Green: Future Christchurch: A Economy

Future Christchurch :
a GREEN economy
Zhi Jian (David) Wong
4937263
University of Auckland
2 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Introduction | Thesis Statement
Thesis Statement

Out of crisis arises opportunity; the devastating
earthquakes in Christchurch provides
the chance to implement green economic
strategies to become a sustainable prototype
model for the rest of the world to learn from.
This thesis is about transitioning Christchurch
to be a more sustainable economy in which it
aims to make Christchurch a Zero-Carbon city
by 2035. Architecture in this instance will act
as an economic catalyst for this transition to
happen because it is the very fabric of the city.
CURRENT GLOBAL SITUATION
We are currently living in a world with nite
resources. The age of the industrial economy is
over and we are entering a new age dened by
exponential innovation. Human beings have
always used technology to overcome obstacles;
the industrial age for instance was a product of
cheap fuels and the invention of assembly line
production. This was an age of manual labor
and high costs to the planets natural resources.
As a consequence today we are faced with
climate change, dangerously high pollution
levels and negative health efects due to how
we have used our planets recourses; the time is
now to use technology and innovation to solve
the urgent environmental challenges. I agree
with Einstein when he said, we cant solve
problems by using the same kind of thinking
we used when we created them. (Einstein) In
order to solve our current global economic and
environmental crisis, we need a completely
new system and not just one where we improve
the current way of operating. Fortunately
because we live in an age of innovation
there are many sustainable solutions being
developed, at the moment they often remain
as untested theories yet to be put into practice.
CHRISTCHURCH TODAY AND TOMORROW
After the devastating earthquakes of 2010 and
2011, the city of Christchurch was left with its
Central Business District (CBD) in ruins and
its infrastructure heavily damaged. At the
time of writing this thesis it is estimated that
approximately 8000 buildings will have to be
demolished in the whole of Christchurch (3
News, 2012) and the estimated total costs of
the earthquake to the government will be $13
Billion New Zealand Dollars (NZD); with the
estimated cost of rebuilding Christchurchs
infrastructure (NZD) to be $2 Billion. (Fairfax
NZ News, 2011) Additionally 30,000 homes are
in need of serious repair with each exceeding
more than $100,000 in damage costs. (Fairfax
NZ News, 2011) Christchurch is now faced
with the largest reconstruction project in
New Zealand history, but with this they have
the unique opportunity to recongure the
urban plan to create a more efcient and
sustainable city. The question is, will the
people of Christchurch choose to rebuild in
the same way it was before, or will they take
this opportunity to rebuild a sustainable and
resilient city that is prepared for the future?

WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE?
We hear the phrases, sustainable and green
used often, but what does it mean to be
sustainable and what are green principles?
For the sake of this thesis, I have dened
sustainability as the ability to sustain or
maintain development without compromising
resources for future generations for the sake
of short-term gains. Through this research
lead design thesis I will describe how a
green economy could rejuvenate the city of
Christchurch and at the same time dispel
the common perception that economics and
sustainability are mutually incompatible.
Investing in a green economy is a viable
catalyst for regeneration for Christchurch
because:
- Firstly because New Zealand claims to be
clean and green and particularly the South
Island which is known for its beautiful scenic
natural environments. Further, Christchurchs
identity is the Garden City, which if taken
seriously could be the impetus behind
promoting a green economy.
- Secondly, with the impending global energy
crisis, the age of cheap energy is over. Because
we have passed peak oil, we need to start
planning how to supply our growing energy
demands with renewable sources.
- Which leads me to my third point,
Christchurch is fortunate with an abundance
of water, long solar hours, and arable land.
The geographic location of Christchurch is
positioned well to take advantage of its natural
resources and create a sustainable energy
strategy to support the city.
- And lastly, the size of Christchurch makes
it a perfect candidate to be a prototype city to
test a holistic energy strategy. Christchurch
has a population of approximately 370,000
inhabitants; which makes it large enough to be
relevant as a major city centre but also small
enough for technology and infrastructure to
be implemented quickly and efciently. The
speed of adoption and evaluation can be
0.1 Thesis Statement
3 Zhi Jian (David) Wong
analyzed a lot faster in Christchurch compared
to a large metropolitan city, where various
governing bodies may impede such a progress.
ENERGY
At the heart of a green economy is energy
use. In Christchurch, electricity comes mainly
from renewable sources, particularly the hydro
electricity dams in Benmore, Manapouri, and
Clyde. (EECA) The energy produced from
these hydroelectric dams is then feed into a
centralized grid and distributed across the
country. A centralized power grid is vulnerable
to failure due to unforeseen circumstances,
which can leave large areas without power.
The reason being is that it only takes one of the
connections into the main grid to fail to leave
an entire city without power. Such was the
case following the February 2011 earthquakes,
as was made evident in the increased amount
of diesel usage as a back-up source for power.
(Christchurch Agency for Energy, 2012)
Diesel and Petrol is a fossil fuel that powers
the Internal Combustion Engine (I.C.E) of our
cars in which these land transportation fuels
is a majority of 60% of the citys total energy
demand. The result of using these fossil fuels
as a source of energy contributes to the air
pollution in Christchurch; which is costing
the city $168 million per annum. (Spronken-
Smith, 2002) There are more efcient forms
of transportation such as the electric vehicles
(EV) in which they run on electricity stored
in batteries. The method in which we use our
private vehicles can also be improved as above
90% of private car users are single occupants;
which leads to inefciencies and congestion.
Another contributing factor to air pollution
is the use of domestic log burning replaces
which often heat homes that lack insulation
and therefore demand greater heating loads
particularly during the winter months. The
unfortunate consequence is increased health
costs due to the particulates in the air, which
could be minimized substantially through
retrotting buildings and replacing the
inefcient log burning replaces with more
efcient lower emission design. Christchurch
has the unique opportunity to rebuild
and repair large parts of the city, which if
managed appropriately means they could
seize this opportunity and invest in upgrading
their existing buildings to improve energy
efciency, while building new buildings to be
superior in their energy use. For example, by
adding ceiling insulation in a pre 1960s house,
which typically does not have insulation, a cost
to benet ratio could be 7 times the investment
over a 30 year period. In other words the cost
of retrotting this house with insulation would
benet the residents 7 more times than it costs
to install the insulation over a period of 30
years. (Beacon Pathway Limited, 2009)There
is a common perception that the relationship
between a buildings economic efciency
and its energy efciency are mutually
exclusive; but the truth is the opposite. In
todays technologically advanced systems of
construction and building techniques, we are
able to design options that can reduce costs
because of the savings in energy usage.

