 0.29 Hz respectively. These results indicate that the submerged rods on the floodplain shear layer, even under large relative water depth conditions, which produce a strong is reflected in the average characteristic frequency. In the shallow emergent-rod case LC-5, the strong shear layer is most significant since the characteristic frequency is decreased to 0.29 Hz, which is the lowest among all the cases. To analyse the contributions of large eddies to the momentum transfer, a low-pass filter was used to remove the high-frequency data from the raw measurement data.

For this method, the average characteristic frequency was used as the filtering
frequency. Figures 5.44a - 5.44e show the percentage ratio of the filtered mean values to the raw mean values of U'2, V'2, w'2, uv and uw respectively in the five cases. In the non-vegetated cases LC-1 and LC-2 (Figures 5.44a and 5.44b), the ranges of percentages of large eddies to u", V'2, W'2, uv and uw are 5contribution 20,2

10,2 - 10,5 - 17.5 and 0- 17.5 % respectively. The contributions become noticeable the MC-FP junction and this indicates that there are larger eddies near the MCnear FP junction. In the vegetated cases LC-3 - LC-5 (Figures 5.44c - 5.44e), the range of contribution of large eddies to U'2, V'2, w2, uv and uw are 5percentages 15,2-5,2-4,2.5-

160

15 and 0- 15 % respectively. In general,the contributions becomenoticeable near the

MC-FP junction and this is similar to the situation in the non-vegetated cases (Figures

5.44a - 5.44b).
It can be seen that the calculated contribution depends on the filtering frequency. In fact, the energy-containing eddies have a range of low frequencies. The peak

frequency is not high enough to represent and cover the low frequency range.

5.8.2.3 Energy percent method

For the energy percent method, the percentage of cumulative turbulent intensity -u, to `'the total turbulent intensity u. was used to determine the characteristic'frequency of

large eddies because u'2 makes up most of the turbulent kinetic energy. The values of the characteristic percentage were chosen as 70 %, 80 % and 90 % in this study. Figures 5.45a - 5.45e present the lateral frequency distributions characterising large for cases LC-1 - LC-5. Under medium and large relative eddies water depth

(Figures 5.45a - 5.45d), the characteristic frequency decreases from the conditions left main channel, attains the lowest value around Y=0.43 0.49 m and then -

increases slightly towards the edge of the MC-FP junction, regardless of the energy This indicates that the eddies are of high frequencies in the main channel percentage. low frequencies near the MC-FP junction where strong shear layer exists. The and for the position of the lowest frequency also indicate that the shear centre is not results the MC-FP edge, but is slightly shifted towards the main channel. The characteristic at frequency of the large eddy decreases as the energy percentage decreases and this is with the definition of the energy spectra. consistent For an energy percentage of 70%, the lowest characteristic frequencies in cases LC-1 LC-4 are 4.6,6.0,3.0 and 2.3 Hz respectively. This indicates that the characteristic

frequency of the energy-containing eddies increases as the relative water depth increases in the no rod cases, but the characteristic frequency does not change much the relative water depth in the submerged cases. In the main channel outside the with layer zone, the characteristic frequency is similar in the no rod and submergedshear In the shear layer zone, the characteristic frequency is lower in the rod cases. case than in the no rod case under similar relative water depth submerged-rod

161

this indicates that the submerged rods on the floodplain generate larger conditions and the MC-FP junction than in the non-vegetated compound channel. eddies near In the shallow, emergent-rod case LC-5 (Figure 5.45e), the characteristic frequency is in the main channel, but decreases sharply from y=0.49 almost constant m to the

MC-FP edge. For an energy percentage of 70%, the characteristic frequency decreases from about 13 Hz in the main channel to about 4.5 Hz at the MC-FP edge. This indicates that the strong shear layer might be limited to a narrow area near the MC-FP junction.

In the rod cases(Figures 5.45c - 5.45e), it seemsthere is a tendency that the eddies MC-FP IP, grow from near the rods towards the main channel side in the move and by junction region, which is caused the wakes.
Using the energy percentage of 70%, the characteristic frequency was used as the filtering frequency to filter the small eddies whose frequency is higher than the

frequency in each case. Figures 5.46 - 5.50 show the raw and filtered characteristic of velocities U and V, together with the Reynolds shear stress uv, temporal variations for cases LC-1 - LC-5. Figure 5.51 shows the Reynolds shear stresses and their large eddies at the MC-FP edge in LC-1 - LC-5 cases. The vertical contributions of the sampling points are described in Section 5.7.2. Under relative water positions of depths Dr = 0.4 and 0.5, the respective contribution percentages of large eddies are 27% and 8% higher in the submerged-rod cases than in the non-vegetated cases. This indicates that large eddies contribute more to the Reynolds shear stress in the rod cases, especially under shallow water conditions.

5.9 Summary
In compound channels with submerged rods on the floodplain, the velocity patterns different to those and the discharges were smaller than those in non-vegetated were under similar relative water depth conditions. compound channels The secondary currents influenced the velocity patterns in non-vegetated and

channels. The secondary currents were stronger in the vegetated vegetated compound than in the non-vegetated compound channels under similar compound channels

162

water depth conditions. From the results of vorticity analyses, the anisotropy relative turbulence was the main contribution to the generation of secondary currents in of and even vegetated compound channels, but the Reynolds stress term non-vegetated important in the vegetated compound channels. was more The turbulent intensities, turbulent kinetic energy and Reynolds shear stresses zyx and the MC-FP junction in the vegetated compound channels, but peak near z,, peak near the main channel bed in the non-vegetated compound channels. The peak magnitude zy,, was larger than that of z of indicating that the lateral transfer of the longitudinal

was stronger than the vertical transfer of the longitudinal momentum. The momentum magnitude of zy, was only slightly smaller than that of z,, indicating that the peak stress generated by the secondary currents was also important in the submerged shear The Reynolds shear stresses became slightly smaller as the relative water rod case. depth increased from 0.4 to 0.5.

Results of crossspectrashowed the mechanismsof the turbulent sheargenerationnear the MC-FP junction are due to large eddies in the non-vegetatedcompound channel to wakes in the vegetatedcompoundchannel. and owing

163

1 0.8
----------------------

a)

0.6 0.4 0.2

i.1. LC-1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

00 1 0.8 fib) 0.6 0.4 0.2 00 1

0.8 0.6 c) 0.4 0.2 00 1
. 14 .04

Y/B
A,

1.20 1.12 0z

LC-2
0.6 0.8

0.2

0.4

Y/B

AS 1.24

LC-3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

0.2

Y/B

0.8 0.6 (d) 0.4 0.2 00 1

0. s fie) 0.6 0.4
IC

LC-4

0.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

LL/Cl
LC-5
so . 0.2

0.2 00
0.4 Y/B 0.6 0.8 1

distributions. Normalised longitudinal velocity (U/U, 5.1 Figure n) LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

(a) Case

164

0.8
r

rri

0.6 0.4
0.2 00 1
0.8 ii/ii '0 iIr. i% %r'w-i Z. -= . - =! . +.

>
0.1 0.2 0.4 YOB 0.6

LC-1
0.8

0.6 (b) a0 4 .
0.2 00 1[ -..
t

M ..
f
1I11.

r
0.2 -tIrrr

. Y. \ .. __. Z 11I t

'"",. r

""

` _' ' ,

0.1 0.6 R
"i

0.4

YOB .,
_+-YEA

0.8 y.

"- E-.-- -<

- .

a- -- _7

f/..

0.6 (c)
04 . 02 . C x ... , ..

-)_
0 1 . LC-3

--

0.2

0.4

Y/B
i t\

0.6

0.8

0.8
0.6 (d) 04 . 02 . 00
1 i0.8 rE

ttIi/i/},

ftttt1...

i!

1R ...

RRRr.
.. R -- ... F ..

r
LC-4

0.2
F E-. .... E--E-E-E1%-/

0.4
E-

YOB
-'<1"t I-

0.6

0.8
r. ,i "-

(e)

0.6
a 0 .4 0

le

Ae

, ,

LC-5

0.2
0 0 20 . 4' . Y/B

1
06 . 08 .

Figure 5.2

(v/U,,,, ). (a) Case LC-1; Rotated secondary current patterns w/U,,,

(b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) CaseLC-5.

165

1 0.8 0.6 (a) 0.4 0.2 0

0
LC-1 0 0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8

Y/B

1 0.8 0.6 (b) 0.4 0.2 LC-2

.. oso -n

0
0.8 0.6 (c) 0.4 0.2 0 1 0.8 (d) 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

0.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6
.W

0.8

7(
LC-3 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Y/B

aC,,
1

'L

---0.50

C (p

1.43 1

0.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

0.8 (e) 0.6 = a 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2

0v
LC-5

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

Anisotropy of turbulence vz - wz Figure 5.3 2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

)U:.

(a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-

166

1~ 0.8

=0.6 N 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6 0.8 1

0.8 N 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6

o

v
I-

op1r U '

LC-2 0.8
1

0.8 (C) 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 eF! (

00 o
0.2

LC-3 0.4 0.6 0.8

YOB

0.8 0.6 N 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6 LC-4 -I0.8 1

0.8 e 0.6 = a 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6 )) 0.8 1

=u 1
LC-5

Figure

5.4

Longitudinal (c) Case LC-3;

Case LC-2;

vorticity (d) Case LC-4;

(10052, /(U,

profiles. n/H (e) Case LC-5.

(a) Case LC-1;

(b)

167

I 0.8 0.6 N0.4 a

0.2 0 55

----' CI o
LC-1

000.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

1 0.8

a0.4 0.2 oll 0 0.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6 LC-1 IIIII 0.8 1

1 0.8 N0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 YOB 0.6 LC-1 0.8 1

(C)

1 0.8 (d) =0.6 i 0.02-oos

0.4 0.2 000.2

pois

LC-1 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 term

Y/B

Longitudinal Figure 5.5 vorticity balance for Case LC-1. (a) Advection term A2; (c) Shear stress term A3; Viscous term A4. Al; (b) Anisotropy

168

1 0.8 0.6

0j

0.4 0.2 000.2

Do

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

10.8 0.6 (b) N 0.4

0.2 000.2

LC-2
F?

--r

0.4

YOB

0.6

0.8

1 0.8
0.6

0.4 0.2 000.2 -c, So LC-2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

-0, mwmw_ -0

Y/B

0.8 (d) = 0.6 N 0.4 0.2 000.2

0 0ry

o\`c

pPo
0.00.

pw=

9v

, _. u LC-2

00 .

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

balance for Case LC-2. (a) Advection Longitudinal Figure 5.6 vorticity term A2; (c) Shear stress term A3; Viscous term A4. Al; (b) Anisotropy

term

169

1r 0.8

(a

0.6

-moo C LC-3 0.4 0.6 0.8

a 0.4
0.2 000.2

Y/B

1 0.8 06 0.4 0.2 000.2

o o

LC-3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

V/B

1 0.8 (C) 0. `I 1QJ

-3o LC-3

Iwlo

0. 0.2
000.2 0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

0.8

0.4
0.2 000.2

-\10.06

Ilk

0.00 o. .
0.4

^
LC-3 0.6 0.8 1

Y/B

Longitudinal vorticity balance for Case LC-3. (a) Advection term Figure 5.7 Al; (b) Anisotropy term A2; (c) Shear stress term A3; Viscous term A4.

170

1 0.8 0.6
04 0.2 LC-4 0

2U

---0

000.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 000.2 o \ 0.4 Y/B 0.6 0.8 1 a

QWl "k,.
. LC-4

1 0.8

CJ2

0.6 a 0.4 0.2 000.2

J
po

J /! moo,
LC-4 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Y/B

1 0.8 (d) 06 .C5 0.4 0.2 oo--Co. 0.00 oao" P LC-4

000.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

1 term

balance for Case LC-4. (a) Advection Longitudinal Figure 5.8 vorticity term A2; (c) Shear stress term A3; Viscous term A4. Al; (b) Anisotropy

171

1 0.8

(a)

0.6 = a 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6

LC-5

0.8

1 0.8 = N 0.4 0.2 0.6 10 LC-5

(b)

0
0 0.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6 0.8
1

1 0.8 0.6 = 0.4

LC-5

(c)

0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6

0.8

1 0.8 = 0.6 o. os oev o.

(d)

0.4. 0.2 000.2

S1

LC-5

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

1 term

balance for Case LC-5. (a) Advection Longitudinal Figure 5.9 vorticity term A2; (c) Shear stress term A3; Viscous term A4. Al; (b) Anisotropy

172

(a)
--00n J. u 3
v. v. v

(b)

2 2

2.5 2.0

2.2.5 2.2.0

?1 ? 1.5 :5j 1.0 1 0 0 0.5 0.0

1.1.0 0.0.5 0.0.0

0.0

0.2

0.4 0.6 ZJH

0.8

1.0

0.2

0.4

F0.6

0.8

Vertical distributions of turbulent Figure 5.10 the main channel; (b) on the floodplain.
3.5 3

intensities for Case LC-1. (a) In

2.5 2

(a)

1.5 1 0.5 0 0 3.0 2.5 2.0 X 1.5 0.2 0.4 Y(m) 0.6 0.8

0.193 0.16 -A 0.1 -6 0.043 --a-0.01 --

-0.193 0.16 0.1 --m-0.043 0.01 --C)-

(b)

1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.193 -0.16 0.1 -0.043 -fc)-- 0.01 0.2 0.4 Y(m) 0.6 0.8 1.0

(c)

0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 Y(m) 0.6 0.8 1

Lateral distributions Figure 5.11 ; (b) v'/U. ; (c) w/U.. u'1U.

of turbulent

intensities for Case LC-1. (a)

173

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

--- -i \.. o r., 1.37 //

..

LC-1 0.6 0.8

00 1 0.8

0.2

0.4

Y/B

ul-

0.6

(b)0.4
0.2 00 1 0.8 = 0.6 0.4
1.6193 1.07

%
0.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6
\!

LC-2 0.8

0.2
0 ---

250-

LC-3 0.6 0.8

0.2
"g. 93

0.4

Y/B

0.8

069

1.17 . 14

(d)

0.6 0.4 0.2

/-1.94 g

LC-4
0.4 0.6 0.8

000.2 1
0.8 = 0.6 , - --_ j. os

Y/B
r"o

(e)

0.4
0.2
213

1.

LC-5

1.91

000.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

(u'/U, ) Normalised turbulent intensity Figure 5.12 profiles. (a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

174

1 0.8 0
0.97

(a)

.6

0.4 0.2 000.2 1

0.8 = 0.6
/13

`i7

'.4 0.4 Y/B 0.6

LC- 1 0.8

fo.
Orb

74-'
.87

-- -01A
, 3

o.s7

o. f

(b) a 0.4
000.2 1 0.8 0.6

-1 0.4 Y/B 0.6

LC-2 -2 0.8

0e9
^ 1.34 wry. 1

0.2- 000.2 1 0.8 0.6

(d) 0.4 1.13 76 0.94 m3 1 .50

LC-3 0.6 0.8 i 1

0.4

Y/B

0.2
p00.2 1

LC-4
0.6 0.8

1 0.4 Y/B

0.8 (e)
a

0.6 =
0.4 0.2 _'p6 . ----
.,

a _--rp
as
i. 0r

c,. p

LC-5

000.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

(v'/U, ) Normalised turbulent intensity Figure 5.13 profiles. (a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

175

0.8 o. B2 1_

(a)

0.6 =
a 0.4 0.2 000.2
p. 95 oe7

oe? o. 0.4 0.6

LC -1 0.8 1

Y/B

0.8
0.6 -0 54 078

0.47----, -------0.47
0.so

(b)

0.4
0.2 000.2

C?
72 0.4 Y/B 0.6

LC-2

0.8

0.8 0.6 0.4 02 LC-3

000.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8
tea. j

0.8

0 81

0.6
0.4 0.2

L O.46 11

0&S

o.
o.e1

, 3rd`

LC-4

000.2
1_

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

0.8
0.6
O e 0.4 0.2 000.2

iss
82 . O.BZ

0.69

ss

LC-5

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

(w'/U, ) Normalised turbulent intensity Figure 5.14 profiles. (a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

176

Y=0.25m
1LU
ICV

Y=0.55m
100 80 60 40

100

(a)

80
60 40 012345012345
ILU

100 m

100 80 60 40 012345012345
on

80

60
40

4 nn

1LU

vv 60 40 20

100 U)

(C)

80 60 40 012345
IIlu 100

0 -20 -40 -Fn vv ou 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60 012345

E ao so 40
Iuu 80 (e) N 60 E 40 20 0 012 T(S) 345012

IVV

80 60 40 20 0 T(s) 345

Temporal variations of U velocity data for LC-1 LC-5 cases. (a) Figure 5.15 Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

177

Y=0.25
25 15 (a) E5 -5 -15 -25 25 15 5 E -5 -15 -25

m
15 5 4 -5 -15

Y=0.55m

25 15 5 -5 -15 -25
CA

20 10 0
-10 -20

25 0

-25

15 10 5

50 25 0 4 -25 -50

(d)

E0
-5 -10 -15

ou 20 10

vu 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60

So

'-10
-20 -30

Temporal variations of V velocity data for LC-1 - LC-5. (a) Case Figure 5.16 LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

178

Y=0.25m
25 15 E 5 -5 -15 -25 25 15 5 E

Y=0.55
25 15 5 -5 -15 -25
1

15 5 -5 -15

(b

3 -5
-15 -25 25 15 N5

15 5

(C)
3

-5 -15

-15 -25
25 15 d) 5 E

15 5 1234 -5 -15 2

-5 -15 -25

LD

LO

15

15 5 -5
-15 -25

(e)

0 ;

5
-5

-15 -25

Temporal variations of W velocity data for LC-1 - LC-5. (a) Case Figure 5.17 LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

179

1 0.8

(a)

0.6 0.4 0.2 00 1 0.8 0.6

/'
O

>

4i

LC-1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Y/B

(b)

0 94 . ? `' 06 1.91.39 ZZ LC-2

0.4
0.2

--4

00 1

0.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6
4. Q0-

0.8
2.86

0.8 (e) = a 0.4 0.2 0 1 0 0.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6 0.6

3.71

LLS

0.8

(d)

0.8

0.6
a 0.4
! /`,

0.2

g4 2 -

2.71 3 g\6

LC-4 0.6 0.8 1

0
1

0.2

0.4

Y/B

(e)

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2

4. .LP

LC-5

Fr'
Y/B 0.6 0.8 1

0.4

Normalised turbulent kinetic energy Figure 5.18 profiles. (a) Case LC1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

(k/U; )

180

1 0.8 0.6

(a)

0.4 0.2 000.2

LC-1 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Y/B

0.8

o -o.

0.6 =
0.4 0.2
0--

qZ"
<cc

LC-2 0.4 0.6

0.2

Y/B
9 ry

0.8

0.8 0.6 =

b0 Yo. 0.5p

06\

`I \f

(c)

0.4

0.2 000.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6

LC-3 0.8 1

0.8 0.6 (d) i: 0.4

02 000.2 1 oOO 0.4 Y/B 0.6 0.8 1

00-

LC-4

(e)

0.8 0.6 =
0.4 0.2 Vn

Lp
U

I 4 .;
LC-5

000.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

(z,, ) Normalised turbulent kinetic energy Figure 5.19 profiles. (a) Case X/pU; LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

181

1 0.8
= 0.6 o. 19

0 4s

yoa?

2e -

() aa0.4 0.20

jI Oyv pk
0.2 1 0.8 0.4

.6
YOB 0.6

LC-1
0.8 1

0.6

(b)

a 0.4
0.2 00
0

0., \ 5

0.08 .34

LC-2

0.2
"b

0.4

YOB

0.6

0.8

1 LosD

0.8 (c) = 0.6 0.4

0.2 0

r 058

0s

r Q
LC-3

0.2

0.4

1
0.8

YOB
os

0.6
5o'0

0.8

a 0.4 0.2 000.2 1

70 0ov 0.4 0.6 LC-4 0.8 1

YOB

0.8
(e)

0.6
0.4 050 0.2 _-o 090 oeo

0.3

:0.4

LC-5

000.2

0.4 Normalised

YOB

0.6

0.8

1 (a) Case

Figure LC-1;

5.20

turbulent

(b) Case LC-2;

(c) Case LC-3;

(zu / l kinetic energy pU; profiles. (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

182

0.8 0,6 (a) j:: 0.4

0.2 O
OI(III

.00

.01 -o. o4 < D

. =004 O, tt

F_ r "o

LC-1

0.2

0.4

Y/B

0.6

0.8

0.8
0.6 (b) i' 0.4

-o. -ooa 8o0.0 oo

0.2 000.2 0.4 Y/B 0.6

LC-2 0.8

0.8
(c) = 0.6 0 J--0.00 A p

0.4
0.2 000.2 ll 0.4 Y/B
Oa nN \o

LC-3 0.6
0.02

0.8

0.8
0.6

(d) a 0.4
0.2 000.2

0.2

4
0.4

low
LC-4 0.6 V 0.8 1

N-

Y/B

0.8 7-0.6 a

oi -o. o0

"offer

(e)

0.4

0.2 000.2 5.21 Normalised

0 '
Q

LC-5 p 0.4 Reynolds bl

.o'tr

YOB

0.6 (rvZ/pU; )

0.8 profiles.

1 (a) Case LC-

Figure

shear stress

1; (b) Case LC-2;

(c) Case LC-3;

(d) Case LC-4;

(e) Case LC-5.

183

4n

i. v 0.8

--

--

-eQBglA

--. r4V;; ".....