INVISIBLE ECONOMY
Unfortunately while the government purports
to be green, their actions are often conicting
and they lack the ability to support planning
for long term benets, as is seen from their
recent commitments to start oil and fossil
fuel exploration at the expense of the natural
environment. There are various examples of
what happens when the government takes
proprietary control over natural resources that
show their short sightedness and motivation
is focused on immediate gains. An example
of this can been seen in China when they
expanded their timber industry and caused
excessive deforestation, which consequently
efected the environment. The market price
for timber was only half of what the Chinese
had to pay due to external environmental
costs such as desertication and loss of water
runof. (TEEB The Economics of Ecosystems
and Biodiversity, 2011) The reason why this
happens is largely due to the fact that the
natural economy is an invisible one, by this
I mean the cost of natural resources and
their benets beyond their commercial value
are often not calculated into their true costs.
Unfortunately when something is given for
free, the human mentality tends to make this
mean it has no value. Therefore when you try
and weight the pros and cons of development
at the expense of natural environments, there
seems to be no loss of value but only prot
to be made. However as described in the
previous example, when you actually take into
account the invisible economy of ecosystems;
the remaining balance is quite diferent. The
person who benet from such short-term
decisions is the few that stand to make a prot;
whereas it is the majority who will ultimately
bear the costs of their actions. The reason
policies like these have gone through in the
past is because the hidden external costs of
such decisions has be blinded by the illusionary
great short term gains. Thankfully, this
4
0.1 Thesis Statement
Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Introduction | Thesis Statement
notion of the invisible economy is starting
to be more prominent into todays politics.
The Green party in New Zealand is strongly
opposed to the exploration of fossil fuels and
has reported the extreme risks that are related
to deep sea drilling. If a major oil spill were to
happen it could be a loss of over $20 billion
in terms of external costs towards the New
Zealand economy; and given recent events
and catastrophic oil spills such as the one in
the Gulf of Mexico, there is no guarantee to
prevent these risks. (Green Party 2011) Given
that the total value in terms of future royalties
from the potential extraction of oil is only to be
approximately $8 Billion (National Party, 2011)
and given the majority of the prots would
go to foreign oil companies, one must ask are
the risks worth the gains? The environmental
situation is not so diferent when compared to
Chinas example of deforestation; we can see
that the external costs and potential risk is
clearly more than the short -term benets. And
those that will pay the true costs will be the New
Zealand tax payer. Prior to this, New Zealand
was on the right track by concentrating on its
renewable resources but sadly is now slowly
shifting its focus to fossil fuels. Surprisingly,
this is at a time when the demand and interest
for renewable energy is increasing globally;
hence it would seem unwise to stray away from
the green agenda.
ECONOMIC CATALYST
The sustainable solution to the ever-
increasing energy needs and a potentially very
strong economic catalyst for Christchurchs
recovery could be one in the same. Solar
energy is an unharnessed potential in New
Zealand with less than 1% contribution to
the total energy sector. The estimated solar
exposure is 2,050 hours annually, which is
equivalent to 1360kWh per square metre, or
approximately $360 a year of energy at 27c
per kwh. (Energy Efciency and Conservation
Authority, 2001) A country such as Australia
and Germany are successfully leading the way
in the implementation of solar power and have
proven solar energy is a viable and promising
source. Australia has similar solar conditions
as New Zealand but has a solar adoption rate
of 50% (the rate of which solar technology is
being implemented in new infrastructure);
whilst New Zealand is merely 2%. (Moore, 2012)
Australia is planning to intensify its clean
energy industry by striving to become a zero-
carbon country by 2020; to do this they have
produced a ten-year plan with strategic energy
saving strategies implemented in stages. By
capitalising on this natural source of solar
energy, Christchurch could learn from other
global leaders and lead the way within the New
Zealand context. Hence, for part of my thesis
I will set out to establish a transitional energy
strategy to make Christchurch a zero carbon
city by 2035 by using solar energy as one of the
economic catalyst in the energy scheme.
New Zealand has an advantage over Australia
as it is smaller country, which means less
output for infrastructural projects. As well the
majority of New Zealands energy is already
from renewable sources, so if New Zealand
wanted to set the same aim to achieve a zero
carbon energy strategy, it could do so with less
time and investment.
Another country leading the green revolution
is China, New Zealands second largest
trading partner. New Zealand and specically
Christchurch could take advantage of its
good trading relationship with China and be
a part of Chinas 10 Trillion Yuan investment
plan to grow its clean technology industry
by supplying innovative ideas and products
to the Chinese market. If Christchurch
invested in the technology driving the green
energy industries, and lead by example it
could becoming a truly green energy city,
and potentially a source for producing and
distributing both the solutions and the
technology behind renewable energy sources.
Christchurch is at a cross roads, it can either
take the path of a Green Economy which
would be ecologically and economically
responsible, or continue down the road of
Business as Usual which neglects the long
term consequences of immediate returns.
If Christchurch continues the path of the
Business as Usual Scenario, nothing really
changes, and a select few gets will become
richer, mainly the people who have a share in
the non-renewable sector. Energy prices will
continue to increase as the supply for fossil
fuels will inevitably run out, at which time
New Zealand will be forced to import clean
tech from abroad, which by then will have
become the norm for energy production and
consumption leaving New Zealand to catch
up rather then lead the way. This would have
a negative consequence on New Zealands
image as a clean, green country as well it
would lend to the continued degradation of
the air quality through pollution which has
the related consequences of negative health
efects.
However, if Christchurch takes the steps
towards a Green Economy and focuses
on further investing in renewable energy
technologies, it could lead the way for New
Zealand in choosing a responsible and
economically sound future. If Christchurch
develops a renewable energy strategy, it could
become a prototype city for the rest of New
Zealand and the world, and instead of falling
behind, it could lead the way. My thesis aims
to outline a strategy for how this transition
to a green economy is not only possible, but
could be the catalyst for investment and future
growth. I believe the city could build on New
Zealands identity as a clean green country
to capture the attention of foreign investors
looking to invest in sustainable technologies.
The green economy is about the bare essentials
of everyday life, energy (food as a source of
energy for humans), being afordable for every
household in Christchurch and in New Zealand.
The green economy is also about maintaining
the priceless scenic natural environment of
New Zealand to create an environment for
innovative individuals who want to stay in
Christchurch; where professionals gather to
see how theories of sustainability are put into
practice to rejuvenate life and activity within
this fallen city. Being sustainable is not about
getting rich quickly but rather creating a high
quality of life that everyone enjoys.
THE FUTURE PLAN
To start the momentum for this transition
towards a green economy, a few catalyst
projects around Christchurch are needed
to activate certain areas and aspects of the
city; such as energy, transport and housing.
The energy aspect of Christchurch will be
re-evaluated and analyzed to nd potential
changes to make the existing energy scheme
more efcient in the long term by only relying
on renewable resources. The cost of the
existing oil economy will be put to the test
to see if it is really the cheaper option. The
economically feasible energy scheme will
aim to transition Christchurch into a Zero-
Carbon city by the year 2035. The result of the
plan will change the urban fabric of the city
because of the necessary infrastructure that
the proposal needs to be realized. Architecture
has the means of reecting and portraying
the underlying spirit of the city, in the case of
Christchurch; for a more sustainable resilient
future. The logical prospect for the future of
Christchurch architecture should be of an
optimized and efcient nature; because of the
scarce resources available to the city after the
earthquake. This will reect the philosophy
of, working together with nature rather than
against it and, the nature of Evolution. I
believe once people start to experience the
changes because of these catalyst projects; the
notion of a sustainable future for Christchurch
will spread like a bug, the Green bug.
6 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Introduction | Thesis Statement
Bibliography

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GREEN ECONOMY BUSINESS AS USUAL ECONOMY
T.E.E.B. -
The Economics of
Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Placing Value in Nature,
and the Nature of Value
Green Energy and Clean
Technology
Investing in Renewable
Energy Systems
Green Jobs
Green Architecture
Passive Sustainable Design
Energy Efcient Systems
Sustainable Retroftting
New Zealand Policies
The Governments plan for
action for the future
economy of NZ
ECOLOGY ECONOMY EFFICIENCY EQUALITY
VS.
FUTURE CHRISTCHURCH: A GREEN ECONOMY
THESIS FRAMEWORK
COMBINING ALL THESE ASPECTS TO CREATE A CATALYST FOR CHANGE
ANALYSING THESE ASPECTS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH CHRISTCHURCH
The Economic Value
Analysing the invisible
economic value of
Christchurchs environment
and ecosystems
Current Energy Plan
The current and proposed
energy plan for
Christchurch
Existing Architecture
State of the infrastructure
in Christchurch
Potential for retroftting in
Christchurch
New Zealand Policies
The Governments plan for
the reconstruction of
Christchurch
INVESTMENT IN GREEN RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGIES architecture as a driver to encourage :
What is the opportunistic potential in the rebuilding of Christchurch?
URBAN PLAN: Planned for future developments that will incorporate and encourage sustainable technologies and systems.
Future plans designed for the Future. To ensure plans do not get outdated before it is realized.
BUILDING DESIGN: A catalyst to encourage green technologies being implemented and to be a case-study model for future developments.
To show and proof the legitimacy of the theories of Green research into practice.
Future designs planned for the Future. To ensure design do not get outdated before it is realized.
8 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Introduction | Contents
Contents
Future Christchurch: 1
0.1 Tesis Statement 2
Bibliography 6
1.1 A Green Economy 10
1.2 Economics of Energy 12
1.3 Economics of Efciency 14
1.4 Economics of Equality 17
1.5 Economics of Ecology 19
1.6 Economics of Solar 22
1.6 Te Economics of Solar 24
1.8 Bibliography 28
2.0 Urban Strategy 30
2.1 Solar Energy 33
2.2 Wind Energy 40
2.3 Biomass Energy 48
2.4 Geothermal Energy 53
2.5 Hydro Energy 53
2.6 Energy Efciency 57
2.7 Localized Production 61
2.8 Transportation 64
2.9 Final Summary 66
2.10 Bibliography 72
List of Figures