_ _^

0.6
E. 0.4
0.2

2
f O LC-1 LC-2 LC-3
LC-5

gg
'

f"f.
8a BgQQ QQ

fff

00 00

0.0

'

0.1 ON

0.0 Figure 5.22 LC-5.

0.07 2 0.05 0.04
vp0.03 c

0.2

Lateral distributions

Y(m) of depth-averaged

0.4

0.6

-a 0.8

1.0

velocity in cases LC-1

0.06

2 0.02

>w0.01 0 0 0.02 WQQ4 Depth ater (m) 0.08 0.1

Figure

5.23

Manning

coefficients

for grass mattress

at different

water depths.

4.17 0.15 0.13

0.11 -

" ""6.

(a)

a) > Ja) a) M

3:
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1
0.19

0M)

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

(b)

E U) > JU)
CD 75

0.17 (5.15 0.13 0.11 0.0 0.0

Z
-0.4 Figure 5.24 Water -0.3 -0.2 -0.1

Y(0i)

0.1 rod.

0.2

0.3

0.4

level proaround

a submerged

184

n
0

8
0.1 0.2 0.3 110-f AC4 M 6.6 0.7

g
0.9 0.9

Z
4 -6 -8

go
OcA 00 op " 0 LG2 LC-3 LC-4 LC-5

Figure 5.25
0.60 0 > N
N

Lateral distributions

of depth-averaged Reynolds shear stress r

0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20

Q f

(a)

Data-LC1 Calculated-LC1 Data-LC2 Calculated-LC2 Bed

0) 0.10 E 0 0.00 0

f ia fZ

Aa

Q #'#

fQ 13 0.6 o QAa A 0.8

1

0.2 Data-L 30 Calculated-LC3 Data-LC4 Calculated-LC4 Data-LC5 Calculated-LC5

Bed

0.4

Y (m)

0.60
0.50 b) M 0.40 0.30 0.20 aa) 0.10 E 0 0.00 0 a A a f o

0 00 .o

oA

A13 AAAA

0.2

0.4

Y (m)

0.6

0.8

Figure

of dimensionless depth-averaged A,, and 2, (a) Non-vegetated cases; (b) Vegetated cases. viscosities .
10 8 6 C%j 4 z2 0 > -2 4 -6 -8 -10
f
00 "r"000 f. f0p ff f f f

5.26

Lateral

distributions

eddy

LC-1
LC-2 LC-4

A p

"f

ff1

000 .

f IUf S"
0 poop

p
Bog

LC-5

X0.1
AA

l O.
'A""

f04$Q. 0O'. 0.7 5 00.0.9

"4"'"'AAAA p'

""

Figure 5.27 )d - P(w

Lateral distributions

of depth-averaged secondary current term

185

0.8
(a)

0.6
0.4 0.2 0 -0.2
1 0.8
0.25m 0.37m 0.43m 0.49m

(b)

0.6
0.4 0.2 C
1234 -

0.55m

T4melag (s) 1 0.8 0.6

(c)
0.4 0.2

0
-0.2 Velocity auto-correlation Figure 5.28 (b) Velocity V; (c) Velocity W. functions for LC-1 case. (a) Velocity U;

186

1 0.8 0.6 (a) 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 1 0.8

0.25m 0.37m

0.6
-

0.43m 0.49m 0.55m

(b) I>0.4
0.2

0
1234

-0.2

:Pme

(s)

1 0.8
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2

Velocity auto-correlation Figure 5.29 (b) Velocity V; (c) Velocity W.

functions for LC-2 case. (a) Velocity U;

187

0.8 0.6 (a) 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2

0.8 0.6 (b) 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4

0.8 0.6 () 3 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2

Velocity auto-correlation Figure 5.30 (b) Velocity V; (c) Velocity W.

functions for LC-3 case. (a) Velocity U;

188

0.8 0.6 (a) 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2

0.8 0.6

(b)

'> 0.4 I
0.2

0
-0.2

0.8 0.6 (c) 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2

Velocity auto-correlation Figure 5.31 (b) Velocity V; (c) Velocity W.

functions for LC-4 case. (a) Velocity U;

189

1 0.8 0.6
0.25m 0.37m 0.43m
--0.49m 0.55m

(a cc

0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 1 0.8 0.6

TrA8 lag (6)

0.25m 0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m

(b)

0.4 0.2

0
1234

511*

-0.2
-0.4 T4MG lag (6)

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2

11 -0.4 ime lag S

Velocity auto-correlation Figure 5.32 (b) Velocity V; (c) Velocity W.

functions for LC-5 case. (a) Velocity U;

190

-11

(a)

0.25m 0.37m 0.43m -0.49m 0.55m -6 54+' ,il a

.I

log 10(fl

-1 -2

(b)

0.25m 0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m -6 71

-1 -2

3 w

(c)

0.25m 0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m

Figure 5.33

Energy spectrum for LC-1 case. (a) log E. ; (b) log Ev ; (c) log E,,,.

191

-1 -2

0.25m

(a)

---

0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m -6

Iog10(o

-1 -2

> Ui
T

(b)

a 0

-0.25m 0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m -6

Iog10(fl

-1 -2

-3

(c)

C,
0 -

0.25m
0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m -5

-6

Iog10(f)

Figure 5.34

Energy spectrum for LC-2 case. (a) log Eu ; (b) log E,,; (c) log E,,.

192

(a)

'

-1

(b)
0.25m -0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m -6

Iog10(f)

-1 -2

(c)
0.25m 0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m -6

logs o(fl

Figure 5.35

Energy spectrum for LC-3 case. (a) log E,, ; (b) log E,,; (c) log E"'.

193

w
T

(a)

11

(b)

w 0
---

0.25m 0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m

-5

-6

Iog10(fl

-1 -2

LL1

it

(c)
---0.25m

0.37m 0.43m

-5

0.49m 0.55m Iog10(D

Figure 5.36

Energy spectrum for LC-4 case. (a) log Eu ; (b) log Ev ; (c) log E,,.

194

-1

w
T

Iy l'

(a)

0.25m 0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m -6 5

II

log 10(f)

-1 -2 I VT

-31 w

(b)

0.25m
0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m Iog10(o

-1 -2

y 0.25m 3 ---0.37m 0.43m 0.49m 0.55m

(c)

01

y i
-5-6:7 Iog10(f)

'u

Figure 5.37

Energy spectrum for LC-5 case. (a) log Eu ; (b) log E,,; (c) log E,,.

195

u;2 v'2

0.005

0.004 w 03 0.0
21 12

(a)

Io10f y

+U+.

+ .FY{..

4.1

". "'

+T

(b)

L_+
++4 +. +++ +5.4+ + {{, J -T

+
T l: J+ r+,

7-. }
"+

J 4":
'..:.

"::.
+,

t .-. ; -:..
, ... -'. '+

. ".. '_'...

+ {''"{.

.;.

log10

'/

U'2 W'2

0.005

'W0.004W

003-

(c)
00 . -2
+

-1

IO9io0f
E. y+ i7Y.: t+

r1 +$ lo91o(f) -+

1+ + +{ +++

+t+"

"r

Figure 5.38

Cross spectrum and phase relation for LC-1 case. (a) Energy and cross spectrum uv; (b) Phase relation between u' and v'; (c) spectra u'2, vz Energy spectra u'2, w2 and cross spectrum u'w; (d) Phase relation between u' w. and

196

u2 \/2 ----. UV

003

(a)

w2

-2

-1
+ "r

loof

(b)
Co L1 CL

+ + + +:

rt

aJ ,

+++ 14

71

9iof
u2 u 'w

(c)

-2

1o9iof

72

+UW

.+

'...

'...

".

+;

.:

4....

'- :

'.

+1 4+

i-+''+t"+

".

*z.

CO
Q+++++ + it +{"F f4 ++

t
+ it +t +t ++++

++

.4
{t i";

++ +t

{ii++{{i

Figure

Cross spectrum and phase relation for LC-2 case. (a) Energy z and cross spectrum uv; (b) Phase relation between u' and v'; (c) spectra uz, v `, w2 and cross spectrum uw; (d) Phase relation between u Energy spectra u w. and 5.39

197

v'2 u'v'

20 15

w (a)

-2

oyiof
-414 -44-

12 4

Cl)

(b)

o1 C

+{4
4

I..Ta-

r+

o91of

FrW

u21 w2I

(c)

21

Ioy1of

12

I T_uW
. + 4+ - ++++}: ++

A+++r
+. . +{L ++ +: ++ +"

1+
+ {:. ++{ I a -++ J+'J i'ce. },' " `"

+
+ F i

(d)

t+

i4 +

log, of

Cross spectrum and phase relation for LC-3 case. (a) Energy Figure 5.40 (b) Phase relation between u and v; (c) u2, v*2 and cross spectrum uv; spectra w` and cross spectrum uw; (d) Phase relation between u Energy spectra u'2, w. and

198

U'2 U? u'V,
W

20 5

(a)
ti n An

-2

-1 +
+

Io901of +. +441+4
+++'+

12 +
+ h +Jl JTY -J-_t.: "+"-. '"'.. '_. + ., '.

++ ii,
44

+'-+ Cl) v4+-+ T___

ca + +.:

+ =.,..:_- .., _. loglof

U'2 w'2 U,W

(c)

-2

10910 of
+++++Uw

12

{+
++

++

i+ +a_i._ tJ T
..

;-ii. iy..
+

":.

(d)
CL

1+t ++

{++ V+

++
-+ ta
t+

i+
+T +i +t +

*+

-"-+ +"{4++:. 1V+- ": + ;. ' {-. ""; i+

i++ iii-

.-+
_" ". t ...: ".. +

logiof Figure spectra Energy w. and 5.41 and phase relation for LC-4 case. (a) Energy and cross spectrum u'v'; (b) Phase relation between u' and v'; (c) u'2, v'2 w2 and cross spectrum u'w'; (d) Phase spectra u'2, relation between u' Cross spectrum

199

i -U'2

0. 025 0.020. 015-

VZ

(a)

010. 0

-2

lo0i of

uV

+
+i

'i"'.. 1.'. '.:: -', ',.

to
i 10f +TY+ti"}

+.

44 log

i, t'

-. ''. y;.::.

::.

UP

2 u

015 . 010. 0

(C)

-2

-1

0 loglof

(d)

U) IL
loglof

Figure 5.42

Cross spectrum and phase relation for LC-5 case. (a) Energy cross spectrum uv; (b) Phase relation between u and v' ; (c) spectra u'2, v'2 and w2 and cross spectrum u'w; (d) Phase relation between u' Energy spectra u'2, w. and

200

U. /

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 Y(m) 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6

Figure 5.43

Distributions

of peak frequencies in the cases of LC-1 - LC-5.

3U

25 20

(a)
a

15 10 5 0 0. 2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 Y (m) 0.45 0.5 0.55 0. 6

" u'2

25

20
0

v'2 w'2 y uv x uw
x

"

(b)

15

10 5 "

"
to

w 0 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 Y (m) 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6

Percents ratios of filtered and raw data of u'2 v'2, w'2 uv and Figure 5.44 , , (a) LC-1, (b) LC-2, (c) LC-3, (d) LC-4, (e) LC-5. uw.

201

3U

25

20
JK-j

152 ax 10ff

5-

00.2
30

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4 Y (m)

0.45

0.5

0.55

0.6

25

f u'2 v'2

20

w'2 a; uv

15

X uw
X

lU

WX
a 10 5x i= 0 0.2 0.25 0.3 X"ffx fx Xxfr"

0.35

0.4 Y (m)

0.45

0.5

0.55

0.6

JU 25
20 15 p d 0 10 5 0 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 Y (m) 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6

e 0 (e

Z v,2 w,2 uv Percents ratios of filtered and raw data of u, Figure 5.44 and , 9 W. (a) LC-1, (b) LC-2, (c) LC-3, (d) LC-4, (e) LC-5.

202

(a)
40 35 30 N = 25 c 20 a a
a 15

(b)
40 35
N -30

= 25 c 20 a)

Q15
70% ao%c LG 1 90%0

LL 10 5 0
0.2
--

U- 10 5 0
0.3 0.4 Y (m) 0.5 0.6 0.2
--*70% 80% LG2 90%

0.3

0.4 Y (m)

0.5

0.6

(c)
40 35 30 N = 25 c 20 G) cr15
2

(d)
40 35 30
= 25 Q) 20

Q15
14A LG

LL 10 5 0 0.2 0.3 0.4 Y (m) 0.5 0.6

- -s-8 700/ % LC-3

L 10 U5 0

0.2

0.3

0.4 Y (m)

0.5

0.6

(e)
40 35 .N -. 30
;E-25 c 20 a, X15 IL 10
--70 l 0% LC-5 --F-80/o

5 0

0.2

0.3

X0.4

0.5

0.6

Lateral frequency distributions characterising large eddy for LCFigure 5.45 1- LC-5 cases. (a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2; (c) Case LC-3; (d) Case LC-4; (e) Case LC-5.

203

100 80 60 40
U V U ------- V Raw Raw Filtered Filtered

(a)

20 0 -20 200 150 100 N 50 0 -50

(b)

-100 -150 -200

Figure 5.46 (b) uv.

100 80 , 60

Temporal variations of U, V and uv data for LC-1 case. (a) U, V;

(a)

40 20 0 1f -20 -40 200 150 100 1

rte'
---

Raw V Raw U Filtered V Filtered

Will
20

10

50 0 -50 -100 -150 -200

(b)

Figure 5.47 (b)uv.

Temporal variations of U, V and uv data for LC-2 case. (a) U, V;

204

80 60 C40 lE 20 U

0 (a -20 -40 -60 -80 2000 1600 1200 800 400 0

(b)

-400 -800 -1200 -1600 -2000

Figure 5.48 (b) uv.

100 80 60 in 40 20 0 8 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 2000 1600 1200 800 400 U0 -400 -800 -1200 -1600 -2000

Temporal variations of U, V and uv data for LC-3 case. (a) U, V;

(a)

Raw

Filtered

Figure 5.49 (b) uv.

Temporal

variations of U, V and uv data for LC-4 case. (a) U, V;

205

80 60 40 S20 0 > -20 -40 -60 500 300

1100

(b)

-100
-300 -500

Figure 5.50 (b) uv.

Temporal variations of U, V and uv data for LC-5 case. (a) U, V;

0
-1 C'J -2 -3 a) a

100 90 80 70 60
50 40 0 c 8

Ir

5 -6
-7

30

O -t-

Reynolds stress Contribution

20

10

0
stress and contributions of large eddies for

Reynolds Figure 5.51 LC-1 -- LC-5 cases.

206

Chapter 6 Large Eddy Simulation with TELEMAC

As described in Chapters4-5, the shear effects on the lateral momentum exchange

in the shallow, non-vegetated, compound channel and even in the deep are significant

a vegetated floodplain. The periodic large eddies play an compound channel with important role in the lateral momentum exchange under such flow conditions. To the unsteady flow characteristics in the compound channel, a large eddy explore (LES) was performed with TELEMAC. simulation
Section 6.1 describes the numerical methodology for LES with TELEMAC. Section

6.2 investigates the generation of large eddies and the sensitivity of influencing factors. Section 6.3 presents the main simulation results of smooth, compound, openflows. channel Sections 6.4 and 6.5 illustrate the main simulation results for

flows with emergent and submerged vegetation on the compound, open-channel floodplain. Section 6.6 summarises the LES results of compound open channel flows.

6.1 Numerical methodology

the numerical methodologies for TELEMAC-2D In this section, explained. Section 6.1.1 briefly used in this work are

presents the governing equations Large Eddy modelling system. The

Simulation (LES). Section 6.1.2 describes the TELEMAC

description mainly concerns the 2D Saint-Venant equations, mesh generation, initial boundary conditions, numerical schemes and the data analysis method. Section and 6.1.3 illustrates the simulation methods and simulation cases in this work.

6.1.1 LES governing equations

The essence of LES is the separation of variables like velocity, temperature, pollutant scalars into resolved and unresolved parts (Lesieur et al. 2005). The and other large-scale quantities controlling the turbulent diffusion of momentum or resolved or mass are computed numerically using modified conservation equations. The are not directly computed, but modelled with unresolved or sub-grid quantities sub-grid models. The main advantages of LES is that it can capture the various of the modelled flow better than the Reynolds Averaged Navierunsteady effects

207

Stokes (RANS)

approach and yet does not require such extensive computational

Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS). power as

The LES equationswere describedin detail by Lesieur et al. (1997) and Lesieur et al. (2005). For simplification, the spatial discretization is assumedas cubic and the scale
the grid mesh is assumed as Al in LES. A filter of width Al was characteristic of x, to eliminate the sub-grid scales. Mathematically, the flow variable f t) in the used is converted to the filtered flow variable 7(x, t) by the filter continuous space x function G., (x) as follows:

f f(Y, tK f(x, t)=

(_;

4 4y=

J. f(x-y, tKG Yy

(6.1)

The flow variablef is composedof a filtered variable and fluctuations (f =f+f).

After applying the filter to continuity and momentum equationsfor the incompressible flow, the LES equationscan be obtained asfollows:

aui - =0 axi

(6.2)

au, a--I +axu'"at iJ

aP a au, auJ +- aX+ axi axt +z; +f, -pax,

(6.3)

T. as expressedin Equation 6.4 is the sub-grid stress tensor responsible for where exchangebetweenthe filtered and sub-grid eddies. momentum
To =uu

f-urur

(6.4)

Analogous to the framework

of the Reynolds stress equations for the RANS

the sub-grid stressesare also, in most cases,expressedin terms of eddy equations,

viscosity

dynamic viscosity. The most widely and

used sub-grid model is the

Smagorinsky model developed by Smagorinsky (1963). Similar to the mixing length in RANS equations, Smagorinsky proposed that the sub-grid eddy viscosity concept is proportional to the characteristic sub-grid scale Al and to a characteristic subesE

by expressed Equation 6.5, grid velocity v,,, as VA,= OIISI (6.5)

I-SI,filtered-field deformation tensor, can be expressedby In Equation 6.5, Al and Equations 6.6a and 6.6b respectively. , Al = JixAy Ax and Ay are the grid sizes in the x and y directions respectively. where ISI V2SuSu = (6.6b) (6.6a)

where
01 our auf

S-2 ax,+ax,

(6.7)

The sub-grid eddy viscosity ESE then be determinedusing the Smagorinsky model can in the following form:

] (CCAl)2 ESE _
C. is the Smagorinsky constant and is normally 0.1. where In this work, large eddy simulation was performed with TELEMAC

(6.8)

and the

Smagorinsky model was used to calculate the LES eddy viscosity. In most cases, the

Smagorinsky constant Cs is assumedas 0.1, but in TELEMAC, it can be set as

various values using a subroutine. 6.1.2 TELEMAC modelling system equations

6.1.2.1 2-D Saint-Venant The TELEMAC

modelling system is a set of finite-element-based computer codes for

simulations of free surface flows. Since its development by the National numerical Hydraulics Laboratory of Electricite de France (EDF) in the 1960's, it has been in almost all aspects of hydrodynamics successfully applied to research and practice by more than 60 organizations including Hydraulic Research Wallingford, worldwide UK; National Research Council, Canada and several universities (Hervouet & Van Haren 1996, Hervouet 2000, Rameshwaran & Shiono 2003). Now it has become one the main standard codes in the hydrodynamic modelling field. In this work, the of TELEMAC-2D module was mainly used to predict the 2-D flow structures in the

by solving the 2-D Saint-Venant equations. compound channel

The 2-D Saint-Venant equationsare derived from the Navier-Stokes equations under the following assumptionsand approximations. Firstly, the vertical accelerationcausedby the pressureis assumedto balance gravity, the vertical velocity is then neglectedin the Saint-Venant equations. and Secondly, it is assumedthat there will be no transfer of water either through the bottom or from the free surface. Thirdly, the rule of Leibnitz is mainly used for the derivation of the Saint-Venant Equation 6.9 gives an example of deriving equations. f
z

F(x, y, z)dz.
Z,

aF(x, y, z), y, z)dz =f uz+F(x, ax JF(x, zf

a zj

y, Z)

aZ -F(x, ax

aZf y, z)ax

(6.9)

is the Cartesiancoordinate, F(x,y,z) is the flow variable, Z is the free surface where x
Zf is the bottom elevation and the water depth H is defined as Z-Zf. elevation,

210

Using

the above assumptions and approximations,

continuity

and momentum

for the incompressible flow can be averaged vertically to obtain the 2-D equations Saint-Venant equations as expressed in Equations 6.10 - 6.12. In the 2-D Saint-

Venant equations, the two new componentsof depth-averagedvelocities Ud and Vd by depth averagingand defined by Equation 6.13. are produced
ax+a(xvd)+a (HVd)=o

at ax
a(HUd)

ay
(HUdVd) aZ _ -Hg

(6.10)

at at

+a

(HUdUd )+

ax ,1 ax

ay ay

ax
az

HF'x+ div(HVegrad (Ud )) (6.11) +

.3:

a (HVd )+a

(HUdVd) +a (HVdVd)= -Hg

ax

HFy + div(HVegrad (Vd)) (6.12) +

Ud =f zf

udz

and Vd =H

fvdz zf

(6.13)

are the longitudinal and lateral directions respectively, Fx and FY are where x and y forces per unit volume in the x and y directions respectively, and ve is the the
depth-averaged eddy viscosity. effective

6.1.2.2 Mesh generation

In TELEMAC, the finite-element, unstructured, triangular mesh is generated by a pre-

software called MATISSE. The bathymetric and coastline data files in the processing format are generated first by running data2mat. exe. In MATISSE, the channel sinusx

is then built automatically once bathymetric data and coastline data are geometry imported. The mesh can be generatedby setting compute criteria once the coastline is has been defined as a contour line type. The mesh can be refined connected and
locally with required element sizes in the areas of interest, such as the junction of the and the floodplain and steep sloped banks, and the mesh in other areas main channel be coarse. Various can element sizes will avoid the spurious topographical

interpolation and also make the computation less expensive.