10 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Introduction | Contents
List of Figures

The best way to recover from a crisis is -
Prevention.
author.
12
1.1 A Green Economy
A Green Economy
A green economy is an economic development
model based on sustainable development.
Its most distinguishing feature from prior
economic regimes is direct valuation of
natural capital and ecological services as
having economic value.
WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE?
Sustainability is being able to maintain
a steady level of development without
exhausting natural resources or causing severe
ecological damage. Growth is acceptable if
it doesnt involve exploiting the natural or
human resource for the benet of economic
growth.
Conventional Approach:
Pick ONE only: Economy / Sustainability
A GREEN ECONOMY =
A SUSTAINABLE ECONOMY
The point above illustrates the misguided
public perception on sustainability and how
they view it as a sacrice to the economy if
they wanted to achieve sustainability. This is
far from the truth which is what my thesis will
be illustrating. The complete opposite is what
I am going to be achieving as in our time of
a great economic recession and energy crisis.
There is an opportunity for a more sustainable
and green economy to emerge as the practical
solution to help regenerate Christchurchs
economy after the devastating earthquakes.
Figures 2 and 3 illustrates the current
urban state of Christchurch. The need for
an economic catalyst is necessary to shift
Christchurch from a bearable state into a
more sustainable one. Which further proves
that an economic catalyst is necessary for
Christchurch not just from a capitalist point of
view but also from a sustainable one.
However even though growth of economic
sector needs to happen. The process for this
to happen should be carefully considered. As
what is necessary is a balance of development
and not just irresponsible expansion.

BALANCED GROWTH:
Sustainable growth is a self-evident oxymoron,
as growth describes by Cato below describes
this dilemma well. Hence, the key to
sustainable growth is balance. Only when
there is an equilibrium between the economic,
social and ecological systems can there be true
sustainable growth.

Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | A Green Economy

Figure 1:
Figure 2:

Economy
Social
Ecology
Figure 3:
Re-Imagining the relationship
between society, economy and
Ecology
In the conventional views as seen in Figures
1 and 2, the elements interact but are not
interdependent.
The elements are the three pillars of urban
development; economy, social and ecology.
The elements are drawn of equal size; which
symbolizes their importance. Although
in reality the economic realm carries a lot
more importance in decision making, with
the communities bearing the cost and the
environment paying the highest price of
all. This is evident in the conventional view
of economists as they view their waste and
destruction happening somewhere else and
not in their realm. But of course, there is no
somewhere else; and this is shown below in
Figure 4: Re-Imagining the relationship. (Cato,
2009) 37.
This diagram realistically depicts what is
happening in the world we live in. The human
Figure 4: Figure 5:
The green economic process however utilizes
a circular metabolism approach; also known
as the closed loop system. This is where
the resources and its waste are utilized as
efciently to ensure that there is no waste.
society lives within the ecological system; and
the economic organization is developed within
the human society. From this we can see that
society and economy both are dependent on
ecology. Hence no subsystem should be able
to expand beyond the capacity of the total
system in which it is a part of.
What Christchurch needs is a steady-state
economy and not a quick x. The green
economy is about living in balance with the
environment; almost like how an eco-system
works. At the moment Christchurch like
most cities are using the traditional linear
progressive economic model. This has to
change as we are running out of resources
and the wastes that is generated is just simply
uneconomical; as described later in the
research.
14
1.2 Economics of Energy
ECONOMICS OF ENERGY
The economics of energy is a discussion on
the current state of Christchurchs energy
situation, its proposed future energy plans and
the repercussions of each.
Why Energy?
Energy is at the centre of the urban web, which
we call civilization. We need energy to survive;
energy from the foods we eat, energy to heat
or cool our homes and energy to power our
everyday appliances.
THE CURRENT AND PROPOSED ENERGY PLAN
FOR CHRISTCHURCH
Original Data Source:
The Base load for energy is from non-renewable
sources mainly from petrol and diesel sources.
The distribution between non-renewable
and renewable energy sources is 61:39. Land
transport fuels comprise of 52% of which the
majority of this is from vehicles.
Christchurchs electricity generation is 98%
from the renewable source of hydro dams.
However this renewable source is seasonal
and helps to reduce the peaks in energy
consumption during winter.
The energy usage trend is relatively static and
is declining due to the lack of activity after the
Christchurch earthquakes, However we can
see that a slight trend of using non-renewable
energy at the present seems to be arising.
Commercial and residential are the major
consumption in electricity but yet prices
are increasing only for the residents. This
provides incentives for a better efciency in
homes to reduce the economic burden.
Solar and Wind technologies are not being
used enough to have an impact. The renewable
hydro source takes a large capital and time
to set up. What is missing is the increased
energy load that Christchurch will inevitably
be facing when it experiences growth. Solar
and Wind technologies has the potential to
deal with this increase. Solar and wind are also
a lot more prominent from a social awareness
point of view. As if a Green economy was
to be developed; they could act as the icons
for change and could be integrated with the
landscape and architecture to highlight this.
EFFECTS OF THE EARTHQUAKE:
Christchurchs total energy use has not varied
substantially since 2008, but has reduced by
8.3% following the February earthquake
Electricity use in Christchurch has reduced
by approximately 15% as a result of the
earthquakes; possibly due to inactivity.
Diesel use has increased due to the increase
of diesel generators being used to handle the
additional stresses on the centralized energy
grid demand during a disaster. Solar and
Wind generation helps to decentralize the
energy grid which makes the supply of power
a lot more resilient in times of needs. If the
main grid was cut of for some reason; these
renewable energy sources could be used to
power the essentials to keep the city alive.
The Christchurch Agency for Energy
An agency that has been set up to raise
awareness of and promote the use of renewable
energy in Christchurch through:
Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | Economics of Efficiency
E~u~ticnclsitcslcrprccucticncl
renewable energy
Enccur~gingtncusccl|iclucs
Enccur~gingtncuscclsc~rnc~ting
Their website, http://cafe.gen.nz, helps to
provide simple information about sustainable
energy practices and up to date information
about Christchurchs energy usage. The rst
steps has already been made for Christchurch
to start and grow a Green Economy.
FRAMEWORK FOR DECISION MAKING IN THE
DISTRICT ENERGY SCHEME
The Christchurch Agency for Energy realizes
these aspects and will hopefully use the
proposed Decision Tree process; which will
help promote sustainability. Solar and wind
technologies according to the decision are
both able to GO ahead.
Figure 6:


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DISTRIBUTIONOF ENERGY
NON-RENEWABLE TOTAL RENEWABLE TOTAL
Electricity
35%
Petrol
27%
Diesel
25%
9%
Biofuels
4%
ENERGY SUPPLY TYPE
98%
1%
0% 0%
1%
ELECTRICITY COMPOSITION
HYDRO ENERGY
WIND ENERGY
GEOTHERMAL
BIOMASS
FOSSIL FUEL
23%
37%
40%
ENERGY USE BY SECTOR
INDUSTRIAL
COMMERCIAL
RESIDENTIAL
Other fossil fuels
y = -5E-06x
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+ 0.4024x - 7969.1
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Energy Usage
Poly. (Energy Usage)
ENERGY USAGE TREND
y = 3E-06x
2
- 0.2426x + 4850.5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
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DIESEL USAGE TREND
Diesel Usage
Poly. (Diesel Usage)
0%
SOLAR
WIND
ENERGY
Data Source: (Christchurch agency for Energy 2012)
$
CHRISTCHURCH ENERGY
16
1.3 Economics of Efciency
ECONOMICS OF EFFICIENCY
Economics of efciency is an analysis on
existing possible solutions to make the
residential sector of Christchurchs building
stock more efcient. The reason being that
the residential sector as mentioned before
is the largest sector in terms of energy use
and because of its inefcient heating system
during the winter; causes health problems
due to air pollution of inefcient replaces.
This will be discussed later in the Invisible
economy section.
First the housing stock is categorized into the
typology that it suits and is weighted against
its Benet-Cost Ratio (BCR). The BCR is a
ratio to identify the relationship between the
cost and benets of the proposed investment.
The percentage of Non-Insulated Pre-1980
homes in the Canterbury region is 129,389
out of 194,818 (66%) Whilst the average New
Zealand total is 65% and for Auckland it is 59%.
Because of this lack of insulation we can see
that in a typical energy use prole of what a
household uses their energy for we can see
that space heating plays a signicant role in
the energy demand cycle. (Beacon Pathway
Limited, 2007)
COST BENEFIT RATIOS
Through the analysis of the housing typology

and its relative benet cost ratio; we can see
that the house typology of the 1940-1960
mass construction type would be the most
economical to retrot. Due to it being the most
common housing typology in Christchurch
and with the highest Benet-Cost Ratio.
Theoretically, it would cost approximately
$1.6 billion dollars to retrot all 91,000 houses
of this type. However the net present value
(NPV) for this stock would be $2.6 billion; after
a period of 30 years through saving 630 Giga-
Watt hour per year (GWh/yr).
Interestingly, these were the same type of
houses that was damaged the most because
of the earthquakes. The reason being the
unreinforced masonry and monolithic
structures that formed cracks due to torsion
and movement during the earthquakes.
TYPE OF RETROFIT
Through the analysis of the housing typology

and its relative type of retrot; we can see that:
Firstly, adding R4 ceiling insulation in a house
with no existing insulation has the highest
BCR of around 7. However, this is only true for
housing constructed prior to 1980.
Secondly, adding draught proong, an efcient
wood burner and a heat pump seem to be
another good option for retrotting with BCRs
ranging from 3.2 5.5.
Thirdly, adding or replacing windows, curtains
or replacing the walls would seem to have a low
BCR compared to the other types of retrotting.
These range from 0.5 (uneconomical) 1.7
(barely economical)
Figure 7:
Typology Stock Numbers
Total Inial Cost
$Million (negave
value)
GWh/yr Saved NPV $million BCR Average Prot p.a BCR * STOCK
Villas 20,099 422 162 679 2.61 22.6 52,438
20s Bungalows 18,013 364 140 575 2.58 19.2 46,468
Art Deco 12,428 238 91 375 2.58 12.5 32,010
Mass 40s-60s 91,337 1596 628 2557 2.60 85.2 237,671
Mul Units 1960-1979 18,172 230 88 298 2.30 9.9 41,717
House 1970-1978 28,892 568 226 977 2.72 32.6 78,588
House 1979-1989 30,211 419 151 699 2.67 23.3 80,611
House 1990-1996 20,578 275 105 462 2.68 15.4 55,149
Mul Units 1980-1996 11,969 126 41 128 2.02 4.3 24,128
House 1996 - 34,162 476 164 732 2.54 24.4 86,697
Mul Units 1996 - 5,412 60 18 59 1.98 2.0 10,734
Assumpons: 18 Degree Heang KEY: ABOVE AVERAGE
Period- 30 yrs
Discount rate = 5%
Energy takeback = 30%
Energy Price escalaon = 3%
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Villas 20s Bungalows Art Deco Mass 40s-60s Mul Units 1960-
1979
House 1970-1978House 1979-1989House 1990-1996Mul Units 1980-
1996
House 1996 - Mul Units 1996 -
S
C
A
L
E
D