211

For channels with emergent vegetation, the emergent vegetation in the mesh can be

by using the function for creating simple geometry in the "Geometric lines" generated defining the rod lines as contour lines. For channels with submerged mode and the vegetation has to be generatedfrom the bathymetric data file and the vegetation, has to be replacedby steep sloped ones. This replacing treatment vertical vegetation difficulty when refining the local element sizes. will pose a
The resolution of the mesh size can be determined based on the Courant number During the simulations, the Courant number (Cr) concept. was set within the range

0.1 - 0.4 to ensure stable computation. The initial grid size criteria (Al., ) in the longitudinal direction can be roughly determined by Equation 6.14 using a Courant triangular mesh

of 0.25 and a time step of 0.Ols. Using the criteria of Al, number

be generated with MATISSE software and the actual values of grid size in the will longitudinal direction might differ from Al,,. The Courant number (Cr) for each time is calculated automatically with TELEMAC based on the actual value of grid size step in the longitudinal direction. The actual time step can be adjusted manually and set as value during the simulation according to the actual Courant number (Cr ). a constant
U. OZ At

Cr U,, is the mean streamwisevelocity and At is the time step. where

(6.14)

The mesh resolution influences the simulation results (Hardy et al. 1999) and this
be discussed later in this chapter. effect will

6.1.2.3 Boundary and initial conditions

The boundaries of an open channel flow consist of inlet, outlet, sidewalls, bottom and free surface. The boundary conditions need to be specified along these boundaries. The boundary condition file is generated by MATISSE, which gives information on the inlet, outlet and wall conditions. As an initial condition, the free water surface was to the channel bed. set parallel

212

At the inlet, the constant flow rate is given and the unknown free water depth is set as At the outlet, the constant water level is given and the unknown free flow rate is zero. On the channel bed and sidewalls, the slip (friction) boundary condition is set as zero. because this condition does not require very fine mesh near the walls and usually used influence of boundary layer is limited to the region near the side walls (Nadaoka the & Yagi 1998). For the narrow channel in this work, the non-slip boundary condition to compare the results of using different boundary conditions on the was also used sidewalls.

Slip and non-slip boundary conditions can be imposed by MATISSE. Slip boundary be expressedby Equation 6.15 (Nadaoka & Yagi 1998). For non-slip condition can boundary condition, the longitudinal velocity U and lateral velocity V on the wall are
zero.

aU

ay

0, V=0, on the wall =

(6.15)

dimensional flow, the bed friction is usually given by Equation 6.16a. The For two friction factor cf is rarely used and it is usually replaced by Chazy coeddicient c,

Manning coefficient n or equivalent roughness height kS. Equations 6.16b - 6.16d these the Chezy's law, Manning's law and Nikuradse's law in TELEMAC-2D show The friction coefficients are to be specified as constant values in the respectively. file or to be specified as various values by modifying the "STRCHE" steering "CORSTR" subroutines. or

z=2pcfIUIU

(6.16a)

C=

2i
Cf

(6.16b)

c=7.8311og

k 12 T

(6.16c)

213

2gn2 cf- H/3

(6.16d)

is the bed shearstressvector, p is the fluid density, cf is the friction factor, where r U is the velocity vector and H is the water depth. 6.1.2.4 Advection scheme
In TELEMAC-2D, the solution algorithm is based on the operator-splitting technique

its detailed description can be found in Hervouet and Haren (1996). The solution and includes two steps: the discretization of the advection terms and the algorithm discretization of the diffusion terms. The first step starts from solving the non2-D Saint-Venant equations in depth and velocity. The discretization of conservative scheme can be treated with various advection schemes and the Method the advection Characteristics (MOC) is the default scheme in TELEMAC of (Hervouet and Haren

1996; Janin et al. 1997). The latter is treated using the finite element variational (Janin et al. 1997). method Based on studies carried out by Hervouet and Haren (1996), Janin et al. (1997), Morvan (2002) and Rameshwaran and Shiono (2003), the Method of Characteristics (MOC), streamline Upwind Peterov-Galekin (SUPG) formulation and MURD scheme here. In the MOC scheme, the flow variable f at time t"+' at the node are summarised M is assumed to be equal to that at time t" at the node Q obtained by retracing backwards the trajectory from point M by going back in time interval dt. The MOC is fastest scheme to disctretize the advection problem, but it induces large advection the due to the linear interpolation, which is not good for mass conservation. In the error SUPG scheme, each term of a conservative equation can be treated by using test functions bent in the flow direction. The additional diffusion stabilising term in the SUPG scheme gives more weight to the element moving forward and greatly

the mass conservation. The MURD scheme is similar to, but more stable enhances than the SUPG scheme. The above investigations were all made using RANS modelling. In this work, the the MOC, SUPG and MURD schemes on the LES results have not been effects of investigated to date and therefore are investigated here.

214

6.1.2.5 Data analysing method For RANS modelling, the steady, uniform flow is achieved if the slope of the free is equal to that of the channel bed and the default value of the variable surface difference between two time steps is 10-4 in TELEMAC. The data at the final time be used for analysis. step can For LES, the simulation is unsteady and the mean data are obtained by timetime-space averagingmethods. In the smooth cases,for flow variable averaging and
f(x, y, t), the mean value f
r..

a were calculated with the time-space and variance f

r"

(Bousmar 2002) and are expressed by Equations 6.17a and 6.175b averaging method

while in the vegetatedcasesthey were calculatedby Equations 6.18a and respectively, 6.18b respectively.

7(Y)=TLE (x,y,t) .f
"(Y) z -TL IJ (x, Y, t)-7(Y)l

(6.17a)

(6.17b)

f (Y) = -If

(Y, t)

(6.18a)

f-2(y) =1z

f Y, ) -_(Y)l

z (6.18b)

f is the flow variable, x and y are the longitudinal and lateral directions where t is the time, T is the total time period for averaging and L is the respectively, length of the computation domain.
In this work, the value of T was chosen as 50s, the values of L for cases STC-1,

FCF020201 and LC-2 were chosenas 1 in (x =8 -9 m), 10 in (x = 45 - 55 m) and 1 in

(x = 6.4 - 7.4 m) respectively.

215

6.1.3 Simulation

cases

In this work, 2D-LES simulations were carried out for four smooth-channel cases, one emergent vegetation case and one submerged vegetation case. Large eddy generation and unsteady flow characteristics were first studied for the compound channel with a relative water depth of 0.24. The detailed small, smooth, flow conditions of the shallow case STC-1 are listed in Tables channel geometry and 3.3 and 4.1, respectively. To study the impact of the mesh resolution on the LES three meshes of different resolutions were generated and are presented in results, Figure 6.1. To simplify simulation and save time, fine mesh MS2 was used first. In MS2, the longitudinal mesh resolution is uniformly 0.02 m and the lateral mesh mesh 0.0052 m near the MC-FP junction and 0.0075 m in other areas. resolutions are Further sensitivity tests were undertaken using the finer mesh MS 1. The mesh details for various simulation cases are listed in Table 6.1.

After the above simulations, LES was performed for the large-scale smooth flume at UK Flood ChannelFacility (FCF) with a relative water depth of 0.15. The detailed the and flow conditions of the shallow caseFCF020201 can be found channel geometry in Shiono and Knight (1991). Figure 6.2 shows the mesh for caseFCF020201.
To study the flow characteristics in the compound channel with one-line emergent along the floodplain edge, 2D-LES was performed for case STC-4. The vegetation detailed channel geometry and flow conditions of case STC-4 are listed in Table 3.3 Table 4.1, respectively. Finer mesh MS4, as shown in Figure 6.3a for a one-metre and domain, was first generated to study the flow plunge around the rods. Coarser mesh MS5, as shown in Figure 6.3b, was then used for the whole compound channel. For 2D-LES was also performed for the smooth STC-3 with Dr = 0.50 using comparison, MS 1. mesh To study the flow characteristics in the compound channel with submerged vegetation the floodplain, 2D-LES was performed for the LC-4 case. The detailed channel on flow conditions of case LC-4 are listed in Table 3.3 and Table 5.1, geometry and To study the effects of mesh resolution on the LES results of the respectively. LES was first performed under relative water depth Dr = 0.51 in the submerged case,

216

large, trapezoidal, compound channel and Figures 6.4a-. g show the meshes for the test case LTCT. Based on the preliminary test results, the appropriate mesh resolution was to generate the mesh for case LC-4 as shown in Figure 6.5. For comparison, 2Dused LES was also performed for the smooth LC-2 with Dr = 0.50 using mesh ML3 as

in Figure 6.6. Experimental data from Shiono and Knight (1991) were used to shown
the LES results for case FCF020201. Experimental data collected in this work verify

used to verify the LES results of other cases. were Table 6.1
Cases

Mesh details for various LES simulation cases

Mesh Total elements Total nodes

MS1 STC-1 MS2 MS3 STC-3 FCF020201 STC-4 MS 1 FCFO MS4a MS4b M5a M5b M5c LTCT M5d M5e M5f M5g LC-4 LC-2 M6 M7

89890 51639 33570 89890 58110 28892 64790 39880 40178 59570 59118 59780 59122 59172 89898 43095

45959 26445 17217 45959 29510 14792 34204 20322 20471 30269 30043 30374 30044 30070 45428 24518

6.2 LES for the smooth, compound-channel 6.2.1 Eddy evolution

flow

As suggested by Tamai et al. (1986) and Chu et al. (1991), large eddy generation is a dynamic process due to the shear instability of a lateral velocity profile with an
N

217

inflection point and is influenced by bed friction and other flow conditions. To obtain basic knowledge performed about large eddy generation, a large eddy simulation was first

for case STC-1 using Mesh MS2. For meshes MS1 and MS3, the

longitudinal mesh resolutions are 0.01 m and 0.03 m respectively, and the lateral mesh are same as those of mesh MS2. The simulation time for the evolution test resolutions t= 463 s. To make simulation simple, the method of characteristic (MOC) was was first used for the advection of velocity and water depth variables whilst a slip

boundary condition was imposed on the sidewalls. 'Figure 6.7 shows the velocity field for case STC-1 from t= 30 s to t= 150 s. Figure 6.8 gives the velocity field in a moving frame with the MC-FP junction velocity. The MC-FP junction velocity was obtained by averaging the velocities from the position large eddies were generated to the channel outlet at the MC-FP junction edge. where Figure 6.9 depicts the vorticity (S2 = Dv/ax - aul ay) field. In Figures 6.8 - 6.9, the x the actual distance from the channel inlet. The evolution of eddy axis represents can be described by these figures. generation

At t= 30 s (Figure 6.7a), the velocity field is uniform and no fluctuations are visible. At t= 50 s (Figure 6.7b), some weak flow meandering appearsaround the MC-FP junction at about 8.5 m downstream from the inlet. The location of meandering moves upstream as the simulation time increases.It can also be seenthat the velocity from around x=6m at t= 100 s and x=5.2 m at t flow meanderingappears periodic 150 s (Figures 6.7c -- 6.7d). =
Corresponding to the wavy velocity fields, the periodic large eddies can be clearly identified from the subtracted velocity fields (Figure 6.8). At t= 30 s, no eddies can be seen. At t= 50 s, small weak eddies are visible at around x=8m generated from around x=8.6 eddies are m at t =100 s and around x=5.2 and large strong

in. Large eddies appear from around x=6.4

m at t =150 s.

Large eddies in the shear layer are characterised as the vorticity. The locations of large eddies coincide well with those of the velocity fluctuations, so the vorticity fields near the outlet of the channel are studied to see the eddy generation. As seen from Figure 6.9, high positive vorticity values occur at the MC-FP junction at t= 30 s, but no fluctuations can be seen, which indicates that the shear layer is limited to a

218

at the junction at this stage. At t= narrow sheet vorticity be seen from around x=8m can

50 s, remarkable fluctuations of

and the fluctuation zone occupies most of

which indicates that the shear layer begins to develop. As the run the channel width, increases, the vortices begin to merge into larger ones and this can be seen from time Figures 6.9c and 6.9d. This agrees with the statement given by Bousmar (2002) that final growth of large eddies is restricted by the sidewalls in the compound channel the flows.

From the above results, large eddies are first generateddownstream and then move It can also be seen that there is a minimum length and a time period for upstream. large eddy generation,but the detailed values of thesein generalcannot be determined they dependon the flow and simulation conditions. since Once large eddies are generated,the appreciablefluctuations of velocities, free water water depths and vortices can be easily recognised.Figures 6.10a - 6.10e surfaces, the 2D perspective profiles of longitudinal velocity U, lateral velocity V, show depth and free surface at the MC-FP junction between t= 450 s and t vorticity, water 455 s for caseSTC-1. It is clear that thesevariables begin to fluctuate from aroundx = well with the results for the velocity and vorticity fields. This =5m which coincides that a minimum length of 5m is required for large eddy generation under confirms this simulation condition. Compared with other parameters,the oscillation of the lateral velocity V at the junction edge is easierto identify, so the lateral velocity V at junction edgewas chosenas an indirect parameterfor identifying large eddies. the Figure 6.11 shows the streamwiseadvection of large eddiesbetween t= 450 s and t= 453 s for caseSTC-1. The core of large eddiesmoves from x=8.375 m at t= 450 s to t= 453 s, so the mean relative advection speedof large eddies is 0.15 x=8.825 m at Is. The mean velocity at the interface between t= 450 s and t= 453 s is 0.135 m/s. m It can be seenthat large eddiesmove at a speedof about 0.285 m/s.
6.2.2 Flow fluctuations 6.2.2.1 Spatial distributions For fully-developed, uniform flow without large eddies, the flow variables, such as and free surface, remain relatively constant in the channel. In the cases of velocity

219

flows with large eddies, the flow variables vary periodically with time and channel the local values of flow variables differ from those from RANS modelling. space and The maximum local velocity and bed shear stress can be estimated from the LES the safety factor can then be selected to consider the maximum values of results and level and bed shear stress for use in engineering design along with the proper water for effective, practical, river management. This might be one of the measures important considerations when applying LES to practical engineering issues. Figures 6.12a - 6.12 e show the spatial distributions of longitudinal velocity, lateral velocity, free surface and bed shear stress at t= 450 s in case STC-1. In Figure 6.12, vorticity, and bed shear stress are normalised by the measured bulk velocity U. the velocity Ir the measured overall boundary shear stress respectively. The effects of large and the hydraulic behaviour can be described as follows. eddies on In Figure 6.12a, obvious wavy distributions of velocity U can be recognised near the MC-FP junction. Three high-velocity zones can also be seen near the sidewall of the three low-velocity zones occur near the sidewall of the floodplain. main channel and In Figure 6.12b, positive and negative velocity zones exist alternately around the MCFP junction and this indicates that there are periodic motions in this region. It can be n The parameter of UV is important for engineering issues. Figure 6.12c shows the distributions of UV. Positive and negative values of UV exist alternately near spatial MC-FP junction, which is similar to the distribution of V as shown in Figure the 6.12b, and the value of UV/U; falls in the range of -20 - 15. It can also be seen that that the maximum values of UIU, seen and V/U, reach 1.50 and 0.18 respectively. n pr

UV at the junction edge is slightly smaller than that away the the magnitude of junction this is because the magnitude of velocity edge and V is larger on the

floodplain than in the main channel near the MC-FP junction. In Figure 6.12d, there are three high-vorticity cores at the MC-FP junction edge and

the longitudinal locations of these cores coincide well with those where the peak and low values of velocity U exist. This can be explained by reference to the velocity gradient

rau)
Y

At the longitudinal location where the peak and low velocity zones .

y exist, the velocity gradient

at the junction

edge is higher than that in other

the shear is then strongerthan that in other areas.At the same time, the shear areas, is positively related to the value of vorticity. strength
In Figure 6.12e, the regions of low free surfaces roughly correspond to those of highvorticity Nadaoka and Yagi cores. (1998) also observed this phenomena and

that it is caused by the horizontal large eddies. suggested

The bed shear stress ib is calculated from velocities, water depth and Manning (zb = pgn2 coefficient (U 2)h-'13). Among these variables, velocity U is much +V

larger, especially in the main channel, so the bed shear stressis more influenced by U. In other words, the bed shearstressvaries in the samemanner as velocity velocity U and this can be seenfrom Figure 6.12a and 6.12f. The variations of vorticity, velocity, bed shear stress and water depth will be further in Sections6.2.2.2 - 6.2.2.3. analysed 6.2.2.2 Variations of variables along the MC-FP junction The variations of variables along the MC-FP junction are shown in Figure 6.13 the subtractedvelocity field and vorticity field at t= 450 s. together with In Figure 6.13a, the high-vorticity zones correspond to the cores of large eddies the MC-FP junction and this indicates that the shear is stronger in the core around large eddiesthan in other parts of the flow domain. Figure 6.13b shows the region of variations in detail along the MC-FP junction. The peak locations of vorticity vorticity to the longitudinal positions of eddy cores.The value of the approximately correspond by l00h/U,,, rangesfrom around 5 to around 20 along the edge, vorticity normalised o
h and Umo are the averaged values of water depth and longitudinal velocity where the edge of 7m <x<9 along in. The positive sign of 100S2h/U,,, indicates that there 0

is a counter-clockwise circulation along the edge, which is consistent with the sign in Figure 6.13a. The wavy distribution of normalised vorticity indicates that shown the shear strength varies along the edge, which corresponds to the lateral distribution

221

longitudinal velocity as shown in Figure 6.12a. These results further confirm that of be usedto identify the existenceof large eddies. the vorticity can
Figure 6.13c shows the longitudinal variations of longitudinal velocity U; lateral

V and bed shear stress rb. In Figure 6.13c, the velocity and bed shear stress velocity by the averaged longitudinal velocity (U,,, and bed shear stress (2',,, ) are normalised 0) 0 the edge to show the variation along the edge. The variation range of U/U, no; along V/U,,,o and rb Iz,,,o are 85 - 120 %, -30 - 15 % and 60 - 140 % respectively. The the normalized bed shear stress is similar to that of the normalized trend of longitudinal velocity and this has been explained in Section 6.2.2.1. It can be seen that bed shear stress varies more than the longitudinal velocity and this is because the the bed shear stress has a relationship to the square of the longitudinal velocity.

Figure 6.13d shows the variation of the secondarycurrent term (pUV) normalised by The value of the secondarycurrent term (pUV ) bed shearstress(z,, the averaged 0). from around -60 z, to 30 r0 Compared with the variation of the lateral ranges . no in Figure 6.13c, the secondary current term varies in a similar velocity as shown to that of the lateral velocity V and this indicates that the lateral velocity is manner decisive to the secondarycurrent term. As shown in Figure 6.13e, the water depth normalised by the averagedwater depth the edge (H, varies in the same manner as the velocity U, but its variation along 80) is limited to 94 - 106 %. range 6.2.2.3 Time series of variables Figure 6.14 further shows the time series of the longitudinal velocity (U), the lateral (V), bed shearstress(zb ),the secondarycurrent term (pUV) and water depth velocity (H) at an interface point 8.6 m downstreamfrom the inlet. In this figure, the velocity
is normalised by the time-averaged longitudinal velocity (U,. 0), the bed shear stress the secondary current term are normalised by the time-averaged bed shear stress and the water depth is normalised by the time-averaged water depth. and

222

U/Umo,and Tb/ z, are 80 120 %, From Figure 6.14a, the variation ranges of U/U,no, o 15 % and 64 - 133 % respectively, which are a little different to those of the -25 range as shown in Figure 6.13c. From Figure 6.14b, the value of the spatial variation current term (pUV) secondary ranges from around -60 r,,,o to 30 r ., which is the

the spatial variation range as shown in Figure 6.13d. From Figure 6.14c, the same as range of H/H, no is 96 - 104 % which is 2% smaller than the spatial one as variation in Figure 6.13e. Based on these results, in the smooth, compound-channel case, shown the spatial variation range of the flow variable is similar to the temporal one. In Figure 6.14a, the three local positions of low velocity U can be recognised to occur at t= 451 s, t= 454.3 s and t= 458.5 s. The two corresponding time intervals`of

of low velocity U are 3.3 s and 4.2 s and the two characteristic adjacent positions frequencies can be determined as 0.30 Hz (=1 / 3.3 s) and 0.24 Hz (=1 / 4.2 s). The frequency is 0.27 Hz. These results indicate that the large average characteristic downstream under this flow condition are low frequency. eddies

6.2.3 Sensitivity analyses of eddy generation 6.2.3.1 Generation problem and analysing method
Large eddy simulation was performed for case STC-2 using the same numerical case STC-1. However, large eddies were not generated until t= 450 s. method as with The necessary run-time for eddy generation depends on the various cases. Bousmar (2002) suggested that the minimum time step should be 50,000, so the minimum run for case STC-2 could be 250 s using time step 0.005 s in this case. Thomas & time Willams (1995) suggested the necessary time can be 23H/U, where H is the water ,

depth in the main channel and U. is the average shear velocity, so the minimum run time for case STC-2 could be 79 s. To investigate large eddy generation, a series of tests for case STC-1 were carried out using TELEMAC-2D. sensitivity for tests a-c conditions are listed in Table 6.2. Numerical

As shown in Section 6.2.1, large eddies can be easily seen from the velocity field in a frame with the MC-FP junction velocity. The effect of the time step was first moving by using this method. evaluated

223

As explained in Section 6.2.1, the velocity V profiles at the MC-FP junction can also be used to identify large eddies. To simplify the analysis, the effects of other factors

this method.The main criteria were selectedas the run time (T, were evaluated with s)
the longitudinal and longitudinal distance (XS) of the first fluctuation of velocity V and the distance (Xf) of the final fluctuations of velocity V. The final run time

300 s or more after the run time of the first fluctuation of velocity V. was selected as

Table 6.2 Test series Time Step(s) Mesh Boundary condition Advection scheme

Sensitivity test conditions for caseSTC-1 a 0.0025,0.005, 0.001 MS2 Slip MS1, MS2, MS3 Slip b ... '0.005 c 0.005 MS1 Non Slip

MOC

MOC

MOC, SUPG

6.2.3.2 Results Figure 6.15 shows the velocity fields in a moving frame with the MC-FP junction for the time step test. For tests b-c, the results of T. and X3are shown in velocity Figure 6.16 and the results of Xf are shown in Figure 6.17. From Figure 6.15, large eddieswere generatedfrom around x=2.5 m at run time t= 525 s, using smaller time stepsof 0.0025 s and 0.005 S. Using a larger time step of from around x=5.25 m at t= 525 s. This indicates 0.01 s, large eddieswere generated eddy generation.In the following tests, smaller the smaller time step encourages that
were used to keep the Courant number around 0.1 - 0.2. time steps Figures 6.16a - 6.16c, the values of TSfor three meshes are all 40 s, the values of X, In MS1, MS2 and MS3 are 6 in, 7 in and 7 in respectively and the values of using meshes

Xf at t= 450 s using meshesMS1, MS2 and MS3 are 4.2 m, 4.5 m and 5.5 m
At t= 450 s, the wavy profiles of the lateral velocity V can all be seen respectively.