A
X
I
S
HOUSING TYPOLOGY
CHRISTCHURCH HOUSING TYPOLOGY BENEFIT-COST RATIO
Stock Numbers (#/500) Total Inial Cost $Million (-#/10) GWh/yr Saved (#/10) NPV $million (#/10) BCR (#*10) Average Prot p.a BCR * STOCK (#/1000)
Figure 8:
Figure 9:
18
Figure 10:
TYPE OF RETROFIT
Typology
R4 CEILING (NO
INSULATION)
ADD 2.8 (R1.5
EXISTING)
WALL R2.8
REPLACE
CLADDING
WALL R2.8
REPLACE LININGS
TIMBER FLOOR,
R2 INSUALTION
DRAUGHT
PROOFING
NEW DOUBLE
GLAZING
SECONDARY
GLAZING
CURTAINS WOOD BURNER HEAT PUMP HEAT TRANSFER
Villas 7.20 2.10 0.50 1.30 3.40 5.40 1.10 1.20 1.30 5.10 5.30 3.20
20s Bungalows 7.20 2.10 0.50 1.30 3.40 5.00 1.10 1.20 1.20 5.00 5.20 3.10
Art Deco 6.80 2.00 0.50 1.40 3.30 4.60 1.10 1.20 1.10 4.80 5.00 2.90
Mass 40s-60s 6.80 2.00 0.60 1.60 3.30 4.20 1.10 1.20 1.00 4.70 4.80 2.90
Mul Units 1960-1979 6.80 2.00 0.90 2.40 3.30 3.20 1.00 1.00 1.10 3.40 3.30 2.30
House 1970-1978 6.80 2.00 0.60 1.60 3.30 NA 1.10 1.20 1.20 5.00 5.30 3.00
House 1979-1989 1.30 2.00 NA NA 1.40 NA 1.20 1.50 1.30 5.00 5.30 2.00
House 1990-1996 1.30 2.00 NA NA 1.40 NA 1.20 1.50 1.30 4.80 5.30 2.10
Mul Units 1980-1996 1.30 2.00 NA NA 1.00 NA 1.00 1.00 1.40 3.20 3.40 1.50
House 1996 - NA NA NA NA 1.50 NA 1.20 1.50 1.50 4.40 5.10 1.40
Mul Units 1996 - NA NA NA NA 1.10 NA 1.00 1.00 1.70 3.20 3.50 1.10
BCR KEY
0-2
2-4
>4
GERMAN POLICY
In 1999, a serious energy efcient initiative
was started by the German government
and in the process stimulated growth in
the insulation and energy efcient sector.
Between 2001 and 2006, a public investment
of 3.8 billion stimulated a further 15.2 billion
in investments and retrotted 342,000 homes.
This initiative created 25,000 jobs and saved
116,000 jobs in the declining construction
sector. Furthermore this created a catalyst
for demand in the energy efcient sector;
which led to growths in other energy efcient
technologies such as photo-voltaic panels and
efcient ventilation systems. This is just one
example from a green economy principle and
has proven to yield such impressive results.
In 2010, according to Environment Minister
Sigmar Gabriel, the green jobs sector employs
about 1.8 million, which is a 50 percent increase
in just three years.
(Fitzgerald, 2010) 82.
1.4 Economics of Equality
Economics of Equality
The economics of Equality is an overview on
the current and future government policies
that afects the social aspect of a sustainable
economy.
NEW ZEALAND CURRENT
SUSTAINABLE STATE
Currently, New Zealand is doing relatively
well in terms of being a sustainable and green
country compared to other countries globally.
In late 2011, the Green Economy Index was
published analyzing the performance and
perception of 27 countries and scored New
Zealand rst in overall performance. (Building
a Bluegreen Future, 2012)
Under the Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS),
there has been no new fossil fuel power plants
and has been a ve-fold increase in renewable
technology. The government intends to
maintain the $25/ton xed price option until at
least 2015. From 2008; there has been a dramatic
change in which the ETS provides incentives
to plant trees and to stop deforesting. Water
is abundant in New Zealand compared to the
rest of the world; which has resulted in poor
management and being too carefree about
this valuable resource. (Building a Bluegreen
Future, 2012)
FUTURE ENERGY PLAN FOR NEW
ZEALAND
However there is no time for celebration not
just yet; as this ranking maybe about to change
very soon. This can be seen in the current
economic development action plan that
describes the focus and steps the government
will take to build New Zealands economy.
What is worrying is that there is absolutely
nothing on renewable energy or incentives to
grow the clean energy sector. Furthermore,
the government intends to invest $12 billion
more on roads. However, what is the most
disturbing is that in the energy sector of the
plan, the government only focus is to build
up and promote the oil and gas sector. The
next steps in the governments plan is not to
encourage renewable energy but promote the
non-renewable sector. (National Party, 2011)
WHY?
According to the governments (National)
report, Our petroleum estate is under-
explored. An independent valuation has put a
value of $8 billion to $12 billion on potential
future royalties from oil and gas production.
However there has been no real costs published
about the true value of such operations and
who benets.
Key Points on why this does not make
economic sense: (Clendon, 2011)
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exploration rig to survey the Great South Basin
is going to arrive fully stafed, so will ofer no
New Zealand jobs.
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employs fewer than 800 people.
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of oil into the North Sea, while OMV had a
spill of the Kapiti Coast last year. There is no
guarantee of safety in ofshore drilling.
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a loss of over $20 billion in terms of external
costs towards the New Zealand economy; and
as stated before there is no guarantee that this
will not happen. (Green Party, 2011)
OIL SPILLS
Petrobras and Anadarko are two companies
who have been granted permits to explore for
oil in deep New Zealand waters. Petrobras
has a history of accidents with 27 oil rig
blowouts since 1980 and 282 deaths from
accidents, explosions and res in the last 15
years. Furthermore, the American company
Anadarko had a 25% stake in the Deepwater
Horizon well. The deepwater horizon oil spill
or the Gulf of Mexico oil spill in 2010 had a
total costs of $40 billion. (Graeme Wearden
2010) This disaster could happen in New
Zealand waters and through the Rena disaster
we saw that New Zealand is unable to cope
with small oil spill in shallow water; let alone a
deep water oil spill.
ALTERNATIVE TO THE OIL ECONOMY
The Green Party has proposed and planned
out an alternative to the oil economy, a green
economy plan, 100,000 green jobs for New
Zealanders,
Three main points on how they are planning
to achieve this: (100,000 green jobs for New
Zealanders, 2011)
20
1. Directly investing into extending home
insulations to a further 200,000 homes. This
would result in an annual energy saving of
$144 per household.
2. Using New Zealand energy companies to
drive exports. The global market for renewable
energy technology is forecast to reach an
annual value of $590$800 billion by 2015. If
we can secure just 1% of this market, we can
build a new $68 billion export industry here at
home, creating 47,00065,000 new clean-tech,
high-value jobs (59,00081,000 new jobs if you
include indirect and upstream employment
efects).
3. To help grow the clean technology sector,
support for greening of Small Medium
Enterprises (SME) will help drive growth in
the private sector via tax incentives and start-
up funds.
The Green Party also has calculated how it
intends to pay for its costs and have created an
approximate scal implication on its plan; to
show the economic viability of their plan. See
Figure 11 for more details. (100,000 green jobs
for New Zealanders, 2011)
In summary, the amount of efort and
investment needed to encourage this risky
operation of oil exploration would be better
spend into providing green jobs for the
people of New Zealand. Unfortunately the
government in power at the moment is
National; but the Green party has slowly been
climbing in popularity and is the third most
inuential party at present.
Fiscal implications
This is a summary of the scal implications of our priorities for 2011/122013/14.
Increased tax revenues
from raising the
minimum wage $519m
Raising a levy on the
commercial use of water
$370-570m per year $1110m
Comprehensive tax on
capital gains (excluding
the family home),
up to $4500m per year $1000m
A temporary levy
on income to fund
the rebuilding of
Christchurch
$1000m per year for ve
years $3000m
Reprioritised
government spending on
new motorways
$3500m saved over the next
ten years $1050m
Phase out on-going ETS
subsidies $1200m
Additional mining
royalties & concessions
$50m per year $150m
Bringing 100,000 kids
out of poverty by 2014 priceless
TOTAL
REVENUES
$8.029
billion
Extending the In-Work
Tax Credit
$300m per year $900m
Reinstating and
extending the Training
Incentive Allowance
$40m per year $120m
Temporary transitional
fund to help small
businesses adjust to a
minimum wage increase
$20m per year $60m
Clean Rivers initiatives
$138m per year $414m
Extending Heat Smart to
200,000 more homes $350m
Build an additional 2000
new social housing units $670m
Conservation initiatives,
additional to Clean Rivers
initiatives $432m
Forestry initiatives
$12m per year $36m
Boost R&D funding to
$500m in 2014 $1000m
New start-up fund for
clean technology SMEs $100m
TOTAL
COSTS
$4.082
billion
Revenues Costs
Ending Child Poverty Priority Ending Child Poverty Priority
Clean Rivers Priority
Clean Rivers Priority
Green Jobs Priority
Green Jobs Priority
Figure 11:
1.5 Economics of Ecology
Economics of Ecology
The economics of ecology is a study on
revealing the otherwise invisible economic
value of nature. The invisible economy is
vital for current urban development as at
present we have this mentality that just
because something is free; it does not have
value. Hence it is crucial to quantify and put
a value on eco-systems; as at the moment in
todays market rate, they are valued at $ ZERO;
because these natural resources are given to
use for free. The Economics of Ecosystems
and Biodiversity is thinking of the entire life
cycle of a development and end-user products
to ensure the decisions we make are based on
the true values of the resulting consequence.
(TEEB The Economics of Ecosystems and
Biodiversity for National and International
Policy Makers, 2009)
PLACING VALUE IN NATURE,
AND THE NATURE OF VALUE
Valuing the Invisible Economy:
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gas emissions worth US$3.7 trillion
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US$50 billion annually due to over shing
Bcc kccping gcncr~tcs US
million annually in Switzerland
Biodiversity, 2011)
THE TRUE VALUE OF UNSUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
By applying the T.E.E.B. principle the true
value of a timber industry in China can be
shown and be weighed in an economic term
between its pros and cons. From Figure 12,
we can see that the Market Price of Timber
(prots) is half of what the external costs is to
the country. These external costs range from
ooding damage in 1998 to desertication.
Biodiversity, 2011)
Another example of this is in Thailand
where an economic comparison to convert a
mangrove forest into a shrimp farm is used to
show the true value of not valuing the invisible
ecological economy and the reason why this
is still happening. In Figure 13, we can see
that the initial prots from the prawn farm
would be a clear decision but when you take
away subsidies and include restoration costs;
the entire scenario is changed. The result
of the prawn farm would result in a negative
value whilst the mangrove forest is actually
producing that same loss value as a prot for
the community.
This explains why policy makers approve such
decisions to go forward as the initial conversion
decision is clearly an easy one for those making
the private gain but the conclusion changes if
the resulting costs and benets to society are
also included in the picture.
THE ECOLOGICAL VALUE IN NEW ZEALAND
Valuing the Invisible Economy in New Zealand:
Figure 12:

22
THE ECOLOGICAL VALUE IN
CHRISTCHURCH
CHRISTCHURCH AIR QUALITY
Eighty percent of Christchurchs winter air
pollution comes from wood or coal burners
and open res. Only 10 percent comes from
vehicles and 10 percent from industry.
The older and less efcient a re is, the
greater the quantity of emitted dangerous ne
particulate emissions (known as PM10). On
cold, still winter nights, these particles can
form into choking, brown smog.
For up to 50 days each winter, the level of PM10
particles in the air in Christchurch exceeds
Ministry for the Environment guidelines.
Research indicates each year this pollution is
responsible for:
scricusnc~tnprc|cnslcrsccr~tncus~nc
people, such as respiratory and cardiac illness
(causing them to take time of work, which
afects the local economy)
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due to respiratory or cardiac illness
nigncr nc~tn ccsts lcr ccrycnc cuc tc
heavier demand on the health system
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Christchurch.
(Science Learning Hub, 2008)
The economic health costs can be estimated
to be costing Christchurch $168 Million per
annum. In addition, premature deaths because
of air pollution are 158 lives lost a year.
(Spronken-Smith, 2002)
Figure 13:
Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | Economics of Ecology

Figure 14:

Figure 15:
Figure 16:
DOMESTIC HEATING IS THE PROBLEM

Estimated Breakdown of the sources:
Dcncsticscurccs
Incustri~scurcc
Vcniccscurccs
(G. Fisher 2005)
SMOG
To further complicate things, in Christchurch
because there are hills nearby, a layer of warm
air, known as an inversion layer, traps the
smog down at street level. This directly afects
the people and is worst in the evenings.
(Science Learning Hub 2008)
Figure 17:
THE ECONOMIC COST

BREAKDOWN
24
1.6 Economics of Solar
ECONOMICS OF EFFICIENCY
The solar economic plan is about realizing
the solar potential in Christchurch and the
economic benets this entails.
GLOBAL INVESTMENT INTEREST
INVESTING IN RENEWABLE ENERGY
The current economic crisis has led people to
believe that there is not enough money in the
world to be investing in Green technologies.
Quite the contrary as it turns out. Reuters
has reported that Apple Computer had $93
Billion in cash, as well as long and short term
investments. In September of 2011, the Wall
Street Journal reported that corporations had
a higher share of cash on their balance sheets
than at any time in nearly half a century,
with the Federal Reserve reporting that non-
nancial companies had more than $2 trillion
in cash and other liquid assets, up more than
$88 billion from the end of March of 2010.
(The Green Economy, 2012)
(The Green Economy, 2011)
So what are these companies going to invest in?
The renewable market that was niche before
has now matured and has shown signicant
growths world-wide. The reasons being the
global energy crisis and climate change issues
has generated increased demand and interest.
So the question remains, is Christchurch able
to catch the Green wave before it is too late?
MENTALITY OF GREEN INVESTMENTS
The concept of green investments are for
planners who look at the long term prospect
of benets and are not for investors looking
to make a quick buck. The graph explains
this concept of a how a high performance
investment may have a high capital cost but
through time this costs more than pays for
itself and becomes a larger prot. This is
shown by expressing the savings as positive
cash ow, and showing the total accumulated
savings (net present value, NPV) over the life
of the technology, it can be seen that the overall
investment (added cost plus accumulated
savings) pays of over time.
CONCEPT OF BALANCE
However this concept of green investment
is not as simple as this, If you invest a large
amount of capital through time you will surely
prot even more.
Green investments are about balance and
tradeofs. This can be seen in the table where
a simulation was run to retrot all the ofce
buildings in the USA. The rst scenario was
to have an energy savings of 10%; whilst the
second scenario was a savings of 40%. The
results was that both scenarios whilst proved
to be protable the less aggressive plan, 10%
savings, proved to have the higher prot at the
end of the scenario, after 15 years. The reason
being the initial capital costs was far too great
for the savings to recuperate in that amount of
time.
Figure 18:
Figure 19:

Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | Economics of Solar

GLOBAL GREEN WAVE
Globally, this green revolution is everywhere;
some more serious than others. To narrow
this down only Australias and Chinas plans
for a sustainable future will be discussed; for
the reason being that these countries afect the
New Zealand economy the most.
ZERO CARBON AUSTRALIA STATIONARY
ENERGY PLAN
Beyond Zero Emissions is the initiative behind
developing a detailed, priced blueprint for
the Australian economy to transition to
be completely zero carbon by 2020. The
Zero Carbon Australia project consists of
6 transition plans covering the 6 sectors
of energy, buildings, transport, land use,
industrial processes and coal exports.
(Beyond Zero Emissions, 2010)
STATIONARY ENERGY PLAN:
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achievable and afordable
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concentrated solar thermal plants and large
scale wind farms
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proven technologies renewable energy can
power Australia within 10 years
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(Beyond Zero Emissions 2010) 35.
ECONOMIC ARGUMENT
The total investment to transition Australias
stationary energy sector to renewable
electricity production is $370 billion over the
next ten years, or an average of $37 billion per
year. This is equivalent to 3% of Australias
$1,200 billion annual Gross Domestic Product.
While this is about $260 billion more than the
capital spending required under business-
as-usual by 2020, this investment is easily
recouped over the longer term as the costs of
purchasing oil, gas, and coal are avoided. The
net present cost of the ZCA2020 Stationary
Energy Plan is approximately equal to the net
present cost of business-as-usual to 2040. The
economic cost-benet analysis is therefore
attractive, even without considering the
enormous value of avoiding climate change
costs which, as Sir Nicholas Stern warns, could
reach 20% of yearly GDP by 2050. (Beyond
Zero Emissions, 2010) 128.
RELEVANCE TO CHRISTCHURCH
This is important for Christchurch as the
demand for solar and wind technologies will
be high in the near future. Christchurch could
tap into our neighboring countrys emerging
market, since an efective trading platform
between New Zealand has already been
established. On the other hand, if New Zealand
does not start to develop their own innovative
sector within the clean technologies; they will
risk losing even more talent over to Australia
and further increase the ever growing Trans-
Tasman exodus.
Figure 20:
26
1.6 The Economics of Solar
CHINAS AMBITIONS
China has planned to invest 10 trillion Yuan
into developing its clean-tech industries;
thus injecting millions into the New Zealand
economy if we have a part to play even if it is
just a small part. (a 1% share would still be 20
million NZD)
Chinas recent global dominance in Solar and
Wind Technologies provides an additional
opportunity to export innovative solutions
to China to do the intensive manufacturing.
Moreover the platform for trade with
the Chinese has been established and is
continuing; and has proven to be successful.
The free trade agreement (New Zealand being
the rst developed country to do so) has
already been set up and China is already the
second largest exporter in New Zealand; with
the trade relationship of the two countries
growing stronger because of the strong dairy
and agriculture demand from China. (NZ
Herald, 2012)
With cleantech a big, big component of
Chinas immediate future, if New Zealand
can secure even a small slice of that business,
it will be big news for local rms and the
wider economy, - New Zealand Trade and
Enterprise Guangzhou trade commissioner
John Cochrane. (NZ Herald, 2012)
RELEVANCE TO CHRISTCHURCH
Hence Christchurch as a proto-type city is a
great opportunity for potential investors to
see Kiwi ingenuity rst hand. However this
shift to clean technologies has to be done
rst domestically before it can be attractive
internationally.
SOLAR POTENTIAL
Solar energy is the most abundant, practically
inexhaustible primary energy available in New
Zealand. It is a resource of immense potential.
This resource has the technical potential to
supply all present and foreseeable residential
energy needs and contribute substantially to
commercial and industrial requirements as
well.
The sun beams down 2,050 hours of energy
every year without fail. This is an equivalent
of 1360kWh in every metre square; or
approximately $360 a year of energy at 27c
per kwh. (Energy Efciency and Conservation
Authority, 2001)
WHY SOLAR AND WIND?
Solar energy would help New Zealand
diversify its present energy sources and to
grow its existing manufacturing base. Solar
and Wind technologies have a fast set up and
implementation time compared to the other
energy generation types.
ICON FOR SUSTAINABLE
Solar and Wind energy systems can also
be integrated within the architecture and
landscape of a community to provide an icon
for this transition to a greener economy. The
other renewable energy sources are either in a
remote part of the country or away from the
community. This disengages the public from
energy issues and separates the connectivity
between the source and user; which is critical to
change a community to become more energy
efcient. What could be more encouraging
than a solar panel or wind turbine reminding
you to turn of the lights?
COST OF SOLAR
At present the cost of solar energy from
photovoltaic (PV) panels start at around $8500
for a 1.52 kW system. The breakeven point for
a typical grid connected PV installation at
a New Zealand urban site can be from 10-15
years. The lifetime of the panels is guaranteed
by most manufacturers for 25 years.
CHRISTCHURCH CALCULATION:
-1.52 kW system produces 2128 kWh p.a
-Electricity rate in Christchurch is $ 0.3068
-Calculation = 2128 kWh x $0.3068 =
$ 652.87 p.a (savings)
-Cost of 1.52kW system = $8,495
-ROI = $652.87/ $8,495.00 = 7.7%
100/7.7 = 13
Approximately 13 years for a small 1.52kW
solar system to break even at the current rate
and technology.
The lifetime of both solar thermal and solar PV
technologies are greater than 25 years. Solar
PV modules carry a minimum manufacturer
guarantee of 20 years; longer than most power
plants, conventional or new.
Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | Economics of Solar
Figure 21:
1.5 kWp 3.0 kWp 6.0 kWp

System Price $8,000 $14,000 $25,000
Required Roof area (m2) 12 24 40
Annual generation (kWh) 1850 3720 7600
Annual Savings $486 $978 $1,997
Annual Return 6% 7% 7%
CO2 Savings (kg p.a.) 1140 2300 4700
SOLAR PRICE DROPPING