224

different meshes and the periodic patterns can be identified. Moreover, the V using using the finer mesh MS 1 is more regular than when using the other two pattern The characteristic frequency using mesh MS 1 is slightly smaller than for the meshes. two meshes and this indicates that the flow structure can be better captured other the finer mesh MS1. Bousmar (2002) also reported that the finer mesh is better using for large eddy simulation. In the following tests, the finer mesh (MS 1) was then used.

The effects of boundary condition on eddy generationcan be seenfrom Figures 6.16c

6.16d and Figures 6.17c and 6.17d. Although the same fine mesh resolution was and the value difference in X. and Ts can be clearly seen under slip and non-slip used, boundary conditions. The . value of X3 is 9m under non-slip conditions (Figure

6.16d), which is 3m longer than under slip conditions. The value of Ts under non-slip is also 160s later than under the slip conditions (Figure 6.16d). The conditions of V are also smaller during the eddy generation under non-slip boundary magnitudes conditions. This indicates that the slip boundary condition is better for eddy

near the MC-FP junction than the non-slip boundary condition when the generation other numerical simulation conditions are the same.

From Figures 6.16d and 6.16e, using the SUPG scheme,the values of XS and Ts are
5m and 160 s smaller than using the MOC scheme. The values of Xf using the

SUPG scheme is around 2 in, which is 5m smaller than using the MOC scheme. The V using the SUPG scheme is the largest among all the tests. This magnitudes of indicates that the SUPG scheme encourages the eddy generation.

6.2.3.3 Discussions Large eddies are usually generatedunder strong lateral velocity gradient and weak
bed friction conditions (Chu et al. 1991). Eddy generation is a dynamic process influenced by many factors and large eddies can also be destroyed. It will take some time and a significant length for large eddies to be generated in compound channels the proper running times and development lengths vary with cases. Numerically, and boundary conditions (PBC) with random disturbance at the inlet are usually periodic to LES. However, the technique of imposing these boundary and initial applied

225

conditions

is currently

not available

in TELEMAC.

The running

time

and

development length for eddy generation could be longer than using other LES codes. The effects of mesh resolution on the eddy generation can be explained from the point If a larger mesh size is used, more energy will be of view of an energy cascade. dissipated as the sub-grid turbulence and less energy will be contained by large Meanwhile, eddies. large eddies are generated from smaller scale to larger ones

some of them will be destroyed by other factors, it will take more time gradually and longer distances to develop the eddies with characteristic length-scales larger than and the grid sizes. The effects of boundary conditions on the eddy generation can also be explained from energy dissipation. If the slip boundary condition is imposed on the the viewpoint of most energy will be dissipated due to the lateral shear near the MC-FP sidewalls, junction. On the contrary, under the non-slip condition, energy will be dissipated due lateral shear near the MC-FP junction and the sidewalls, so less energy will be to the lost near the MC-FP junction and this indicates that the shear near the MC-FP

junction will be weaker than under the slip condition. In other words, large eddies are to generate under the slip boundary condition. easier

As described in Section 6.1.2.4, the MOC schemeis more advective and can induce error. The characteristicsof the MOC schememake this schemeless more advection in solving diffusive terms and in predicting lateral momentum exchange. effective The development length of eddy generation is usually larger than using other SUPG is less diffusive, which encourages eddy generation, and so advection schemes. large eddies can be generatedin a shorter time period and computation length than advection schemes. Also the effects of the SUPG scheme on eddy using other seenin Figures 6.16d and 6.16e and 6.17d and 6.17e. generationare very clearly
The time step influences the stability of the numerical computation. A small time step is good for the stable numerical computation and for the gradual development of Under larger time-step conditions, it usually takes a longer time for the eddies.

larger eddies because larger eddies are formed by the merging of generation of smaller eddies.

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6.2.4 LES results of caseSTC-1 For the smooth, compound-channel caseSTC-1, Figures 6.18 and 6.19 show the LES
the slip and the non-slip boundary conditions respectively. In Figure results using 6.18, the effect of the mesh resolution on the LES results is illustrated. In Figure 6.19,

the effect of the advection schemeon the LES results is shown. 6.2.4.1 Mesh resolution Figure 6.18a shows the distributions of the longitudinal velocity (U) normalised by
bulk velocity (U,,, ) using three mesh resolutions. It can be clearly seen the measured that the predicted longitudinal velocity is independent of the mesh resolution in this The predicted velocity U profiles differ from the experimental ones. Predicted case. longitudinal velocities from LES are larger at 0< y<0.09 m and smaller at 0.09< y<

0.306 m than the experimental ones. Under relative water depth 0.25, the velocity error is similar to that of Ifuku and Shiono (2004). In this case, the MC-FP prediction junction is located at y=0.156 m. Bousmar (2002) also found the predicted and

longitudinal

from 2D-LES were underestimated on the floodplain velocities

that this is due to the development of helical secondary currents. As shown suggested in Section 4.1, the measurement error was within 3%. The larger simulation error from the imposing of slip wall condition because the wall effect is could come important in the narrow channels and the 2D numerical code usually works relatively in the wide channel cases, i. e. the aspect ratio of B/H well is larger than 10. Another

reason for the velocity prediction error in Figures 6.18 -. 6.19 is that the possible lateral shear is under-predicted and the insufficient shear could be caused by the

Smagorinsky model. Appropriate Smagorinaky constant requires further investigation. Figure 6.18b shows the profiles of UV normalised by U. using various mesh Using the three meshes, the magnitude of UV ranges from U; to 1.5 resolutions. -1.5 U*', but the trend of UV for Mesh MS 1 was the closest to that of Shiono and Knight (1991) and this indicates that the mesh resolution has a big effect on the flow Finer mesh is required to capture the correct flow structures for this case. simulation.

227

Figures 6.18c and 6.18d show the shearstress(z, ) due to large eddies and the shear (rSE) due to the small eddies respectively. r stress
Equations 4.19a and 4.19b respectively.

and VsEare calculated with

zLX=111:

(U-UXV -V)

E(U-UxV or v. =I

-V)

(4.19a)

ZSE = POSE

-auay

(4.19b)

ESEis the meansub-grid eddy viscosity. where

t!

Both kinds of shear stresses dip at the MC-FP junction indicating the strongest shear. The magnitude of zLE using 1cm mesh resolution are larger than those using coarser this can be explained by the captured characteristic eddy sizes. Using meshes and finer mesh resolutions, the characteristic size of captured large eddies covers a wider all the large eddies of various characteristic sizes contribute to r, range and magnitude of r so the

is larger. It can also be seen that the magnitude of 'SE are smaller

than 0.1 U2 using various mesh resolutions. Using mesh MS 1, the magnitude of z *
is about 10 times of zsE. This indicates that the effect of the sub-grid eddies can be in LES under this shallow-water condition., which makes the LES simpler. neglected Figure 6.18e shows that the predicted bed shear stress profiles are also similar to the of the logitudinal velocity. predicted profiles Figure 6.18f shows that there is a good correlation between the free surface and the especially using the small grid size of 1cm. Large variation of the free vorticies, be seen near the MC-FP junction where large eddies are generated. Using surface can larger grid size, the filter size is larger and eddies of larger sizes might be captured then the flow variation is stronger. This indicates that the mesh size influences the and of free surface. variation As shown in Table 6.3, the mass balance values for various meshes are between 0.4 % 2.2 %. The mass balance value is defined as the percent of the ratio of the predicted

228

discharge to the prescribeddischarge.Although the flow is uniform, the mass balance

higher than the normal criterion of 1 % for RANS modelling. values are

Table 6.3

Mass balance values under various numerical conditions Slip-lcmSlip-2cmMOC 2.2 Slip-3cmMOC 0.4 Non-sliplcm-MOC 1.3 Non-sliplcm-SUPG 0.9

Conditions Mass Balance

Values %

MOC 1.3

l.,

6.2.4.2 Boundary condition

,.,

Using mesh MS1 and the MOC advection scheme,the effect of the slip and the nonboundary conditions on the LES results can be seenfrom Figures 6.18 and 6.19. slip The predicted longitudinal velocity using the non-slip boundary condition as shown in
Figure 6.19a agrees with the experimental data better than using the slip boundary

in Figure 6.18a. Predicted bed shear stress varies in a similar condition as shown to the predicted longitudinal velocity. manner
Figures 6.18c and 6.19c show that the magnitude of the shear stress due to the large is only slightly larger using the slip boundary condition than using the non-slip eddies boundary condition. The peak magnitudes of rL. at the MC-FP junction are -0.71 U. E the slip boundary condition and -0.58 U: for the non-slip condition. This is using because the shear is weaker in using the non-slip boundary condition than using the boundary condition. From Figures 6.18b and 6.19b, the magnitude ranges of UV slip the slip and non-slip boundary conditions are similar. using

Based on the above results, the flow prediction in caseSTC-1 is better using the nonboundary condition than using the slip boundary condition. slip
6.2.4.3 Advection scheme

Using mesh MS 1 and the non-slip boundary condition, the effect of the advection
is further investigated. Figure 6.19a shows that the longitudinal velocity is scheme better predicted in the main channel and y<0.2 m on the floodplain using the SUPG

229

than using the MOC scheme. As the main channel conveys the major portion scheme the channel discharge, the velocity is better predicted using the SUPG scheme than of using the MOC scheme. Figure 6.19c shows that the peak magnitude of the predicted z, using the SUPG

is about two times larger than that using the MOC scheme. Figure 6.19d scheme that the magnitudes of the predicted rsE using the SUPG and the MOC shows are almost the same. The shear stresses due to the large eddies and the small schemes of the apparent shear stress. The sum of r, eddies consist junction and rsE at the MC-FP

the SUPG scheme better matches the calculated value of Reynolds using

in Figure 4.14. The magnitude ranges of UV using the SUPG and the stress as shown MOC schemes are similar.

Figure 6.19e shows that the bed shear stress is better predicted near the MC-FP junction and this indicates that the flow characteristics due to large eddies can be better capturedby using the SUPG scheme. Figure 6.19f shows that the time-averaged free surface fluctuates also across the the variation is stronger for SUPG schemethan for MOC scheme.Table section and 6.3 shows that the massbalance is better for SUPG schemethan for MOC scheme. This coincides with the statementsin Section 6.1.2.4. Using MOC scheme,the mass balance is better for the non-slip condition than for the slip condition in this case. In conclusion, the above results indicate that the SUPG scheme is better than the
MOC scheme in this case. The SUPG scheme is used in the following LES cases. 6.2.5 LES results for the smooth FCF case 020201 For the FCF case 020201, the channel is wide and the sidewalls have little effect on the numerical simulation results (Bousmar 2002), so the slip boundary condition was in this case. To obtain the mean value of the flow variable, the computation used length was selected as 10 m (x = 45 - 55m) and the time period was selected as 50 s (t 450 - 500 s). =

230

Figure 6.20a shows that the mean values of U are larger in the main channel and on the floodplain than the experimental data which is similar to Bousmar smaller (2002). The slope of the predicted U profile near the MC-FP junction is steeper than that from experimental data and this indicates that less momentum-exchange took in LES for this case. The predicted bed shear stress profile as shown in Figure place 6.20b is similar to that of the longitudinal velocity. Figure 6.20c shows the shear stresses due to large eddies and small eddies and Reynolds shear stresses. The space-time averaging of velocities u and v measured predictions of the shear stresses. The highest values of rLz appeared close gives good to tJe MC-FP junction. Although the predicted and measured values are,.slightly different, they are of the same magnitude. 6.3 LES for the vegetated, compound-channel 6.3.1 Emergent vegetation case flow

6.3.1.1 Spatial flow fluctuations Unlike the smooth compound channel,large eddy generationwas first concernedwith the wake generationaroundthe emergentrods and abovethe submergedrods and then the eddy generationin the main channel and on the floodplain. on
To study the wake generation for the emergent-rod case STC-4, a fine mesh of uniform grid size 0.005 m as shown in Figure 6.3a was constructed for a small

domain with a length of 1 m. Figures 6.21a - 6.21d show the velocity computation fields between t=0.1 s and t=3s. When the flow goes through the rods, wakes are

formed near the rods (Figure 6.21a) and the wavy velocity field is visible near the (Figures 6.21b). As the simulation runs (Figures 6.21c - 6.21d), the flow goes rods from the main channel to the floodplain and from the floodplain to the alternately main channel. Figures 6.22a - 6.22g show the instantaneous profiles of the velocity vector, vorticity, bed shear stress and free surface at t= 495 s for case STC-4. Figure 6.22a velocity, the meandering-flow pattern becomes regular in the main channel, around the shows the floodplain (Figure 6.22a). From Figures 6.22a and 6.22c, the higher rods and on

231

U occurs in the centre regions of the main channel and the floodplain, while velocity the lower velocity U occurs around the emergent rods and near the wall regions. Figure 6.22d shows that positive and negative values for velocity V occur alternately this indicates the existence of periodic motions, but the highest magnitude of and

V, which correspondsto the strongestshear, occurs at the central parts of the velocity the floodplain as well as around the rods. In the smooth caseSTC-1, main channel and highest magnitude of velocity V only occurs at around the MC-FP junction. the Figure 6.22b shows the spatial distribution of the vorticity. Positive and negative alternately along the rods and this correspondsto the flow moving vorticities occur in this region. In the left main channeland on the right floodplain, the vorticity pattern is positive which correspondsto the distributions of U and V. On the contrary, in the and on the left floodplain, the vorticity is negative. right main channel
6.22e shows that the secondary current term UV varies in a similar manner to Figure V, so the distribution of this term in the emergent case STC-4 is different the velocity in the smooth case STC-1. However, the secondary current term UV varies in a to that to that of the velocity V and this indicates that the velocity V is also similar manner decisive for the secondary current term, which is the same as for the smooth case STC-1. Figure 6.22f shows that the bed shear stress is higher in the centre regions of the floodplain and lower around the rods. This indicates that the the main channel and make the bed shear stress distribution different to that in the emergent rods also STC-1 and this difference is caused by the drag effect. smooth case 6.22g shows that the fluctuation of the free surface is also different to that in Figure STC-1. In this emergent case, the lower and higher values of the free the smooth case in the centre region of the main channel and the floodplain, surface occur alternately the rods, while in the smooth case STC-1, the lower and higher as well as around the free surface only occur alternately around the MC-FP junction edge. values of In conclusion, the emergent rods along the MC-FP greatly influence the 2D flow the flow characteristics totally different to those in the smooth pattern and make compound channel.

232

6.3.1.2 Temporal flow fluctuations Figures 6.23 and 6.24 show the respective time series of the longitudinal velocity (U) the lateral velocity (V) across the section 8.6 m downstream from the inlet. In and figures, the velocity is normalised by the local time-averaged longitudinal these (U,,, ). From Figure 6.23, the variation range of U/U. o, decreases from 33 velocity 0 183 % at y=0.015 the lowest range of 86 - 122 % at y=0.075 in, reaches m, then

increases and reaches the highest range of -10 - 400 % at y=0.171

m, then decreases

the lower range of about 65 - 135 % at 0.231 m<y<0.306 m. The again and reaches the variation of U/U, o is reasonable in physics. Near the sidewall of the main trend of the wall effect generates a narrow shear zone and the shear strength channel, the magnitude of the velocity gradient aU/ay decreases gradually as the decreases as lateral distance (y) increases, so the fluctuation of U becomes lower as y increases. In region of the main channel, the velocity reaches its maximum and the the centre DU/ay approaches zero, so the shear is zero and the fluctuation of U is magnitude of lowest. As y increases from the centre region of the main channel towards the the MC-FP junction, the magnitude of aU/ay increases gradually and the shear becomes the fluctuation of U becomes higher towards the MC-FP junction. Near stronger, so the strong wake is generated and the fluctuation of U becomes the highest. the rods, As y increases further, the magnitude of aU/ay decreases, the shear becomes weaker the fluctuation of U becomes lower. The trend of the variation of the V/U,,, o and then in Figure 6.24 is similar to that of U/U,,, o as shown . Based on the time series data for the velocity U, the characteristic time scale can be determined using the same method described in Section 6.2.2.3. The time scales at lateral locations are similar and the mean time scale is 2.32 s. The various frequency is 0.431 Hz. Based on the time series data of the velocity V, characteristic the same and the characteristic frequency is 0.435 Hz. These the results are almost frequencies are consistent with those in the literature as reviewed in Chapter 2. 6.3.1.3 Mean parameters Figure 6.25 shows the LES results of mean parameters at x=8.6 m, where the

were undertaken, for the emergent rod case STC-4 and experimental measurements

233

the no-rod case STC-3. In Figure 6.25, the velocity U is normalised by the measured bulk velocity U,,,, the secondary current term (- pUV), the shear stresses due to large (zu) eddies and small eddies (rSE) and the bed shear stress (rb) are normalised by

overall boundary shear stress (rho ). the measured In Figure 6.25a, the predicted U profile for the rod case STC-4 does not agree well the experimental one, but the predicted U profile for no rod case STC-3 agrees with better with the experimental one. The disagreement of velocity U in case STC-4 could be caused by the imposing of the non-slip boundary condition. In case STC-4, the emergent rods were modelled with vertical walls and the non-slip boundary condition imposed on these rods, so the velocity near the rods is very small and even was zero, as a result, the velocities in the centre regions of the main channel approaches the floodplain are larger than the measured ones. It can also be seen from Figure and 6.25a that the slope of the velocity profile near the rods is steeper than the measured indicates less momentum exchange in LES. one, which Figure 6.25b shows the profiles of - pUV normalised by rbo in cases STC-4 and STC-3. In the main channel, the secondary current term (- pUV) from the left wall to around y=0.12 decreases linearly

m, which indicates that a large, clockwise,

might exist in this region. The secondary current term (- pUV ) secondary cell m towards the rods and arrives at a negative peak of 41 2bo at the MC-FP junction, then it increases and arrives at a positive peak of 23 Zbo at y=0.171 m, then decreases sharply again from y=0.171 in to 0.20 in. The decreases sharply from y=0.12

change of - pUV in the region 0.12 m<y<0.20 sharp and the wakes together. On the floodplain, eddies (- pUV) decreases linearly from around y=0.20

m is caused by the strong the secondary current term

m to the right wall, which indicates

that a large, counter-clockwise secondary cell might exist in this region. The peak of - pUV are much bigger than those in the no-rod case STC-3 and in other values literature (i. e. Shiono & Knight 1991), which indicates that there are stronger eddies and wakes around the rods.

234

Figure 6.25c shows that the profiles of the shear stress (z

) due to the large eddies The

by zbo in cases STC-4 and STC-3 are similar to those of - pUV. normalised

rLE are caused by the shear due to large eddies and wakes. The negative trends of zLe in the main channel side and the positive value of 2'LEin the floodplain value of indicate that there are two shear layers generated in this case. The peak side rLE near the rods indicate that the shear strength reaches the maximum magnitudes of the rod position, like an imaginary wall. The value of 2,E in case STC-3 is around this indicates that the shear due to the large eddies is very weak in this nearly zero and

case. Figure 6.25d shows the profiles of the shear stress (zSE) due to the small eddies by Tboin cases STC-4 and STC-3. The magnitudes of rsE are much normalised smaller than those of r, as shown in Figure 6.25c, except near the wall regions

DU/?y is steep. where the velocity gradient Figure 6.25e shows that the predictedbed shear stress(z6) varies in a similar manner the predicted velocity U. to that of 6.3.2 Submerged vegetation case 6.3.2.1 Effect of mesh resolution on LES results As explained in Section 6.1.2.2, the vertical walls of submerged rods are usually by steeply sloping oneswith the angle between the wall and the bed being in replaced 85. This wall treatmenttechniqueimposesmesh generationdifficulties. To excessof better generatelarge eddies, the steepness the sloped sides has to be investigated of before final 2D-LES simulation.
One submerged square rod with a width of 6 cm and a height of 10 cm was put near MC-FP junction on the floodplain of the large compound channel as shown in the Figure 3.12c. The water depth on the floodplain was 0.16m. Seven different meshes, in Figure 6.4, were generated for LES. In the test LES simulations, an MOC as shown with a time step of 0.0025 s. Figures 6.26 and 6.27 show the scheme was used fields and streamwise profiles of the free surface around the submerged rod at velocity

235

t= 80 s. The velocity fields and the free surface profiles did not change much after t= 80 s, so the results at t= 80 s are presented here. Figures 6.26a - 6.26c show that the velocity vectors behind the submerged rod are very fine meshes were used on the top of the rod. Figure 6.26d random, even when the random velocity vector behind the rod using mesh M5d as shown in Figure shows 6.5. Figure 6.22f also shows the random velocity vector behind the rod. This is because the mesh resolutions around the rod in these five meshes differ greatly, which causes unstable numerical computations. Figures 6.26e - 6.26g show the velocity vectors behind the submerged rod using M5e - M5g. The velocity vectors are random only in a very small area behind meshes the submerged rod, especially using mesh M5g. As the water depths above and below the rod top are 5 cm and 10 cm respectively, the longitudinal velocity (U) is much higher above the rod top than below the rod top, so the random vector could exist in a small area behind the rod. In these two meshes, the mesh resolutions decrease very from outside the rod to on the rod surface, which enables stable simulation. gradually Figures 6.27a - 6.27c show the longitudinal profiles of the free surface using seven different meshes. Meshes M5a and M5c give the largest deviation of the free surface the other four meshes give similar free surface profiles. As shown in these profile; three figures, the free surface increases slightly in front of the submerged rod due to flow being blocked by the submerged rod, and it decreasessharply above the rod the behind the rod and then increases again. The wakes behind the submerged rod lead to local backwater (Ferziger 2001) and these wakes could reduce the longitudinal behind the rods and increase the water level again. The trends of predicted velocity free surface profiles are similar to the experimental profile, but the magnitude differences between the simulated and experimental data are obvious above and behind the submerged rods. The mesh M5g gives the smallest difference among the seven meshes. Based on the above primary results, among the seven different meshes, mesh M5g the best prediction of the results hence the mesh resolution of mesh M5g was gave then used to generate the mesh for case LC-4.

236

6.3.2.2 Spatial flow fluctuations Figure 6.28 shows the instantaneous profiles of the velocity vector, velocity u,

V, vorticity and free surface using the SUPG scheme at t= 602.5 s, which is velocity

the time 350 s after the eddy generation,in the submerged-rodcaseLC-4

Figure 6.28a shows the meandering velocity vector fields in the main channel and on floodplain occupied by the submerged rods. When the flow approaches the the rods, it is separated into several parts, some flow moves through the rod, submerged whilst some of the flow changes its direction and moves through the gap surface between two rods. The flow moves from the left to the right of the rod and from the to the left of the rod alternately and this flow movement pattern forms the right velocity vector fields on the floodplain. meandering Figure 6.28a shows that the

of the velocity vector above and just behind the submerged rods are much magnitudes larger than in the other areas around the rods, and Figure 6.28b further shows that the longitudinal velocities are larger above the rods than in the other areas around the

This velocity difference is caused by the rod effect. In one submerged-rod test, rods. the free surface increases in front of the rod and decreases above and behind the rod. As a result, the longitudinal velocity U decreases in front of the rod and increases and behind the rod. In the submerged-rod case LC-4, the free surface varies in a above but more complex manner to the single-rod case, which can be seen from the similar free surface profile as shown in Figure 6.28e. From Figure 6.28e, the free surface over the rods is relatively lower than outside the rods, which is similar to the results for the single submerged-rod case. Corresponding to the velocity vector near the rods, the vorticity values (Figure 6.28d) around the rods vary greatly and these are resulted from the rod wakes. The wakes can

be easily seen from the lateral velocity profile as shown in Figure 6.28c, as the
negative lateral velocities existing alternately around the rods. positive and 6.3.2.3 Temporal flow fluctuations Figures 6.29 and 6.30 show the respective time series of the normalised longitudinal (U/U,,, and the normalised lateral velocity (V/U,,, ) across the section velocity o) o 6.4m downstream from the inlet. U, is the time-averaged longitudinal velocity. In no

237

LC-4, the experimental measurements were carried out at 6.4 m downstream case

from the channel inlet. increasesgradually from 93 - 108 % From Figure 6.29, the variation range of U/Umo, to 85 - 115 % at y=0.40 in, and increasesrapidly to 70 - 144 % at the at y=0.1 in MC-FP junction (y = 0.55 in), then increasesto the highest range of 58 -. 149 % above is rod at y=0.725 in. The trend of the variation of U/Umo reasonablein the submerged The longitudinal velocity U peaks at around y=0.10 in, so the weakest shear physics. here and the fluctuation of U is the lowest in the channel.The velocity gradient occurs DU/ay increasesgradually asthe lateral distance(y) increases, the fluctuation of U so 29e and 6.29f that the higher as y increases.It can be seen from Figures 6,. becomes fluctuation of U at y=0.72 in becomesthe highest in the channel and this is caused by the strong wakes generatedabove the rods. As y increasesfurther, the fluctuation U becomes lower and this is becausethe wakes become weaker away from the of The variation of the velocity V, as shown in Figure 6.30, is similar to that of rods. U. velocity Using the same method describedin Section 6.2.2.3, the characteristictime scale and frequency were determinedas 2.80 s and 0.36 Hz basedon the time seriesdata of the U. Based on the time seriesdata of the velocity V, the results are almost the velocity the characteristic frequency is 0.42 Hz. These frequencies are also same and those in the literature asreviewed in Chapter2. consistent with
6.3.2.4 Mean parameters Figure 6.31 shows the LES results for the mean parameters for the submerged-rod LTC-4, and the smooth case, LC-2, under a relative water depth Dr = 0.50. In case, figures, the velocity U is normalised by the measured bulk velocity whilst the these current term (pUV), secondary the shear stresses due to the large eddies (zu) and

due to the small eddies (rSE) are each normalised by the measured the shear stress boundary shear stress (rbO ). overall Figure 6.31a shows the lateral distributions of longitudinal velocity U for cases LC-2 LC-4. For case LC-4, the velocity is well predicted in the main channel and the and velocity on the floodplain is similar to the experimental one. For trend of the predicted

238

LC-2, the velocities were better predicted in the main channel, but slightly case
on the floodplain and this could be due to the unpredicted secondary overestimated

deepconditions. currents under

Figure 6.31b shows that the secondary current term (pUV) in the submerged-rod case

LC-4 is similar to that in the no-rod case LC-2 in the left main channel and on the floodplain, but it is different near the MC-FP junction region and the submerged right The peak magnitude near the rods is as large as 2.5 rbo in case LC-4, which is rods. four times larger than that in case LC-2. This indicates that the submerged rods have

important effect on the secondary currents and mainly influence them near the an rods. Figure 6.31c shows the distributions of the shear stress(z E) due to the large eddies in cases LC-4 and LC-2. For case LTC-4, the shear stress zLE is well predicted, the magnitudenear the MC-FP junction is slightly smaller than the measured although For caseLTC-2, the values of zLEusing the MOC schemewere almost zero and one. indicates that there were no recognisedlarge eddiesin this case. this Figures 6.31d shows the lateral distributions of ZLs and vsE in case LC-4. In this the shearstressdue to the small eddiesis much smaller than that due to the large case, this indicates that the effect of the small eddieson the shear stresscan be eddies and in this submerged-rodcase. neglected
6.4 Summary

Large eddy generation was systematically investigated in this chapter. Large eddies with significant fluctuations of velocity, vorticity and free surface or are associated depth. The mesh resolution, advection schemeand boundary conditions have an water
important role in generating large eddies. Fine mesh resolution, SUPG scheme and the boundary condition encourage large-eddy generation. The effects of large eddies slip hydraulic behaviours such as wavy distributions of velocity, free surface and bed on stress were also analysed and the maximum value of the flow parameter was shear

larger than the meanvalue.

239

Large eddy simulations with TELEMAC-2D

were performed for case STC-1 and the

results under various numerical conditions were compared. As a result, simulation

schemeswere found to greatly influence the LES mesh resolution and advection LES results for the FCF case020201 agreedwell with the experimental data. results. Compared with the smooth, deepcase,the sheareffects in the emergent-rod casewere by LES with TELEMAC-2D, but the main hydraulic behaviours were underestimated The hydraulic behavioursin a compound channelwith submergedrods well captured. the floodplain were satisfactorily predicted using LES with TELEMAC-2D. The on for the depth-averaged velocity and the shear stress due .to large predicted values the SUPG schemeagreedwell with the experimentaldata. eddies using
From the above analysis and conclusions, LES with TELEMAC-2D can be used of

in the 2D unsteadyflow characteristics large channels. predict

240

(a)
0.3

(b)
0.3

(c)

0.25

0.25

0.25

0.2

0.2

0.2

0. is

0.15

0. :Ls

0.1

0.1

0.1

0. os

0.05

o. os

0
0 0.0250.050.0750.1

0
0 0.0290.050.0750.1

0
0 0.0290.0 . 0150 .i

Meshes for case STC-1. (a) Mesh MS1 of resolution 1cm; (b) Mesh Figure 6.1 MS2 with resolution 2cm; (c) Mesh MS3 of resolution 3cm.

2.5

0.5

0 0 1 23 45

Figure 6.2

Mesh FCF4 for case FCF 020201.

241

02

(a)
0.1

00

0.21

U.:

(b)

U.:

01

0.06

0.1

0.16

0.2

0.2

Figure 6.3 Coarse mesh.

Meshes for case STC-4. (a) Fine mesh of resolution

0.5cm; (b)

242

0.65

0.426 0.6
0.5? 5

0.625

0.6

(b)

0,575

0.55

0.55

6.05 0.65-

6 275

66 .,

026

6 05 6 076 1

6.1 0.65

5.95

5.975

6.025

6.05

6.075

6.1

a'

0.625

0.625-

(C)

0.6

0.6

(d)

0.575

-+,

0.575

0.55

0.55

0.525 F, os F 07F FSn, )5 F ns r, n75 F15.95 5.975 6 6.025 6.05 6.075 6.:

0.65

0.66

0.625

0.626

(e)
0.575 0.645

(f)

. 0.56

4R

5.95

5.975

6.025

6.05

6.075

6.:

6.9E E. 276

6,026

6.05

6.076

6.1

0.625

(g)

0.6 / 0.575

, 7

0.5

0.525

5.95

Meshes M5a-M5g for one submerged rod case LTCT. (a) Mesh Figure 6.4 M5a; (b) Mesh M5b; (c) Mesh M5c; (d) Mesh M5d; (e) Mesh M5e; (f) Mesh M5f; (g) Mesh M5g.

Ii!
5.975 6 6.025

6.05

6.075

6.1

243

0.9

0.6

0.

0.6

0.5

fr

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 7.25 7.5 7.75 8

Figure 6.5

Mesh M6 for submerged rod case LC-4.

ia, e,

o.

:0

0.

Figure 6.6

Mesh M7 for non-vegetated case LC-2.

244

(a)

.2

8.5

9.5

.2

(b)

8.5

9.5

.2

(c)

5.2

5.4

5.6

5.8

6.2

6.4

6.6

6.8

.2

(d)

4.2

4.4

4.6

4.8

5.2

5.4

5.6

5.8

Velocity fields between 30 s and 150 s for STC-1 case. (a) 30s; (b) Figure 6.7 50s; (c) 100s; (d) 150s. Horizontal axis represents the longitudinal distance x from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents the lateral distance from the left channel wall.

245

(a)

.2

7.8

8.2

8.4

8.6

8.8

9.2

9.4

9.6 0.1

T50s

2------

o-

7.8

8.2

8.4

8.6

8.8

9.2

9.4

9.6

(C)

.2

5 T150s

5.2

5.4

5.6

5.8

6.2

6.4

6.6

6.8 0.1

-----------------2
':

-_ "--_

---------_---------------------.. =". ".:. 'zsc`_-

(d)

04

4.2

4.4

4.6

4.8

5.2

5.4

5.6

:,. 8

Velocity fields in a moving frame between 30 s and 150 s for STC-1 Figure 6.8 (a) 30s; (b) 50s; (c) 100s; (d) 150s. Horizontal axis represents the case. distance x from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents the longitudinal lateral distance from the left channel wall.

246

0.2 (a)

5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 8 T50s 8.5 9 9.5 -0.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 8 8.5 9 9.5 -0.5

0.2

(b)

c)

0.2

5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
8 T150s 8.5 9 9.5

-0.5
5.0 4.5
4.0

D.2 (d) 71.5 ors wE` ..

3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.0

088.5

: ate' 9 9.5

-0.5

Vorticity fields between 30 s and 150 s for STC-1 case. (a)30s; (b) Figure 6.9 distance x 50s; (c) 100s; (d) 150s. Horizontal axis represents the longitudinal from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents the lateral distance from the left channel wall.

247

0.35 0.3 0.25

(a)

0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 U (M/S)

0.02 0.01 0 -0.01 -0.02 -0.03 -0.04 -0.05

(b)

ITY

(M/S)

6 B 4 9 2

(c)

x 0

Yz ()

(d)

o. e45 0.0425 0.04p. 0375 p4 451 81 23456789 53 52 LE SIAi 7kC (10 4

0.015 0.014

(e)

0.013 0.012 0.011

;In)
0123976 "i B9

2D profile perspective graphs of U, V and S2 at the MC-FP Figure 6.10 junction between t= 450 s and t= 455 s for STC-1 case. (a) velocity U; (b) Velocity V; (c) Vorticity; (d) Free Surface; (e) Water Depth.

248

0.2

(. 1)

0.2 (h)

0.2

(c

0.2

((1)

8.2

8.4

8.6

8.8

Velocity fields in a moving frame between 450 s and 453 s 6.11 Figure for STC-1 case. (a) 450s; (b) 451s; (c) 452 s; (d) 453s. Horizontal axis represents longitudinal distance x from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents the the lateral distance from the left channel wall.

249

0.3 (a) 0.2 0.1 0

8 V/U m, 450s 8.5
9

1.388 1.26116 1.2636 1.1455 1.0273 0.9091 0.7909 0.6727 0.5545 04364 03182

02000 0.1000 0.0745 0.0491 0.0236 -0.0018 -0.0273 -0.0527 -0.0782 -0 1036 01291 -0 1545
-01800 15.0000 11.8182 8.6364 5.4545 2.2727 -09091 -4.0909 -7.4545

0.3 (b) 0.2 0.1 0 8 UV/U'2,450s 0.3 (c) l 0.2 0.1 0 7.5 8 8.5
9

8.5

-10.4545 -136364 -16.8182 -200000 5.5000 4.9545 44091 38636 33182 2.7727 2 2273 6818 11 13664 . 0 5909 0455
-0.5000 0.0402 0.0400 0.0398 00396 0.0394 0.0392 0 0390 0 0388 0 0386 0 0384 0.0382

0.3 0.2

(d)
0.1 07
0.3 (e) 0.2 7.5 8 8.5
90

0.1 07
0.3 0.2 0.1 n "77.5 8 8.5 9 M0 7.5 8 8.5
9

0.0380

1.6000 1.4727 1.3455 1.2182 1.0909 0.9636 0.8364 0.7091 0.5818 04545
0 3273

2000

Spatial distributions of U, V, 0, free surface and bed shear stress 6.12 Figure 450 s for case STC-1. (a) Velocity U/U, ; (b) VelocityV/Um ; (c) Vorticity; at t= Free Surface; (d) Bed Shear Stress zh/zhm Horizontal axis represents the (d) distance x from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents the longitudinal distance from the left channel wall. lateral

250

0.3
5.5 4.3 3.7 3.1 2.5 1.11 1.3 0.7 0.1

0.2

_. `

0.1 0
40

%. 5

8.5

"0.5

20 E 15 C 10 5 0 7.0
1.0

7.2

7.4

7.6

7.8

8.0 X(m)

8.2

8.4

8.6

8.8

9.0

1.2 (c) E 0.9 0.6 0.3 0 -0.3

4U 20

"-'

-------

v/uR,o o Tb/Trr,
0

X(m)

(d)

CE

00
-20 -40 -60
1. Iv 1.05

1.8

8.0

\ 8.2

/8.4

8.6

8.8

(e)

1.00 0.95 0.90 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0 X (m) 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 9.0

Figure 6.13 Variations of veclocity U, velocity V, vorticity, bed shear stress and depth at MC-FP junction at t= 450 s for STC-1 case. (a)Vector in a water frame and vorticity; (b) 100Qh/U,,, o; (c) U/Uno, V/U,,, r6 /, r moving ; (d) o, o ,,, (e) H/H,, Ir pUV 10. 0; ...

251

0 E

0 E

(a)
E

4U

0-

(b)

0450- 414 > -1 n 0-2 Q

453- 4455

7_-4

9--M-4r-4 -4

3 464

-3
-4

-5 0 -6 1.06
1.04

1.02
0

=1.00 0.98 0.96 'iiiiii ii 0.94 rTT 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 45 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 t

Figure 6.14

Temporal variations of velocity, bed shear stress, water depth and term at point A (8.6,0.156) between 450 s and 463 s. (a) secondary current (b) pUV /z, ; (c) H/H, V /U, U/U, rj-r,, O; o o o, no,

252

0.2
(a)

Ot 2

2.5
...........

3.5

(b)

0.2

Ot 2

2.5

3.5

0.3 0.25 0.2 () 0.15 0.1

----------

-----------------------

-----------

Ml

0.05 0
4 4.25 4.5 4.75 5

.1c.

5.25

r; 7 F;

Velocity fields in a moving frame at t= 525 s for case STC-1. (a) Figure 6.15 Time step 0.0025s; (b) Time step 0.005s; (c) Time step 0.01s. Horizontal axis the longitudinal distance x from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents the lateral distance from the left channel wall. represents

253

Mesh 3cm-Slip- MOC-40s 0.02 - --

(a)

0.00 12345691 -0.02 -0.04 -0.060.04

Mesh 2crn- Slip- MOC-40s

-----

0.02

0.00 t12345671
> -0.02 -0.04 -0.06
U. U4

--

--

Mesh lcm-Slip-MOC-40s (c) 0.02

0.00---345 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0.04 Mesh 1cm-NonSlip-MOC-200s 0.02 (d) > ----x (m) -61

123456789 -0.02 -0.04

-0.06 0.04 Mesh lcm4 n Slip-SUPG-40s

0.02

--: 22-

(e)

- 0.00
0.02 -0.04 -0.06

3471

x (M)

V variations at the start period of eddy generation under various conditions. (a) 3cm, Slip, MOC, 40s; (b) 2cm, Slip, MOC, 40s; (c) simulation 1cm, Slip, MOC, 40s; (d) 1cm, Non Slip, MOC, 20s; (e) 1cm, Non Slip, SUPG, 40s. Figure 6.16

254

U.

! 1A

J'+

0.02 N 0.00 E j-0.02 -0.04 -0.06

A V'1 ). nA

(a)

0.02 u 0.00 E j -0.02 -0.04 -0.06

U. U'+

(b)

0.02 Z 0.00 E >-0.02 -0.04 -0.06

A AA

U. U'+

0.02 0.00 E

(dl

-0.02 -0.04 -0.06

U. U4

0.02 Z 0.00 E
-0.02 -0.04 -0.06

Figure

V variations at 300s after eddy generation under various conditions. (a) 3cm, Slip, MOC, 450s; (b) 2cm, Slip, MOC, 450s; (c) simulation 1cm, Slip, MOC, 450s; (d) 1cm, Non Slip, MOC, 450s; (e) 1cm, Non Slip, SUPG, 450s. 6.17

f.

(a)
2.0 1.5

(b)
1.5 1.0 0.5
0.08 0.12 jJ6 020 0.240.28 tc 2c -s-3c

X1.0 0.5 0.0 0.00 (C)

1.5 1.0 0.5 l

-1.0 -1.5 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 Y -2.0 Y (m)

(d)
1.5 F 1.0 0.5
0.04 0.08 0.1'4M S' 0.20 0.24 0.28 1c 2c 3c 0.2 p. 5 10 -1.5 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0

5 0.0
F--1m 2c cm -; - 3c]

-1.0 -1.5 -2.0 Y (m)

-

-2.0-

(e)
2.0 1.5
U. UOO

(f)
E a,0.0386 (a U) 0.0385
LJ

0.5 0.0 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 . 1

n VJVY V. n'2QA

0.20 0.24 0.28 0.3.0.00

0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 Y (m)

LES simulation results of different mesh resolutions for case STCFigure 6.18 / (c) zl, / pU. ; (d) TSE pU$ ; (e) z,,/r0 ; (f) Free surface. (b) UV/U. ; 1. (a) U/U,,,; E

256

';, : ,;'. ,
, 5!

='`. K .
' , ;. .

?. .

(a)
2.0 1.5 X1.0 3 0.5
0.5 0.0

(b)
1.0
nnOC - --SUPG 0.0.08 020.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.

0 50.0 -1.0

-1.5

0.0
0.00

0.04 0.08 0.12

16) 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 ( 10.

-2.0 Y (m)

(c)
1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.24 0.28 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0

(d) 1.0 -moc -*- suPO

0.5 0.0 - -0.0 =1.0 -1.5 -2.0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0

-. - Mc)c -- SUPG

(e)
2.0 1.5
U. UJOU

(t)
E 0.0385

0)0.0384 0
in 0.0383

F0.5 0.0

0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12

10.16

.t0.0382 0.0381 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.3.0

0.04 0.08 0.12 Y0.16

0.2

0.24 0.28 0.32

LES simulation results of different advection scheme for case Figure 6.19 (b) UV/U. ; (c) zLE/PU: ; (d) "SE/PU; ; (e) z, / ro ; (f)Free STC-1. (a) U/U,,, ; surface.