It is estimated that in a few years times the
price of solar will be on par with fossil fuel
prices. The price for solar in some countries
have already reached parity; where putting
solar modules on the roof to replace electricity
purchase from the grid is a good investment
for consumers. Countries who have already
reached this are Denmark, Spain and Italy.
(Eric Roston, 2012)
From the graph we can see that the price for
solar energy decreases as we move up in scale.
However for smaller scale projects, it is just a
matter of the economies of scale. Currently
New Zealand does not have the required
demand for solar to justify a larger scale
operation. This is where there is potential for
Christchurch to contribute to the solar future
of New Zealand; it can provide that demand
of solar panels. Due to the vast amount of
reconstruction and reconguring of the city.
As we can see in Figure 22, the price for
smaller more domestic units for solar energy
is expected to drop in price. Which in turn
can supply the residential sector of the energy
market; which will benet the most from this
shift in energy generation.
CURRENT CHRISTCHURCH MARKET
SOLARCITY
New Zealands leading all in one solar
company. Based in Nelson and manufactures
in Christchurch. (SolarCity) Part of a
large new Christchurch development,
Higheld. The contract will see all 2200
homes in Christchurch's proposed Higheld
subdivision tted with solar energy systems,
with potentially more than another 1000 in
other subdivisions planned by developer
Maxim Projects. (B. Moore, 2012)
SolarCity is likely to double the size of the
company over the next year and cement
Nelson's place as New Zealand's solar energy
capital, chief executive Andrew Booth said
today. Although the stable lower prices for
solar energy made it a no-brainer for new
homes, New Zealand's solar adoption rate was
well under 2 per cent, Mr Booth said, compared
with up to 90 per cent in Israel and more than
50 per cent in certain parts of Australia with a
similar solar resource.
GREEN-WASHING
This may be good news for the solar energy
plan; but what is also important is the way
the solar energy image is being used. The
term, green-washing is where companies
or individuals employ green products or
principles to sell their idea or plan; and when
you actually calculate the implicated costs, the
end result is not sustainable. To create a green
economy or sustainable city; it is not as simple
as slapping on some solar panels on the roofs.
There are other criteria that should be met as
well; such as the urban form and transportation
modes.
ENASOLAR
Based in Christchurch, New Zealand EnaSolar
is a wholly owned and operated solar division
of Enatel Limited.
ALAN BOOTH, ENASOLAR

Figure 22:
PERCEIVED BARRIERS TO SOLAR

The cost of PV (compared to coal, gas or even
large hydro based electricity) does not, as
yet, factor in the benets of clean electricity
production and an environmentally friendly
image or do not internalize the costs of
environmental damage and international
obligations. The absence of this price
diferential is a barrier to adoption of PV
technology in particular; where the initial
capital costs is quite substantial. (Energy
Efciency and Conservation Authority, 2001)
Therefore it is critical to not forget the external
costs and invisible benets for such an
investment option; as discussed previously
in regards to the invisible economy and the
economic implications when investing in solar.
28
1.7 Summation Diagram
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
THE GREEN ECONOMY
ECONOMY
Increase in other renewable technologies
Increase in Research and Development
Increase in Green Jobs
Clean and Green Natural Environment
Attraction of Foreign Investment
Security in Energy Supply
Export of creative technologies and solutions
Energy efficient culture
Better Healthcare
Higher Quality of Life
Increase in Solar Energy
Attraction of Foreign Talent
Localized Food Production
Lower Costs of Living
Community Bonding
Better Transport System
CLOSED - LOOP ECONOMY
Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | Summary of Research
?
$
$
$
$
$
$
BUSINESS AS USUAL
Brain Drain
Rising Oil Prices
Unforeseeable Oil Disaster
Decline In Industrial Market
Inefficient Transport System
Pollution
Defamation Of NZ Brand
Higher Transport Cost
Loss in Tourism
Lower Quality of Life
Lower Quality of Health
Health Problems
Degradation of Natural Environment
Rising Costs (Globalization) Health Care
Food
Energy
Rise in Crime rate
ECONOMY
Consumerism
Lack of Community Spirit
END USE ECONOMY
Figure 23:
30
1.8 Bibliography

___
_

____

____
Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | Bibliography

2.0 Urban Strategy
Urban Strategy statement
to be continued...
32 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Initial Energy Composition
2.0 Urban Strategy
THE GREEN ENERGY PLAN
THE AIM:
To make Christchurch a zero-carbon renewable
city
METHOD:
By transitioning the existing energy structure
to a diversied renewable energy structure
TIME SCOPE:
3 year rebuild transition phase + 20 year
implementation: average life span of renewable
technology (Solar and Wind)
=
Christchurch a 2035 zero carbon city
ENERGY DEFINITIONS:
TJ Tcrr~ Jcucs
Joules = 277,778 kWh
kWnKicw~ttHcurW~tt
p~IcrAnnunyrccryyc~r
1 kWh = turning on 10 x 100 Watt light bulbs
on for an hour.
The average NZ household uses 11,410 kWh
p.a; Hence 1 TJ = 24 Households total energy
needs.
62%
38%
Average Energy Share
NON-RENEWABLE TOTAL RENEWABLE TOTAL
100% Renewable = Need 18,000 TJ more from renewable sources
11,249 Tera-Joules (TJ) Renewable 18,118 Tera-Joules (TJ) Non-Renewable

Total = 29,367 TJ/p.a
30,000 TJ of energy needed p.a

Figure 24:
10325
8038
7244
2727
1033
Energy Composion in TJ/p.a
Electricity
Petrol
Diesel
Other fossil fuels
Biofuels
The cost of all this energy used in Christchurch is ($1.1 Billion)
Figure 25:
Figure 26: Figure 27:
34
2.0 Urban Strategy
COSTS OF OIL
Christchurch = 8.15% of NZ
CnristcnurcnIcpu~ticn
NcwZc~~ncIcpu~ticn
NZ imported $6.47 Billion worth of petroleum/
products in 2010.
Costs of Oil to Christchurch
8.15% OF $6.47 BILLION = $527 MILLION P.A.
Although this comic satires the global interest
in oil; it accurately also reects the usual
agenda with oil exploration which is due to the
prots for a few business corporations and not
for the people.
Coal Canterbury Bitumous Coal export : 3,551,000 KW
(Transport from Greymouth to Christchurch) Ref: Fig 27.
Hydro Waimakariri Gorge: 15700 KW Hydro Turbine
Wind Gebbie Pass: 500 KW Window Turbine
Figure 28:
Figure 29:
Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Initial Energy Composition
2.1 Solar Energy
SOLAR ENERGY
As described previously from the economic
research about the potentials in Solar energy
in Christchurch; Solar energy harnesses the
energy from sun; and turns it into heat or
electricity. Solar Photo-Voltaic panels uses the
sunlight and not heat to generate electricity
which can then be converted to AC electricity
in the form of an inverter. This can either
power appliances in the homes or fed back to
the Power Grid.
Figure 30:
__
Original Data Source: (Solar Zone, 2012)
FROM THIS INITIAL DATA WE CAN CALCULATE POSSIBLE SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIALS FOR CHRISTCHURCH.
GENERAL NZ COST OF SOLAR ENERGY
1kWp Solar Module = 1kW peak energy output
Cost $4000
Area needed 6.7 sqm
Energy Generated 1,300 kWh p.a.
Life Span 25 years guaranteed
Total energy generated in life span 32,500 kWh

36
2.1 Solar Energy
COST OF SOLAR ENERGY
140,196 Residential Dwellings in Christchurch; with an average of 150 sqm per dwelling = total roof area = 21,029,400 sqm
Commercial spaces in Christchurch = 3,800,000 sqm
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP TO CHRISTCHURCH CITY
100% of energy needs
Amount of 1kWp Modules
3,846,154
3.8 Million
Energy Needed
18,000 TJ p.a.
5,000,000,000 kWh p.a.
Cost
$15,384,615,000
$15 Billion
Area needed (sqm)
25,769,231
26 Million
Total energy generated in life span 450,000 TJ
True Cost $600 Million p.a.
Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Solar Energy
For the reason that spending over $15 Billion is simply not realistic and impractical;
diferent scenarios as below are analyzed; to see the energy implications of each.
all homes that were severely damaged with solar PV:
30,000 homes severely damaged
Amount of 1kWp Modules 671,640
Energy Produced
3143 TJ p.a.
873,132,000 kWh p.a.
Percentage of Total Energy needed 17.5% of 18,000 TJ p.a.
Cost
$ 2,686,560,000
$2.7 Billion
Area used (sqm)
4,500,000
4.5 Million
True Cost $107.5 Million p.a.
8,000 larger
buildings to be demolished or uneconomical to repair. (200 sqm)
Amount of 1kWp Modules 238,805
Energy Produced
1118 TJ p.a.
310,446,500 kWh p.a.
Cost
$955,223,880
$955 Million
Area used (sqm)
1,600,000
1.6 Million
38
2.1 Solar Energy
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP TO CHRISTCHURCH CITY
Figure 33:
Figure 34:
Summary of both Scenarios
Energy Produced 4,261 TJ p.a.
Cost $3.64 billion
Area used (sqm) 6.1 Million
True Cost $145.7Million p.a.
FINAL FISCAL SUMMARY
Summary of both Scenarios at the global price (25% price reduction)
Energy Produced 4,261 TJ p.a.
Cost $910 Million
Area used (sqm) 6.1 Million
GLOBAL COST OF PRICE
Today globally solar prices can be sold at $1 a
Watt and the trend is that prices will continue
to drop. Source: http://www.ecobusinesslinks.
com/solar_panels.htm
New Zealand is selling at $4 a Watt/ $4000 for
a kW
If we are able to produce PV panels at the same
efciency of oversea companies which would
be $1000 per 1kW; this would lead to a 25%
reduction of the cost.
The price for this even has the potential to drop
further if production was localized and with
new technology breakthroughs. The expected
life span for most solar panels at todays
technology is approximately for 40 years; with
most companies providing a guarantee of 25
years.
40
2.1 Solar Energy
LIFE CYCLE OF SOLAR PANELS
DOUBLE GREEN OPPORTUNITY
The concept of Double-Green is by using
a renewable source to produce the solar
panels as an energy investment in the future.
The simple rationale that it takes energy to
produce solar panels, and if a non-renewable
source of energy is used to produce these
green products; this would make increase the
embodied energy of the product. This can
compared ne to overseas; such as China and
USA as their majority of energy is from using
fossil fuel productions to create their solar
panels.
Christchurch, New Zealand can use its large
hydro sources as its primary generation source
of solar panels and take the opportunity of this
double green marketing to further promote
its clean green brand overseas for export
opportunities of its double green solar panels;
against its dirtier competitors globally.
CURRENT SOLAR ENERGY