257

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6

E 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0

*** X*x

Mean Data Bed

0.0
1.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

y(m)

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1.6
1.4

2D-L6 * K Data

1.2 N E 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0

Bed

*)r*

X )c

c X)K XXXXX003

0.5

1.0

1.5 y(m)

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

i 0 U)_ in E Iii-6 -2

Ir

-7 _u

LES simulation results for FCF case 020201. (a) Depth-averaged Figure 6.20 (b) Bed shear stress; (c) Reynolds shear stress. velocity;

258

"? ill .
f .. G: %S .. -.

0.22-

0.16

(a)

0. i
0.22

o.

las

O2

-0.16

Z-

- --

---

--

-z-z-Z7-

(b)
0.1 0 0.22 0. t25 0.25

O. 16

-0 `:

(c)
0.1 O 0.22
0.125 0.25

1 '=

~7

Typ

O. 16

(d)
Ox 0.. 26 0.2E

Velocity fields around emergent rods in case STC-4. (a) 0.2 s; (b) 6.21 Figure (c) 2 s; (d) 3 s. Horizontal axis represents the longitudinal distance x from the 1s inlet. Vertical axis y represents the lateral distance from the left channel channel wall.

259

 R;
9 r' ',

, ,,, ;. ;
h .'

0.4

Velocity field, 495s

P

0,2

(a)

0.3 E0.2
0.1 - 1 ". 0 4 !t

7 03
E0 ,2
^at's#

T2

7.6 7.4 Vorticity. 495S

7.8

8.2

8.4

8.6

8.8
4

9
12 0000 98182 78364 54545

(b)

a 1.0 1 4.4

8-4.1.0 9

4 ,=

3 2727 1 0909 .1 0909 -32727 -54545 -76364 -9.8182 0.4000 0,3636 03273 02909 02545 02182 0 1818
01455

7888.2 U 4T)" (c) 0,3 02 01 0 7 0 72 V, 495s

8.4

8.6

8.8

d ommm 74 7.6 78 8 8.2 8.4 8.6

. 8.8

; w " ; adab& 0 72 -I.. 74 Ap 11 6 ---76 88

(d)

io 4. #Vp >-

0.1091 00727 0.0364 OW00 00573 O0445 0.0316 00191 0.0064 -0.0064 -0,0191 -0,0318 -0.0445 -0,0573 0.0060 0.0065 00051 00036 00022 0.0007 -0,0007 -00022 0,0036

78

82

8.4

86

UV 495s , 0.3
w

(e)

0
7
0

C-%

-" -4"

, (Vkf r

T2

7.6 7.4 Bed Shear Stress, 495s

7.8

8.2

8.4

8.6

8.8

-00051 -00065
02400 02200 02000 0.1800 0.1600 0,1 400 0 1200 0,1000 00800 0,0600 00400 00335 00331 00328 00324 00320

0 >-

01

772

76 TA Free Surface 495s

7.8

8.2

8.4

8.6

8.8

9
1

0.3
(9) -E0. 2
0.1 0 414 It ' 4041*014 so* OL , 0 444W

T2

74

7.6

7.8

X(M)

8.2

8.4

8.6

8.8

00317 003 3 003 0 00306 00302 OM99 00295

Instantaneous profiles of velocity vector, vorticity, velocit y U, 6.22 Figure V, UV, bed shear stress and free surface at t= 495 s for case STC-4. (a) velocity (b) Vorticity; (c) Velocity U; (d) Velocity V; (e) Secondary Velocity vector; term UV; (f) Bed shear stress; (g) Free surface. current

260

<<, r, ,
y, S i :

(a)
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 31.0 3.0 2.5 2.0

(b)
-0.075 -0.105 _ ... 0.09 0.12

01.5 31.0

0.5 0.0 -0.5

0.5 0.0 5 -0.5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

(c)
3.0 2.5 2.0 r 3.02.52.01.5 1.0 i 0.5 0.0

(d)

01.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

-0.5

-0.5

(e)
3.0 2.5 2.0 -0.246 -0.276 ...... ---. 0.261 0.291

01.5 - 1.0 0.5 0.0 5 -0.5 10 15 20 -----25 (t) 30 35 40 45

Figure 6.23

of longitudinal velocity U/U,,, o across the section for Case STC-4. (a) Y=0.015 - 0.060 m; (b) Y=0.075 - 0.120 m; (c)V=0.1306m; (e)Y=0.2460-0.2910 0.1710m; (d)Y=0.1860-0.2310 m. Variations

261

(a)
1.5 1.0 0.5 00.0 E 25 Z '-0.5 IS) 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0.0 E ' -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0

(b)
-0.075 0.105 ....... .. -. 0.09 012 -_^

'Off

w 30 40 45 5

-1.0 -1.5 -2.0

(c)
1.5
A -01306 -0156 01412 0171

(d)
1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0.0 E Z '-0.5
-0.186 -0.216 0.201 ....... ---"0.231

---

1.0 0.5 '0.0 E Z '0.5

7407

45

-1.0 -1.5 -2.0

-1.0 -1.5 -2.0

Jc1

(e)
1.5 1.0 0.5 00.0 E '-0.5
-0.246 -0.276 ------" 0.281 0291

30

35

40

45

-1.0 -1.5 -2.0

Variations of lateral velocity V/U, Figure 6.24 across the section for Case no STC-4. (a) Y=0.015 - 0.060 m; (b)V=0.075-0.120 m; (c) Y=0.1306 - 0.1710 (d)Y=0.1860.0.2310 m; (e) V=0.2460-0.2910 in. m;

262

(a) 1.8
1 .6 1 .4 1.2 X1.0 0.8 "0o -13 """
30

(b)
+-- STC-4 TG4 i STG3 Data STC-3 ""
20 10 0 rtt STG4 STG3

." ! " 13

1 20 -30 -40 -50 ---

0 46 .

0.20

0.24

0 28

0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 Y (m)

V (m)

(c)
30 20 10 0 s
20 -30 -40 -50 Y (m) -1.0 -0.5 0.04 0.6 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.3
t t STGI 5763

(d)
to r---*STG4 STG3

0.5 0.0
0.04 0.08 0.12 6 0.2 074 28 .

0. Ct2

Y (m)

(e)
1.6---. 1.6 1.4 1.2 O _.. __... --__... _----... _. __. _... ---------f-sO 0 8 00 000 y'o STC-4 8763 Data STC-4 Data ST-3

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.10.20 Y 0 0

0.24

0.28

0.32

Figure 6.25
(b) - Pw/Zno

2D-LES simulation results of cases STC-4 and STC-3. (a) U/U

(C) TiE /rno ; ; (d) /TbO ; (e) "SE Tb IThO

263

6250. 6

--..

---s

-4

-0

(a)

O.

575 y

-i `sa. ,

0.55

W51,7 .
-. - -, a _ 7"-J _i -, -Y - .r te -v om. '-3' _.

veto

80

0.65
0.625

+--'l i

---.. 0 ; ,y-.

. _.

>--y--,. - -"

(b)
0.55
-y

i--4/J"..

toi

^--s

--s

y`wy
-.. 7 -a. ' - __ ~'-

--ate' ^ "'y - -i ter.

6pY " j.. -4

-ti -s

-sue "_.4 -t-

`_'S

0.625

_-_,

"; --r

',.

3-j-y-.

y '_ '^

(c)
Yy

0.526 0. 0.62$
S

$$

o-s f `d) o. o. sus ss

t`

r'-

--

_-''-

_.

0.1929

0.6: 0.620. E

0.57E
0.511
0.522
0. o. as sss 0. o. o. o. o.
o.

rar

_.

--

---.

--,

w- -s

-a

-s

---

(f)

s 4.7

svs ss _ szs sc
025

"i`

-..

'

.'may-->__!

-`y

-"~

.-

-' .

(g)
o-

6..

# _-

..

---r
_r --! Y -

-,
-S

-a

-_

-S ,,. -

0.575
i ~-i -S

-ter i i i - y -yam

Longitudinal profiles of the velocity field using different Figure 6.26 meshes for the test submerged-rod case. (a) Mesh M5a; (b) mesh M5b; (c) Mesh M5c; (d) M5d; (e) Mesh MSe; (f) mesh M5f; (g) mesh M5g. Horizontal mesh axis represents the longitudinal distance x from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y the lateral distance from the left channel wall. represents

264

 }I "
, a ,

0.18 0.17 0.16 E 0.15 co 0.14

x "

X)

)KX"" %)K

0))K

(a)

0.13 0.12 0.11 0.1 0.09 0.08 5.6 0.19 0.17 5.7 5.8 5.9 6

" " o :

MashM5 Mesh M5b Mesh M5c DATA ROD

(M)

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

X E 0.15 00p8%*W)KW)KW)Kft*VjVr0)K%*)K

(b)

0.13 't-:3 U)
a, 0.11 a) 0.09 0.07

a) 0 Ca

X )K )K

0,00 IQ

* 0

Wsh Nffid Wsh Nbe DATA ROD

5.6 0.190.17 0.15

5.7

5.8

5.9

6.1 (M)

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

)K

a)
(c) =3

L
E Wsh IV15g Wsh Nbf DATA ROD

20.11 LL

0.09 0.07
5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6 x (M) 6.1 6.2 6.3

6.4

6.5

Longitudinal profiles of the free surface using different meshes for 6.27 Figure test submerged-rod case. (a) Meshes M5a - M5c; (b) Meshes M5d - M5e; (c) the Meshes M5f - M5g.

265

0.9

(a)
0.40.3-74W- -

AP.

AJ
'7'7'

le,

0.2-

77-Z-1VEL

-4v*

6.5 0.9 0.8 VF3,0('ITY 1.2

6.71) If 607. (H/S)

7.25

.1

.5 pap

..........mI 0.9 0.0 0.5 0.4 0.328.1 '75 7.25 ?., 5 7.75 0.7 : 6 1.5 *and

0.6

jo

(b)

0.4 3

6.5 : -9.8

6.

2166V .6 . 175
&

(c)
0.4 0.3-: 00

0.0916667 9.05

"o. %lowf*

-9

ojl)333

-0.116667 IL rp f. -0.158333 -6.2 6.45 7.25 7.5 7.75 1

266

0.9

0.0

0.70.6

(d)

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 O. i 0 6.5 0.9 0. S 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3{"r' E

1. bbDb

4.44089c-016 -1.66667 -3.33333 -5 -6.66667

6. '15

7.25

7.5

7.75

a916

O. 1m25 0.11333

(e)

. . .

1375 19583 13161 1275 .'

"
91; >
f1 -ri :i, , i.

0.2 0.1 0

'

6.75

_9S

7.5

175

Instantaneous profiles of velocity vector, vorticity and free surface Figure 6.28 602.5 s for submerged rod case LC-4. (a) Velocity vector; (b) Velocity U; (c) at = (e) Free surface. Horizontal axis represents the Velocity V; (d) Vorticity; distance x from the channel inlet. Vertical axis y represents the longitudinal lateral distance from the left channel wall.

267

(a)
1.3 13

(b)

1.1

1.1

0.9

0.9

0.7 01 016

0.7

nR
05 10 15 20 25 1 (s) 30 35 40 45 50

0.5
05 10 15 20 25 t(s) 30 35 40 45 60

(c)
1.5

(d)
1.3

1.3

1.1

,.,

0.9

0.9

0.7

0.7

0.5

0.5
06 10 16 20 25 I(S) 30 35 40 45 50 05 10 15 20 25 I(S) 30 35 40 45 50

(e)
1.5
1.4

,..

1.3

1.3 1.2

,.,

1.,

0.9
0.7

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6

0.5

0.5

05

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

05

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

so

(g) 1.5
1.3

0.9

0.7 -. 0.5 06 10 15 20 26 t (s) 30 35 40 45 50 811437 -849128

Figure 6.29

of longitudinal velocity UIU 0 in case LC-4. (a) Y 0.10- 0.16 m; (b) Y=0.22 - 0.28 m; (c) Y=0.34 - 0.40 m; (d) Y=0.47 - 0.51 m; (e) Y=0.55 - 0.59 m; (f) Y=0.63 - 0.73 m; (g) Y=0.81 - 0.85 m. Variations

268

(a)
0.4-

(b)
0.30.20.1

0.3 0.2 0.1

00.0

g0.0
30 35 40 45 1.

-0.1
-0.2-

-0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.3-

(9)

-0.4

t(c)

(c)
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
x-0.1

(d)
0.3 0.2
0.1

0.0 0E >-0.1

-0.2

-0.2 0.3 -0.4

-0.3

-0.4

(e)
0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.0
-0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 00 >-0.1

(0
0.3
0.2 0.1 ''

-0.2 -0.3 -0.4

(g)
0.3 0.2 0.1 m 0.0 >-0.1 -

-0.2 -0.3 -0.4

Figure 6.30

of longitudinal velocity V/U,,, o in case LC-4. (a) Y= (b)Y=0.22-r 0.28 m; (c) Y=0.34 - 0.40 m; (d)Y=0.47-0.51 0.10-0.16m; m; 0.73 m; (g)Y=0.81-0.85 (e)Y=0.55-0.59 m; (f)V=0.63-m.

Variations

269

i. 0 1.4 1.2 (a) E 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0
Z. 0

0.2

0.4

Y (m)

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.5 0.5 -0.5 ? CL -1.5 -2.5 Ac 0

2.0 1.0
N

(C)

0.0 -1.0 -2.0 -3.0

L. V

I-.

N_ 1.0 a 0.0

0
a L J-2.0 -3.0

Figure 6.31 UVI U:

2D-LES simulation results of cases LC-4 and LC-2. (a) U/U,, ; (b) /PU* ; (d) Zf /PU4 "SE/PU (c) '"LL ,

270

Chapter 7

Quasi-2D Flow Prediction for Vegetated, Compound, Open Channels

In this chapter, the main results of a quasi-2D flow model are presented. Section 7.1
introduces the quasi-2D flow model. Sections 7.2 and 7.3 show the flow prediction results of the non-vegetated and vegetated compound channels. Section 7.4

the quasi-2D flow prediction for the compound channel. summarises 7.1 Governing equations and solutions 7.1.1 Governing equations Based on the momentum equationgiven by Shiono and Knight (1991), the momentum in the longitudinal direction for steady, uniform flow in the compound, open equation is given by Equation 7.1 channel

as V+a W (puv)+ a( p Lyzyz Puw)- Pgso+ sx =

c.l)

x, y, z are the longitudinal, lateral and vertical directions respectively; U, V, W where the temporal mean velocity components (m/s) are in the x, y, z directions

v, w are turbulent fluctuations of velocity(m/s) with respect to the respectively; u, p is the density of water; g is the gravitational acceleration; Sois the mean velocities; bed slope of the channeland S,, is the sourceterm.
Providing -(O) W(H) =W = 0, Equation 7.1 can be transformed into Equation 7.2 by

integrating over the water depth,

a [H(y)(prf)dI(peso i+s-2 + = -Sx)H(y)-zb ay

where rb is the bed shear stress; H(y) is

(H(yyx
ay
the local water

(7.2)
depth;

UV )d H(y)

rpii7dz

and z, x =

f)(piz. H(y)

The bed shear stress 2'b can be determined from Equation 7.3,

271

fPUz zb=8d

(7.3)

longitudinal velocity and s f is the local friction factor, Udis the depth-averaged where
is the bank slope (1: s - vertical : horizontal). The depth-averaged Reynolds shear stress (zYx) can be related to the depth-averaged

(e ) and the velocity gradient (a Ud/ay) by Equation 7.4, eddy viscosity

zyr=Petasd Y

(7.4)

As described in Section 4.4.1, when the contributions of bed-generated turbulence and

turbulenceto the eddy viscosity (Et) are both considered, the depthshear-generated (iyx) by Reynolds shearstress can be expressed Equation 7.5, averaged

z'yx =P

lb 8

UdH(Y) +H 'y 5)2

ad

a yd

(7.5)

TJb is the depth-averaged dimensionless eddy viscosity due to bed-generated where turbulence, H(y) is the local water depth, H, is the mean value of water depths in the and on the floodplain, 6 is the proportionality constant (=0.08), S is main channel

the width of the shearlayer. Substituting Equation 7.3 and 7.5 into 7.2 gives,

y[H(Y)WUV)d1=(Pso-S, )H(Y)8P
+y (y)2 pH 82U+H d J6 Hin (Y)Z (g)2

l+S
as ay

vd
as (7.6) J Y

Rameshwaran and Shiono (2006) developed the numerical solution to the above nonlinear equation and predicted the two-dimensional flow structures in the compound channels with and without emergent vegetation on the floodplain. In this study, the 272

predictive experimental

capability

of

this

numerical

solution

is

further

assessed against

data for a compound open channel with submerged vegetation on the

floodplain. 7.1.2 Source term for vegetated flow For the non-vegetation case, the source term Sx is zero and Equation 7.6 takes a form to that of Shiono and Knight (1991). similar For the emergent vegetation case,the source term SXin Equation 7.6 is drag forces water volume, which results from various vegetations, and can be modelled per unit Equation 7.7: with Sx = Fd =12 U

P(CDSFAP)J

(7.7)

Fj is the drag force of i vegetation per unit fluid volume, CD is the drag where SF is the shadingfactor, Ap is the total projected area of i vegetation per coefficient, fluid volume. unit For the submergedcase,the source term SXin Equation 7.6 is composed of the drag force F,,, due to the projected area and the interface shear force Z F,, due to the

top area.Figure 7.1 illustrates the drag force and interface shear force on a vegetation rod. The shear force submerged circular
the drag force

Fsj can be expressedin a similar way to

F1 Velocity correction factors a, and as were introduced to relate .

drag force Z Fei and the shear force Z FSt the characteristic velocities to the drag force EF1 The respectively. Equations 7.8 and 7.9 respectively: and the shear force FS, can be expressed by

Fei

=1

P(CDSFAp

)i (aeUd

)2

(7.8)

F'; =

ACS As )i (L Ua2 =2CAS

Csc As
DPF1

as

Fa

(7.9)

273

is CSC the interface shear coefficient and A. is the total horizontal area of i where
vegetation.

For simplification, the source term Sz in the submerged case can be expressed by drag coefficient CD as follows, introducing an apparent

sx 2

P(CDSFAP)IU

(7.10a)

As 1z as 2-s CD =CD -F' CD Ap SF ae 7.1.3 Input model parameters

(7.10b)

In order to solve Equation 7.6 for depth-averaged velocity Ud, the channel geometry, boundary conditions, drag coefficient CD or apparent drag Coefficient CD'I shading factor SFI porosity a,, local friction factor f, eddy viscosity and advection term 17 as input data. are required 7.1.3.1 Channel geometry and boundary conditions Channel bed levels across the section and water depth in the main channel are geometry and initial conditions. required as channel
In the past, velocity was set to zero at walls for the-boundary conditions; however, this

does not give an accurate velocity near the wall. To avoid this weakness, a new for the calculation of the mean wall velocity (Uwati) is introduced. The yconcept Y' normalised by the viscous length vIU..,,,,,,,was set to 30 in' order to coordinate determine the mean wall velocity (Nezu & Nakagawa 1993). The mean wall velocity be determined using the measureddata of mean wall shear stress can of Equation 7.11. use
U, 2.5(1n(30)+ 5.5)U-., = vA va /p ) (7.11)

by the

is the mean wall shear velocity U.., where v,il

274

7.1.3.2 Vegetation parameters

To account for the blockageeffects on the flow by the vegetation, the porosity cc, was introduced and determinedby using Equation 7.12. In this study, the porosity a,, for
experiments is 0.906. the submerged-rod

Z (NvA)j av =1-

(7.12)

A, is the averagecross-sectionalarea of i vegetation and Ny is the vegetation where density. As described in Section 3.1, the vegetation on the floodplain was idealised by the use For a smooth circular rod with diameter D, the experimental of vertical smooth rods. CD is a function of the rod Reynolds number Re,.,,(= UdDlv). For drag coefficient d Reynolds numbersin these experiments (2000 Rerad5 20000), the the range of rod _< drag coefficient CD is about 1.0. In a rod array, the drag coefficient CD for a single rod is influenced by the wakes formed around all the rods. Nepf (1999) showed that the wake effect on the drag decreasesas the lateral and longitudinal array spacing between the rods coefficient Based on Nepf's results,the bulk drag coefficient (CDX SF) is about 1.0 for increases.
rod distributions in which the dimensionless vegetation density sparse emergent (= D 2/AS2) is less than 0.01. The bulk drag (CIIXSF) for dense coefficient rod n, (= D 2/AS2) is distributions is about 0.6 in which n, about 0.1. For the experiments in

both the longitudinal and the lateral rod spacings range from 2D to 4D this study, (= D 2/AS2) is 0.094. The bulk drag the dimensionless vegetation density n, and (CDx SF) can be approximately set as 0.6. However, the apparent drag coefficient
coefficient CD for the submerged rod distributions has not been reported.

7.1.3.3 Friction factor

The roughness height ks is used to determine the bed friction factor across the
in the numerical solution. The Manning coefficient n was firstly obtained channel

275

from

the experimental data for the straight trapezoidal compound

channel. The

height ks was then calculated from the relationship expressed in equivalent roughness

Equation 7.13 (Ackers 1991): /(8.25Vf ) n= ksb (7.13)

For the small channe,the Manning coefficients in casesSTC-1 - STC-3 are all about height ks is 0.0003m. 0.01 and the equivalentroughness For the large compound channel flow, the overall Manning coefficient was firstly determined with Manning Equation. The Manning coefficient for the mattress main bed was estimatedas 0.02 from Figure 5.23 and the Manning coefficient for channel floodplain was determinedwith Equation 7.14 as proposed by Cox (1973). the wood The values of the roughnessheight across the section were then determined with Equation 7.13. n, A- n,,A,,,, nfp _ Afi

(7.14)

is the Manning coefficient for the wood channel bed, n, is the overall where nfp is Manning coefficient, A is the total area of the cross section, npnc the Manning for the mattressmain channel bed, A,,,, is the sub-areaabove the mattress coefficient bed and Afp is the sub-areaabovethe wood channelbed. main channel The Colebrook - White equation is used to calculate the local friction factor f for a bed at any location in a cross-sectionwith water depthH: smooth 1 3.02 Ref ks 12.3H

=-2l0 g

(7.15)

Re is the local Reynolds number defined as Re = 4UdH/v. where .

Using U. =

g-HSO and f

=8U2/U2

Equation (7.15) can take the following form: d,

276

f=

log + -2 1 128gH3So 12.3H

3.02y

ks

-z (7.16)

The modified Colebrook - White equationis used to calculate the local friction factor for a rough floodplain with water depthH (Rameshwaran& Shiono 2006):

f=

log -2

3.02y

128gH 3So 1.20H

(7.17)

7.1.3.4 Depth-averaged eddy viscosity and advection term To calculate the depth-averagededdy viscosity only the dimensionless eddy

(Tb ) due to the bed-generatedturbulence is required as the input eddy viscosity for this numerical solution. The value of Tb was set to 0.0683 in this data viscosity numerical solution. For small channel cases,different values of IrlapgHS,, in the main channel and on floodplain were testedand their appropriatevalues were determined from the bestthe velocity profiles. For large channel cases,different values of IlapgHSO in predicted channel and on the floodplain were also calibrated with the measuredvalues. the main
7.2 Flow prediction for the non-vegetated compound channel

in this section, the predictive capability of the quasi-2D flow model for five nonis investigated.In the small, trapezoidal, compound-channelcases,the vegetated cases water depthsfor casesSTC-1 - STC-3 are 0.22,0.35 and 0.5 respectively. In relative casesLC-1 and LC-2, the relative depthsfor the large, trapezoidal, compound-channel LC-1 and LC-2 are 0.41 and 0.50 respectively. The detailed flow conditions of cases five caseswere describedin Sections4.1 and 5.1. these 7.2.1 Wall velocity Wall effects are very important to the flow behaviour, especially in narrow channels. in numerical modelling, fine grids near walls are normally required to properly

277

describe the velocity distribution. To simplify flow prediction, the wall effects are by imposing the meanwall velocity as the boundary condition. treated The mean wall velocity can be calculated from the mean wall shear stress or obtained from velocity measurements. For compound channel flow, the complex flow it difficult to generalisethe distribution of wall shear stress. The mechanisms make were calculated using the method described in section 7.1.3.1. mean wall velocities Table 7.1 shows the calculatedand measuredmean wall velocities in the seven cases. Table 7.1 Comparisons of mean wall velocities for non-vegetated channel cases STC-1 Calculation Left wall Right wall Left wall Right wall 0.215 0.147 0.210 0.134 STC-2 0.231 0.166 0.249 0.160 STC-3 0.259 0.207 0.272 0.211 i- LC-1 0.464 0.403 - -LC-2 0.500 0432 I

Measurement 1

Using

calculated and measured mean wall

velocities and assuming that

rlapgHSO = 0, the prediction results of velocity and bed shearstressfor casesSTC-1 STC-3 are shown in Figures 7.2 - 7.5. In Figures 7.2 and 7.3, "A" and "A 11 the predicted variables without considering the shear contribution to the represent "+" and "0" represent the predicted variables taking the shear viscosity, eddy to the eddy viscosity into account, " Log-law " representsthe predicted contribution the calculated wall velocities, " Measured " representsthe predicted variable using the measuredwall velocities, 11*" representsthe measured variable variable using '-" representsthe channelbed level. In case STC-1 (Figure 7.2a), the predicted, and depth-averaged,velocity profiles using calculated wall velocities are almost the same measuredwall velocities. In casesSTC-2 and STC-3, the prediction as those using results using calculatedand measuredwall velocities are also nearly the same. From Figures 7.2a - 7.2c, all the depth-averagedvelocities near the MC-FP junction in casesSTC-1 - STC-3 are well predicted when the shear contribution to the eddy is considered.Moreover, for the shallow case STC-1, the velocities across viscosity

278

predicted satisfactorily. In Physics, the lateral shear is the main the section are to the momentum exchange near the MC-FP junction and the shear contribution increases as the relative water depth decreases. In other words, this quasi-2D is capable of predicting the depth-averaged velocities in numerical modelling flow when the log-law wall boundary conditions are properly compound channel imposed. acrossthe section are also well Figures 7.3a - 7.3c illustrate that the bed shearstresses the sheareffect on the momentum exchangeis taken into account and predicted when as bouh0ary conditions. Figures 7.2 and 7.3 confirms that the wall velocities are used the calculated wall velocities at y' =30 are used, the 2D flow structures are when reasonably well predicted. 7.2.2 Flow prediction for the small channel Figures 7.2a - 7.2c show that depth-averagedvelocities become smaller if the shear due to large, horizontal eddies is thought to influence the lateral momentum effects This is becausethe large, horizontal eddies are generatedby the lateral exchange. loss from the mean flow. As a result, the mean flow shear and cause some energy dependson the flow condition. decreases its decrease and velocity From Figures 7.2a - 7.2c, the velocity difference between"A "curves and "0" decreases the relative water depth increases. as the compound channel In the shallow case STC-1 (Figure 7.2a), the depth-averagedvelocities are well across the section. In the median case STC-2, the velocities in the main predicted In deep caseSTC-3, the velocities in the shear layer and channel are under-predicted. floodplain are under-predicted. As reviewed in Chapter 2, the secondary on the is significantly large under large water depth conditions, thus the contribution current currents needs to be carefully considered under large water depth of secondary In the shallow case, the effect of secondary currents on the velocity conditions. is weaker than the strong sheareffect. prediction Based on the predicted velocities as shown in Figures 7.2a - 7.2c, the bed shear in casesSTC-1 - STC-3 were predicted and are shown in Figures 7.3a - 7.3c. stresses 279 curves

the relative water depth increases,becausethe shear strength in becomes smaller as

It can be seen that the predicted results agreewell with the measurements.Some of bed shear stressesnear the MC-FP junction are over-predicted, mainly in deeper the but the overall trends are'satisfactorily predicted. cases, (Hp -UV) laypgHSO D d as shown in Figure 4.21, the Using the calculated values of depth-averaged velocities and bed shear stressesfor cases STC-1 - STC-3 were Arther predicted with the quasi-21) model and are presented in Figures 7.4 - 7.5 *PUV)d1a-y1 together with the prediction results assuming IpgHSO 0 and the

Table 7.2 lists the prediction errors for discharge in these cases measurementresults.
different prediction conditions. using

Table 7.2

Prediction errors for discharge with quasi-21) model (%) Conditions STC-1
3.8

STC-2
-2.0

STC-3
-0.4

Calculated wall velocity, No secondary Flow, No shearcontribution Calculated wall velocity, No secondary Flow, Shearcontribution Measured wall velocity, No secondary Flow, No shearcontribution Measuredwall velocity, No secondary Flow, Shearcontribution Measuredwall velocity, Calculated Flow, No shearcontribution secondary Measuredwall velocity, Calculated secondaryFlow, Shearcontribution

0.8

-4.1

-1.7 0.4

3.5

-1.1

0.3

-3.1

-0.9 3.8

-3.2

-2.0

-5.6

-3.8

4.4

Figures 7.4 - 7.5 show that the secondary current terms are more important to the flow prediction under higher relative water depth condition. For the shallower casesof STC-1 - STC-2, the calculated depth-averagedsecondary current terms are roughly the deep caseSTC-3. This error might be causedby the depth-averaged correct except itself. For the deep caseSTC-3, the flow belongs to the narrow channel flow concept

280

while using the depth-averagedconcept. Table 7.2 shows and there are some errors the errors of predicted dischargewere within -6 - 4.5 %, which were similar to that Rameshwaranand Shiono (2006). those of To further evaluate the predictive capability of the quasi-2D model, the results of the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) of TELENIAC-2D are presented in Figures 7.6a and 7.6b. The strearnwise velocity at y= yj was obtained by time-averaging. The yj time period is 50-seconds. is the lateral position where the measurements averaging Using the non-slip boundary condition, the velocities are overwere carried out. the centre of the main channel and under-predicted in the other predicted around For this case,the quasi-2Dmodel is better than 2D-LES of TELEMAC. areas. 7.2.3 Flow prediction for the large channel Using calculated mean wall velocities and various values of r1crpgHS, and height k, the predicted depth-averaged velocity for casesLC-1 and LC-2 roughness in Figures 7.7 and 7.8 respectively. These predicted results were acquired are shown by considering the shear contribution to the eddy viscosity. In Figures 7.7 and 7.8, "A" represents the predicted variable assuming IIlapgHSO =0, "o" represents the rlapgHSO = 0.25 in the main channel and IIlapgHSO = -0.20 on the variable using floodplain, "+" representsthe predicted variable using fit values of 'FlapgHSO, 64*11 measured data and '-" representsthe channel bed level. The values of represents J'1crpgHSO 0.25 in the main channel and r'lcrpgHSO= -0.20 on the floodplain are = from Rameshwaran Shiono (2006). and referenced Figures 7.7 - 7.8 show that the predicted depth-averagedvelocity profiles do not the measuredones when the value of IlapgHSO is assumedas zero. This agree with is because the secondarycurrents are significant in the deep, compound channel as in Chapter2 and the effect of secondarycurrents on the flow prediction needsto noted be considered. When values of IF'IapgHSO 0.25 in the main channel and = r,lapgHSO = -0.20 on the floodplain for the FCF compound channel were used (Rameshwaran& Shiono 2006), the predicted velocity profiles are not satisfactory, This could be causedby differencesin the secondarycurrent characteristicsin either.

281

channels.For FCF cases,the compound channel was considered to various compound be a wide channel whilst the compound channel in this study is considered to be a in which the ratio of the total width B to the water depth H is around narrow channel, 3. The best fitting values of r'lcrpgHSO for different cases are listed in Table 7.3. Using these fitting values of ]PlapgHSO the predicted discharges are within 3% , In this study, the signs of F1qOgHS,, are more complex than in the FCF accuracy. this is causedby the narrow channel geometry. Most of the magnitudes of cases and FlapgHSO are larger than those in the FCF casesand this is becausethe secondary are more significant in narrower channels. currents Figures 7.9 - 7.10 show the prediction results of the bed shearstressand the Reynolds in thesetwo non-vegetatedcasesusing the fitting values of IIlapgHSO shear stress . The bed shear stressesdecreasesharply from Y=0.40 m to around Y=0.42 m becausethe roughnessheights decrease greatly due to the changeof the bed material. Reynolds stressusing the quasi-2D The peak magnitudesof predicted depth-averaged well with those from the measureddata in the MC-FP junction area. model coincide The Reynolds stress in case LC-2 is slightly smaller than that in LC-1. This is in physicsbecausethe sheardecreases the relative water depth increases as reasonable in compound channelflow. Table 7.3 Y(M) CaseLC- 1 CaseLC-2 Best fitting values of 111crpgHSO casesLGI in 0 -0.50 -0.50 11 0.40 -0.30 0.00 -I 0.49 0.55 0.60 0.55 0.55 0.65 LC-2 -

0.91 0.55 0.50

7.3 Flow prediction for the compound channel with emergent vegetation In case STC-4, the one-line emergent circular rods were placed along the MC-FP junction. The relative water depth is 0.52 and the detailed flow conditions are listed in Table 4.1. The flow prediction for the compound channel with this rod alignment has been studiedto date. not

282

For the vegetation case,how to treat the drag force in the quasi-2D model is the key to the accurate prediction of the velocity and boundary shear stress. In the compound with emergentrods on the whole floodplain, the drag force is usually treated channel by overall averaging over the whole floodplain. In this one-line, emergent-rod case, this method does not give accurate flow prediction results, so a new method is introduced. In this study, the total drag force is treated as equivalent to the local bed friction force. For the equivalent transferring method, the drag force is assumedto be on the region of the bed where the rods are put and hence the relationship in exerted Equation 7.19 follows:
2p

1C

D12

APSF ew UZV 2 pcf U (7.19)

DL

V.. is the water volume in the whole channel,D is the diameter of the rod, L is where friction coefficient. the channel length and cf is the dimensionless

12-L

The Chazy friction coefficient C can be expressedby C=F! f-9

C=7.83 loglok, and

(See TELEMAC-21) principle note), the equivalent roughness height k., can be by combining thesetwo formulae. In the STC-4 case,the equivalent friction estimated is 0.94067 and the equivalentroughnessheight k, is 0.12298 m. coefficient cf Figures 7.11a and 7.11b show the quasi-2D model prediction results for case STC-4 those obtained from 2D-LES with TELEMAC. The mean wall velocities used in and the quasi-2D model are listed in Table 7.4. In these figures, "m" represents the variables using FlapgHSO =0 predicted and without considering the shear

to the eddy viscosity, "o" represents the predicted variables using contribution I-lapgHSO =0 and considering the shear contribution to the eddy viscosity, "A" represents the predicted variables considering the shear contribution to the eddy and assuming T"IcrpgHSO 0.60 in the main channel and I'lapgHSO = 0.30 = viscosity the floodplain, "*" on represents the predicted variables considering the shear to the eddy viscosity and using the fitting values of FlapgHSO "o" contribution ,

283

the results of 2D-LES with TELEMAC, "*" representsthe measured data represents '-" representsthe bed level. and Table 7.4 Calculated mean wall velocities in vegetated channel cases Case Left wall Right wall STC-4 0.194 0.139 LC-4 0.434 0.171

Figures 7.1la and 7.1lb show that the predicted velocity profile does not agree with when the value of rlapgHSO is set to zero. This indicates that this tle measuredone is not justified since the secondary currents are significant to this value of zero case. As reported by Rameshwaran and Shiono (2006), the sign of emergent

is the I'la pgHSOis positiveacross sectionandthe magnitude FlcrpgHSO linearto of ,

depth in the compound channel with emergentvegetation over the the relative water floodplain. They also showedthat that the magnitude of rlcrpgHSO is larger in whole the emergent vegetation case than in the non-vegetated case.Using their values of FlcrpgHSO at Dr = 0.50, which are ]FlapgHSO= 0.60 in the main channel and r'lopgHSO = 0.30 on the floodplain, the predicted velocity profile does not agree the measuredone, either. The best fitting values of FlapgHSO listed in Table with 7.5 for caseSTC-4 are also different to those in the compoundchannel with emergent on the whole floodplain and this could be caused by the different vegetation current structure. Using the fitting values of rlapgHSO , the predicted secondary discharge is 3.5 % larger than the measuredone. As bed shear stress is calculated Equation 7.17, the bed shearstressvaries in a similar way to velocity. using Unlike the quasi-2D model, 2D-LES with TELEMAC-2D cannot predict the twodimensional flow structure in the narrow compound channel with emergent rods on floodplain. This is due to the limit of imposing the proper boundary conditions on the the walls, which hasbeenexplained above.

284

Table 7.5 Y(M) FlapgHSo 0 -0.3

Best ritting values of rlcrogHSO in case STC-4 0.06 -0.3 0.12 0.4 0.156 0.8 0.168 0.8 0.26 -0.3 0.306 -0.3

7.4 Flow prediction for the compound channel with submerged vegetation To further explore the predictive capability of the quasi-21) SKM model, one rod case was further investigated in this section. To date, the quasi-2D-submerged has not been applied to a submerged-rodcase.In case LC-4, the floodplain ismodel with submergedround rods. The water depth in the main channel is 0.310 m covered the relative water depth is 0.52. The detailed flow conditions in case LC-4 are and listed in Table 5.1. As discussed in section 7.1.2, the drag force due to submergedvegetation is more than that due to emergentvegetation.The interfaial shearforce on the top complicated surface of the submerged vegetation makes a significant contribution to the total drag force. The key to using the quasi-2D model is to determine an apparent apparentdrag coefficient for the submergedvegetation. appropriate The apparentdrag coefficient can be determinedby a force balance method. For domain of length L, the apparent drag coefficient (C' ) can be D vegetated flow a the following force balance: evaluatedusing f, ('r, H+F,, -,h)L, -,, +L,, 'bdy+ElP(ClAPSF)JU2V wl ,2d (CD)

ew

=PgVewSo

(7.20)

r,,, is the mean wall shearstresson the left channel wall, H is the water depth where in the main channel, rwr is the mean wall stresson the right channel wall, h is the depth on the floodplain, L, is the length of the vegetateddomain, B is the total water the channel, rb is the local bed shearstress,y is the lateral direction and V,,, width of is the effective water volume in the computation domain which is the total water with the total vegetationvolume in the computation domain subtracted. volume 285

The data concerning the mean wall shear stress r,,, and r,, were obtained using a Preston tube on the sidewalls. Data of depth-averagedstreamwise velocity Ud were by averaging the local velocity over the water depth and the local velocity obtained measuredwith the ADV. For simplification, the mean velocity on the floodplain was (CD because ') drag coefficient the rods are was used to calculate the apparent the floodplain. Data concerning the local bed shear stress -7b uniformly placed on from Equation 7.17 and the data required by Equation 7.17 were were acquired from the results of LES with TELEMAC. obtained Using the above force balance method, the apparent drag coefficient was calculated the data on the velocity, wall shearstressand bed shearstress.In-case LC-4, the using drag coefficient is 0.9081. According to Nepf (1999), the bulk drag apparent (CDXSF) is approximately 0.6 in case LC-4. The difference between the coefficient drag coefficient and the bulk drag coefficient is 0.3081, which comes from apparent interface drag. The interface drag force is significant in this submerged the additional case. Figures 7.12a and 7.12b show the predicted and measuredresults using the quasi-2D in case LC-4. In these two figures, " A" representsthe predicted variables model ]['IapgHSO=0 and without considering the shear contribution to the eddy using viscosity, "A" represents the predicted variables using IlapgHSO =0 and

the shearcontribution to the eddy viscosity, "0" representsthe predicted considering best fitting values of r'IcVgHSO and considering the shear variables using to the eddy viscosity, "o" represents the results of 2D-LES with contribution TELEMAC, "*" representsthe measureddata and '-" representsthe bed level. The data were obtainedfrom one cross-section6.52 m downstream from the measurement inlet. From Figure 7.12a, when the shear contribution to the eddy viscosity is taken into the quasi-21)model gives a better prediction of the depth-averagedvelocity account, in the compound channel with submergedrods on the floodplain. This confirms that the lateral shearis dominant under this flow condition. As listed in Table 7.6, the best fitting values of ]['IapgHSO are larger near the left wall and the MC-FP junction

286

this correspondsto the measuredsecondary current structures as shown in region and Figure 5.2 d. The LES results from TELEMAC-2D, as shown in Figure 7.12a, the measurementdata, except for the data above the submerged roughly agree with rods. Table 7.6 Y(M) FlapgHSO Best fitting values of rlapgHSO in LC-4 case 0 -0.6 0.4 -0.1 0.49 0.7 0.55 0.7 0.915 0

From Figure 7.12b, the peak Reynolds shearstress occurs near the MC-FP edge and Reynolds shear stressoccurs where the depth-averaged velocity peaks in the the -zero The Reynolds shearstressbehaviour coincides well with that from the main channel. data. The predicted Reynolds shear stressby quasi-2D using the best measurement fitting values of IlapgHS, agreeswell with the measurementdata in the area y 0.20 m. The predicted Reynolds shear stressby 2D-LES near the MC-FP junction is than that basedon the measurements. smaller 7.5 Summary The quasi-2D model is capable of predicting depth-averagedvelocities, Reynolds bed shear stressesin compound channels and it better predicts the twostress and dimensional flow structure in the compound channel than 2D-LES with TELEMAC2D. The secondarycurrent term FlapgHSO needsto be carefully selected in narrow further work is needed to generalise the distribution of FlapgHSO channels and the section in compoundopen channels. across For a compound channel with one-line emergent vegetation on the floodplain, the total drag force can be introduced as a source term in the quasi-2D model by it into the local bed friction force and the two dimensional flow structure transferring by this new method. was well predicted For a compound channel with submergedvegetation on the floodplain, the interface important role in the total drag force in submergedvegetatedflow. The shearplays an drag force consists of the drag force due to the projected area and the interface total

287

force due to the top surface of the vegetation. By introducing a new concept of tP 4 shear drag coefficient, the total drag force can be related to the depth-averaged CP the apparent Using this new approach, the quasi-21) model was successfully applied to velocity. the 2D flow structure in a compound channel with submerged vegetation on predict floodplain. The apparentdrag coefficient needs to be properly determined under the different flow conditions in the future.

Flow

Drag Force

InterfaceShearForce

Illustration of the drag force and the interface shear force on a Figure 7.1 submerged circular rod.

288

0.40 0.30 (a)

0.20 0.10
X AAAAAAA K*)K, Xt AA )Ke, )K A)K 'u ,L)KO * * * * X No Shear, Log-law Shear, Log-law No Shear, Wasured Shear, Nbasured Data bed )KI )4 I)K** AX A XX ft)K q)K)

0.00j0
0.40

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y(M)

0.2

0.24

0.28

0.32

4KA OYA

0.30 E 0.20 0.10

Shear, Log-law AW Shear, Log-law 0 W Shear, -Wasured Shear, Wasured X Data Bed

0.00 -10

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y(M)

0.2

0.24

0.28

0.32

0.40
)K)K

0.30 E 0.20 0.10

* * aW 0 x No Shear, Log-law Shear, Log-law Shear, Wasured Shear, Wasured Data Bed

)K X X gk 64

0.00 !III
0 0.04 0.08

_I0.12

0.16 Y(M)

IIIi

0.2

0.24

0.28

0.32

Shear effects on the depth-averaged Figure 7.2 velocity prediction using different mean wall velocities for cases STC-1 - STC-3. (a) Case STC-1; (b) STC2, (c) STC-3.

289

r y.: . K,' _:` ,; -

0.50

E 0.40
A AA

AAAA

cn0.30

A A ex

XX OP606%OA

(a)

0 0.20 0.10 Co
16 -A No Shear, Log-iaw

A0

Shear LoR7! aw No Sh& Imasured Shear asured Data , Bed

4ox AAA

'06

0.00I 0
0.50 cli 0.40 u)0.30 A
' 6

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.1b Y(M)

0.2

0.24

0.28

0.32

AAA&& a it 0)
XV A K"I (10 )K&

cn

A Log-law No Shear, __ Shear, Log-law No Shear, Nbasured Shear, Wasured Data Bed

0.20 cn

OX XX a XR20, I&

OX

X A*

0.00 0 0.50
X

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y(M)

0.2

0.24

0.28

0.32

0.40
cn cn 0.30
K 40K I

(c)
ID

0.20

kA * * *

_0

a) 0.10 co

Nb Shear, Log-law Shear, Log-law No Shear, -Wasured Shear, Wasured Data Bed

0.00+0

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y(M)

0.2

0.24

0.28

0.32

Shear effects on the bed shear stress prediction using different Figure 7.3 for cases STC-1 - STC-3. (a) Case STC-1; (b) STC-2, (c) mean wall velocities STC-3.

290

0.50 0.40

0.30
)K,'

X,

0.20 0.10

X
No Secondary Flow

')K X
....... )K-)K-)K -)K

-Calculated Data X

Secondary Flow

0.00 0.00
0.50 0.40

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (M)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

ZM30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.00

No Secondary Flow Calculated Secondary Flow Data

\X

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (M)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

0.50 0.40
"X-X )K-

-N. 30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.00

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (M)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

Effects of secondary flow on the depth-averaged velocity prediction Figure 7.4 measured wall velocities for casesSTC-1 - STC-3. (a) Case STC-1; using mean (b) STC-2, (c) STC-3.

291

U. tDu '

0.50 E 0.40 cn (n 9) Zn0.30 0.20 '0 a)0.10 Co

(a)

0.00
0.00
U. Ou
C\j

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (M)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

0-50 E 2
0.40 ) c, Cl) 0.30 ca 0.20 =Q) U) 'D a) 0.10 co

(b)

0.00 0.00 0.60 'E 0-50

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (M)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

0.40

(c)

0.30 cn a

V 0.10 a) EG 0.00
0

No Secondary Flow ------Secondary Row -Calculated Data X

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (M)

0.2

0.24

0.28

0.32

Effects of secondary now on the bed shear stress prediction using Figure 7.5 measured wall velocities for cases STC-1 - STC-3. (a) Case STC-1; (b) mean STC-2, (c) STC-3.

292

A ju V. cn

0.40 :FO.30 E
0.20

(a)
0.10 0.00

0.00 0.50 -

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y(M)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

EA , 0.40 -* U)
cn 0.30 2

Quasi-2D 2D-LES )K Data

IKA)t 'Kj A)t j*)Kj)KK Bed

(b)

0.20 W

)KA)ek A

A
X A )L )KA)L
j)L A)K . K A). A)K .

U) 0.10 0.00 0.00

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y(M)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

Figure 7.6 Prediction results using the quasi-2D model and 2D-LES against the data for STC-1 case. (a) Depth-averaged velocity; (b) Bed shear experimental stress.
1.2 1.0
X
in -0.8 EO.6

XX

0.4 0.2
x

0
0

0.25/-0.20 Fitting Data

Bed

0.0 0.2 0.4 y (M) 0.6 0.8

Figure 7.7

Lateral distributions of the predicted depth-averaged velocity using flow assumptions for LGI case. various secondary

293

1.2 1.0 0.8 90.6 Z 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 y (M) 0.6 0.8 1.0
X

xX

0.25/-0.20 Fitting Data Bed____

Figure 7.8 Lateral distributions of the predicted depth-averaged now assumptions for LC-2 case. various secondary
6.0
c- 5.0 E
cn

velocity using

4.0 3.0

CO <D 2.0 m 1.0 Co

0.0
0.0 0.2

0.4 Y (m) 0.6

0.8

1.0

Figure 7.9 1 and LC-2-

Lateral distributions

of the predicted bed shear stress for cases LC-

4.0
cm

E 3.0 2.0 Ch 1.0

(a)

cn :20.0 0
CD - 1.0

-2.0

294

(n

(b)

E (D
0i

CD cr

-1

Lateral distributions of the predicted Reynolds stress for nonFigure 7.10 (a) Case LC-1; (b) Case LC-2. vegetated cases.

U., u

0.40 ''0.30

mmmmmmm so 00001) AO)KAlf io ^; 13 13 13 0 L)Kj M; 13 13 f)Kik A A

'4)K 10 0

m A 0

No Shear, O Shear, 0.60/0.30 2D-LES Bed

[3 13 4004 0

o 0 x

Shear, O Shear, Fitting Data

1& k

(a)

0.20 0.10 0.00

1 3 00 ,a )K 04h. --0

)KK

0.00
& -U. ou E

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (M)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

Z0.40
0.30 S? rn

momm

m A 0

cn in

No Shear, O Shear 0 60/0.30 2D-Lff Bed m0 0 13 )K)K

)r XIK*!

13 0

Shear, O Shear, Fitting Data

(b)

0.20

000 S91 VK )Kl P)K 1)13[3 [3 K kX 'A A 0 j). VE AAA

t

L)K&)K

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)KO

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cit 01

0.04

0.08

0.12

0.16 Y (M)

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.32

Figure 7.11

results of the depth-averaged velocity and bed shear the quasi-21) model and 2D-LES for STC-4 case. (a) Depth-averaged stress using (b) Bed shear stress. velocity; Prediction

295

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 cn 0.5 E

ONO a 13 0 o X No Shear, O Shear, O Shear, Fitting 2D-LES Data Bed

(a)

0.4 , D 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 5 4 3 0.2 0.4 Y (M)

0.6

0.8

E in

* * * * X X

No Shear, O Sh:: oFitting : Sh rr 2D-LES Data Bed

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0

00

0.2

00

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m Figure results of the depth-averaged velocity and Reynolds the quasi-2D model and 2D-LES for STC-4 case. (a) Depth-averaged stress using (b) Reynolds stress. velocity; 7.12 Prediction

296

Chapter 8 Conclusions and Future Research Prospects

In this chapter, the important observationsand new findings from this research are Section 8.1 presents the experimental observations of the compound summarised. flows with and without vegetation. Section 8.2 illustrates the numerical channel investigations of the unsteadyflow characteristicsfrom the Large Eddy Simulation TELEMAC-21). Section 8.3 gives the numerical studies of the 2D mean flow with from the quasi-2D flow prediction. Section 8.4 recommends the future characteristics researchprospects. 8.1 Experimental investigations A Pitot tube and a Prestontube have beenused to measurethe mean velocity and the boundary shear stressin both a rectangularand a trapezoidal compound open channel. A non-intrusive, 3D, ADV technique has been use to measure the turbulence in a large, compound, open channelwith and without vegetation on the floodplain. Based these data, the following conclusionscan be drawn. on 8.1.1 Compound channel with non-vegetated floodplain 8.1.1.1 Small compound channel The inlet turbulence and the boundary roughness influence the flow development.The distanceratio (XIR) of the longitudinal distance from the inlet X to the hydraulic diameter R can be used to select the measurement section for a fully-developed flow in open channel experiments and the appropriatevalues of XIR were suggested. (2) Narrow, rectangular, open-channel flow is characterised by the strong velocity-bulging towards the comers and the maximum velocity located below surface. Non-vegetated, compound, open-channel flow is by the velocity-bulging near the MC-FP junction and the characterized comers due to the momentumtransfer via secondarycurrents and the velocity-bulging is stronger under larger relative water depth conditions, especially in the rectangular compoundchannel.The observedflow characteristicsin this work 0 are consistentwith those in the literature. the free

297

(3) The lateral shearin the shearlayer zone was found to play an important role in the momentum exchange in the shallow non-vegetated, compound, open The shearlayer width decreases the relative water depth increases as channels. the value of the shearlayer width is larger in the rectangular compound and than that in the trapezoidal compound channel. The dimensionless, channel depth-averaged,eddy viscosity peaks at the MC-FP junction and the peak decreases the relative water depth increases.The depth-averagededdy as value due to the large eddies is much larger than that due to the small viscosity eddies under shallow water conditions. (4) Using the mean wall shear stress as the boundary condition, the method of Shiono and Knight (1991) was modified to calculate the depth-averaged shearstressfrom the data of the bed shear stress and water depth in apparent the compound channel. The apparent shear stress peaks near the MC-FP junction and decreases the relative water depth increases due to reduced as shear strength. The peak value of the apparent shear stress is smaller in the trapezoidal, compound channel than that in the rectangular one under similar relative water-depthconditions. (7 (5) rfbe secondarycurrent PUV)d was calculated from the apparentshearstress Reynolds shear stress.Based on the suggestedsecondary current pattern and in the literature, a new expressionfor the lateral velocity over the water depth was proposed and the maximum lateral velocity V.,, across the section was calculated. The calculated (pUV)d and V.,, profiles roughly agree with the

in the literature, but they are more complex near the MC-FP measurements junction. (6) In non-vegetated,compound-channelcases,the bed shear stressesare smaller than pgHSOin the main channel and larger on the floodplain and this is by the gradients of the Reynolds shear stress and secondary currents. caused The contributions of Reynolds stress and the secondary currents to the flow were found to be significant near the MC-FP junction. The proper resistance value of quasi-2D modelling. near the MC-FP junction is required in IpgHSO

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8.1.1.2 Large compound channel (1) Near the main channel bed, a pair of secondary currents caused strong bulging in this region. The secondary currents are generatedby the velocity turbulence. The turbulent intensities and turbulent kinetic anisotropy of the main channel bed due to the strong bed-generated energy peak near turbulence. The eddy viscosity e, increasesfrom near the left wall towards MC-FP junction. The magnitudes of the Reynolds stresses ry,, and rzx the decrease from near the main channel bed towards other areas and the ry., is larger than that of magnitude of The magnitude of ry, is much

than those of ryx and rz., , which indicates that the shear sftess smaller by the secondarycurrents can be neglected.Under relative water generated depthsDr = 0.42 and 0.50, the flow characteristicsare similar. (2) Under deep-waterconditions, there are no strong large eddies as no obvious can be recognised in the velocity correlation curves. The peak oscillations frequency of the energy spectrav" is smaller than that of U'2 and larger than that Of W'2. The cross spectrum shows that the momentum-exchange is dominated by the motions of frequencies smaller than 1 Hz. The phase between u' and Vis zero indicating that the lateral shear near the relation MC-FP junction is produced by horizontal large eddies and the phase between u' and w' is 7r, indicating that the vertical shear is relation by the bed-generated turbulence. produced 8.1.2 Compound channel with emergent vegetation on the floodplain In the compound open channel with one-line emergent rods along the floodplain, two shear layers were recognised in the main channel and on the floodplain separately.Two high-velocity zones were recognised in the main and on the floodplain separately.The ratio of the dimensionlesseddy channel due to the large eddies to that due to the small eddies is larger in the viscosity channelthan on the floodplain. Under relative water depth Dr = 0.5, the main dischargeand bed shear stress are noticeably reduced and the shear channel layer width in the one-line rod caseis twice that in the no rod case.

299

(2) In the one-line, emergent-rodcase,the depth-averaged, apparent shear stress, Reynolds stress and the secondary current were properly calculated by distributing the drag force linearly in the affected area, and they peak near the MC-FP junction in the rod caseand their peak values are larger than those in the no rod case. They behave with greater complexity near the MC-FP junction than those in the no rod case owing to the large eddies and wakes around the rods. (3) In the compound open channel with emergent rods on the whole floodplain, a large, counter-clockwise, secondary current cell and a small, clockwise, current cell were recognisedin the main channel and near the MCsecondary FP junction respectively. The small secondarycell causesthe velocity bulging towards the sloped main channel wall. The secondary currents are generated by the anisotropy of turbulence in this emergent-rod case. The turbulent intensities and kinetic energy peak near the MC-FP junction and the peak values of u', v', w' and k are 4.0 U., 2.3 U., 0.9 U. and 5.8 U. respectively. (4) In the compound open channel with emergent rods on the whole floodplain, horizontal large eddies exist near the junction as the longitudinal velocity curve drops slowly from one to zero and there are obvious correlation from the junction oscillations along the time lag axis. The eddy size decreases to the main channel as the shear becomes weaker from the junction to the main channel. The phaserelation between u' and v' is t 7cindicating that the lateral shear near the rods is produced by wakes and the phase relation between u' and w' is zero indicating that the vertical shear is possibly produced by the wakes. This indicates that the turbuIRncearound the rods is by the wakes. generated 8.1.3 Compound channel with submerged vegetation on the floodplain (1) The velocity patterns in the compound channel with submerged rod on the floodplain were recognised and they changed greatly as the relative water depth increasedfrom 0.4 to 0.5. This was caused by the secondary current different flow conditions. A large, clockwise, secondarycurrent patterns under was recognised in the main channel, but a counter-clockwise secondary cell cell and a clockwise secondarycell seem to exist near the free surface under

300

water depthsof 0.4 and 0.5 respectively. The secondary currents in the relative submerged channels became stronger as the relative water depth increased, they were stronger than those in the no rod case under similar relative and water depth conditions. In the submerged rod case, the anisotropy of turbulence was found to be the main generation mechanism and the shear term was found to be more important to the generation of secondary stress than in the no rod caseunder similar relative water depth conditions. currents 1 (2) The turbulent intensities of u', V, w' and the turbulent kinetic energy k the MC-FP junction due to the strongest shear, they varied in a peaked near under relative water depths 0.44 and 0.52; --but their peak similar manner becameslightly smaller as the relative water depth increased. magnitudes Reynolds shearstressesry,, r,, and -ry, peaked near the (3) The depth-averaged , MC-FP junction. The peak magnitude of ry., was larger than that of T-, indicating that the lateral transfer of the longitudinal momentum was stronger than the Yertical transfer of the longitudinal momentum. The peak magnitude vy, was only slightly smaller than that of r,,, indicating that the shear of by the secondary currents was also important in the stress generated rod case.The Reynolds shear stressesbecame slightly smaller as submerged the relative water depth increasedfrom 0.4 to 0.5. These results indicate that the vertical exchangeof the longitudinal momentum is also important in the submerged-vegetationcase and this might be due to the three-dimensional wakes aroundthe rods. (4) The periodicity of the large eddies is obvious from the velocity correlation curves and the eddy size decreasesfrom the junction to the side walls. The that the phaserelation between u' and V is 7E indicating cross spectrashow that the lateral shear near the rods is produced by the wakes and the phase relation between u' and w' is zero indicating that the vertical shear is possibly produced by the wakes. This is similar to the emergentrod case and different to the no rod case. (5) The large eddiesmoved and grew from the junction to the edge of the sloped towards the left main channel wall channelwall and then they decreased main asjudged from the characteristicsfrequency profile acrossthe cross section in

301

case. This was caused by the wakes around the the submerged vegetation The contributions of the large eddies to the depth-averaged submergedrods. 4-P Reynolds shearstress ry,, were larger in the submergedrod case than in the no rod case. 8.2 Numerical investigations of the unsteady flow characteristics (1) Mesh resolution, advection schemeand boundary conditions were all found to important role in the generation of large eddies.This work shows that play an fine mesh resolution, the SUPG scheme and slip boundary condition the generationof large eddies. encourage (2) Significant spatial and temporal fluctuations of velocity, vorticity, freesurface bed shear stress were found to be associated with the large eddies and in the compoundchannels.The magnitude of the instantaneousflow generated was larger than the mean value. In the small compound channel parameter rods on the floodplain, under relative water depth Dr = 0.52, the with one-line temporal variation range of the velocity U decreasefrom near the left wall to the centre of the main channel, then increased near the rods and then near decreased the right floodplain. The variation trend correspondsto the shear to influenced by the velocity gradient of DU/o-, In the large compound y. strength submergedrods on the floodplain, the temporal variation range channel with U increasedfrom near the left wall to the edge of the sloped main channel of then increasedrapidly to near the submergedrods, and then decreased wall, towards the right wall. Compared with the one-line, emergent-rod case, the in layer was depressed the submerged-rodcase. shear (3) In the one-line, emergent-rodcase,the flow moved from the main channel to the floodplain and from the floodplain to the main channel alternately. In the case,the flow inundation area was limited to around the rods, submerged-rod is weaker than that in the one-line, emergent-rodcase. which (4) The characteristicsfrequency of the large eddies were determined with the time series data for velocity U. In the no-rod case, the characteristics frequency of the large eddies was 0.27 Hz under relative water depth Dr = 0.24. In the one-line rod case,the characteristicsfrequency of the large eddies 0.43 Hz under relative water depth Dr = 0.52. In the submerged-rodcase, was

302

frequency of the large eddies was 0.36 Hz under relative the characteristics depth Dr = 0.52. water (5) The meanparameterwas better predicted using the finer mesh resolution, nonboundary condition and SUPG scheme.In the shallow FCF case 020201, slip the mean velocity, bed shear stress and Reynolds shear stress were predicted with the experimental data. In the one-line, emergentreasonably compared the mean velocity and bed shear stress were over-predicted in the rod case, of the main channel and the floodplain, but under-predicted near centre parts the MC-FP junction becauseof the imposed non-slip boundary condition. In the submerged-rodcase,the meanyelocity and the Reynolds shear stresswere except in the small regions near the submergedrods. well pXedicted, (6) LES with TELEMAC-2D can be used to predict the unsteady 2D flow characteristicsin large channels. 8.3 Numerical studies of the mean flow prediction using the quasi-21) model (1) Using the mean wall velocity as the boundary condition, the mean parameters bed shearstress,especially in the shearlayer, were better such as velocity and for the compound channel flow than when the traditional boundary predicted velocity on the wall was used. The mean wall velocity can condition of zero be calculatedusing y' = 30. (2) In the small compound channels without vegetation on the floodplain, using (DH(-PUV)d1Dy)1pgHSO the assumption of =0, the mean velocity and bed shearstresswere well predicted under small relative water depths of 0.24 and 0.38, but they were not predicted satisfactorily in the shear layer and on the floodplain under a large relative water depth of 0.50. These results indicate that the effect of the secondary currents under the large relative water depth condition needsto be consideredwhen using the quais-2D model becausethe currentsbecome stronger as the relative water depth increases. secondary (3) The mean flow parametersin the deep, narrow, compound channels can be by the choosing predicted appropriate well values of In the large, deep, compound channels without . on the floodplain, under large relative water depths of 0.41 and vegetation (DH(-PUV)dlDy)lpgHSO

303

0.52, the best fitting values of

(DH(-PUV)d1DY)1pgHSO

differ from the those

from the FCF experimental data (see Rameshwaran & Shiono 2006) and this be causedby the differences in the shape of the cross section and the could bed roughnessacrossthe cross section. (4) The drag force due to the vegetation can be introduced as a source terin into the depth-averagedmomentum equation; however, the treatment of the drag force is the key to accurateprediction using the quasi-2D model. (5) In the one-line, emergent-rod case, the total drag force due to the rods was treated as equivalent to the local bed friction force and so an equivalent local bed roughnessheight was used as an input parameter in the quasi-2D model. The mean velocity and bed shear stress'in the one-line rod case were well predicted with (DH(1Dy)1pgHSO pUV-)d . this new method using the best-fitting values of

(6) In the submerged-rodcase,a new concept of the apparent drag coefficient was introduced to treat the total drag force due to the submergedrods. The value of the apparent drag coefficient was determined by using the force balance method. The mean velocity and the Reynolds shear stress in the submergedwith this new method by choosing the best fitting rod casewere well predicted (DH(IDy)lpgHSO PUV)d values of . 8.4 Future research prospects The above are the main conclusions of this research, which leads to the better of the flow mechanisms and 2D flow predictions in the straight understanding channels with and without vegetation on the floodplain. The following compound of this researchand the future researchprospectsare listed below: shortcomings (1) The effects of the secondarycurrents and the shear-generated turbulence were found to have an important influence on the flow characteristics in compound channels. Further detailed studies under different flow conditions should be out to investigate and generalise these effects for the engineering carried applications. (2) Turbulence measurements were not carried out in the one-line, emergent-rod case and further study is needed.To further study the effect of wakes on the

304

flow characteristics, the use of sophisticated non-intrusive technolog is U suggested in order to measure the turbulence in the vegetated compound channels. (3) For LES, the capability of applying TELEMAC-3D to simulate the unsteady flow characteristicsin compoundchannelsneedsfurther assessment. (4) For the quasi-2D model, how to consider the wake effects and generalise the drag coefficient in the submerged-rod case are topics requiring apparent further study.

I-

305

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