STRUCTURE
The current solar energy market in New
Zealand is directly competing with the
conventional market retailers hence the solar
adoption rate in New Zealand is merely 2%
in new homes. If consumers purchase solar
panels; they are reducing the prots from
the retailers; as their power consumption
will decrease but the retailers will still have
to pay for the initial costs of generation and
infrastructure cost of transmission.
For solar to become efective the consumers
and solar market has to work together with the
retailers and be part of a smart grid network
rather than just be end process. A way for
this to be achieved can be solar panel loans/
nancing from the general retailers which
will encourage solar adoption by reducing the
initial capital burden of solar panels for the
consumers.
SUMMARY FOR SOLAR ENERGY
ADVANTAGES:
Acrc~|c cncugn lcr inciicu~
households which brings energy generation
back to the individual
FcccInT~ristcncp~nccnccur~gc
solar adoption and interest-free leases made to
household who want to have solar but cannot
aford the initial capital.
Instis ~n cncrgy ccnscicus cuturc
as households and their energy consumption
become a part of the home rather than just a
bill to pay. This can be integrated within the
urban landscape and architecture of the new
city; which could be signify a change to the
green economy.
Encrgygcncr~ticn|cing~p~rtcltnc
cityscape rather than just a factory somewhere
in the rural land; further emphasizes how
energy is such a critical component within a
Generation Smart Grid Retail Consumer
All components of the electricity grid works together in a collaborative system
Proposed Solar Scheme 1
Solar PV
Lessens the main load
Leases out Solar PV to Consumers and
consumer pays the Solar PV capital costs
back to the retailer through the amount of
electricity it generates with added interest for
service fee that it usually charges.
Generation Smart Grid Retail Consumer
Proposed Solar Scheme 2
Solar PV
Lessens the main load
Establish efective Feed-In Tarifs for solar PV adoption
to encourage Consumers to generate their own power
thus lowering the stress on the existing grid and not having to
invest large initial capital to cope with the increasing
demand for energy
Generation Transmission Retail Consumer
6-9 c 6-7 c 6-9 c
Solar PV
= Less Income for Retailer but with the same Costs
pays approx $2300 p.a. to retailer
now gets no income from retailer
VS.
Energy Retailers and Solar Energy are opposing forces
Cost:
Current Energy Structure
Solution : Incoporate solar PV to be a part of the system
city that we sometimes forget our dependence
on it.
Dcccntr~izcstnccncrgygricsystcn
to provide resilience and independence in
times of need.
Lcng ilc sp~n cl p~ncs wnicn runs
on free fuel: the sun. The investments pays
of gradually over-time; this adds incentive
for people to stay in Christchurch because
they have already invested in energy in
Christchurch.
Mccu~r inst~~ticn c~sy tc inst~
replace, x and fabricate.
DISADVANTAGES:
Hign initi~ c~pit~ ccst ~nc ccst
efciency is low compared to the other
renewable sources. Only becomes competitive
when we compare the current solar capabilities
globally. The New Zealand solar market
is currently 4 times more expensive when
compared globally; but even at this price can
still be a viable option for energy investment.
CONCLUSION:
Solar energy should be implemented within
the city; where repairs for damaged buildings
already need to be done. Any new buildings
should incorporate solar energy within their
design to further optimize the solar potential
of their site. In times of crisis solar in con-
junction with electric vehicles becomes the
solution for providing the city with critical
power; which provides resilience for the city.
The way in which to encourage solar adoption
now would be to have diferent solar feed-
in tarifs rewarding the early adopters with a
xed tarif as to help gain momentum for this
solar movement within Christchurch.
42
2.2 Wind Energy
WIND ENERGY
Wind energy is the conversion of the
movement of wind to turn the wind turbines;
which generates electricity.
Wind energy is the fastest growing renewable
energy source in New Zealand as it is estimated
by 2030 there will be a six-fold increase in wind
power from the New Zealand Wind association.
New Zealands wind farms have an installed
capacity of 622 megawatts and generates over
4% of the New Zealands electricity needs.
Figure 35:
TYPE OF WIND TURBINE

CRITERIA:
Relatively smaller, easier to construct and
transport. (medium-sized wind turbine:
500KW power capacity)
REASONING:
Christchurch is a small city compared to the
large metropolitan cities in which 1000KW
turbines would be necessary.
LOCAL CHOICE:
500 KW Window technology turbines based
in Christchurch; tried and tested at Gebbie
Pass.
Being a mid-size wind turbine it is:
Sn~ cncugn tn~t its sizc is nct ~ n~jcr
planning and logistic issue
Big cncugn tn~t it prccuccs ccnncrci~
quantities of electricity
TEST CASE:
Gebbie Pass 500KW Window Wind Turbine
At a site with an annual mean wind speed of
8.5m/s (30km/h), a Window 500 turbine will
power the equivalent of approximately 200
households. Christchurch has a mean wind
speed of 4.5 m/s at ground surface levels.
At Gebbie Pass the turbine is operating at
45% capacity; due to an approximate 10.5 m/s
median wind speed at the site.
Encrgy Gcncr~tcc kWn p~
TJ per year.
C~pit~Ccst
pcr kWn lcr yc~rs cl pcwcr
generating (life span)
Figure 36:
Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Wind Energy
Figure 37:
= 500kW peak energy output

Cost $1,135,000
Energy Generated 2,000,000 kWh p.a.
Total energy generated in life span 144 TJ
Height at highest point 47 m
Approximation of area 2500 sqm
3600/7.2 = 500 Wind Turbines Needed.
$1,135,000 x 500 = $567.5 Million for 20 years of free electricity (3600 TJ p.a.)
$28.4 Million p.a. over 20 years.
100% of energy needs
Amount of 500KW Wind Turbines 2,500
Energy Needed
18,000 TJ p.a.
5,000,000,000 kWh p.a.
Cost
$2,837,500,000
$2.8 Billion
Area needed (sqm)
6,250,000
6.25 Million
True Cost $142 Million p.a.
25% of energy needs
Amount of 500KW Wind Turbines 625
Energy Generated
4,500 TJ p.a.
1,250,000,000 kWh p.a.
Cost
$709,375,000
$709 Million
Area needed (sqm)
1,562,500
1.56 Million
44
2.2 Wind Energy
Figure 38:
Figure 39:

25% of energy needs (25% reduction)
Amount of 500KW Wind Turbines 625
Energy Generated
4,500 TJ p.a.
1,250,000,000 kWh p.a.
Cost
$532,031,250
$532 Million
Area needed (sqm)
1,562,500
1.56 Million
GLOBAL WIND TURBINE TECHNOLOGY
1Million/MW was the average for Wind
technology in Europe; which is approximately
NZD $1.65 Million in todays markets.
(Bloomberg New Energy Finance 2011)
This is approximately a 27% cost reduction
compared to the New Zealand markets.
WIND STUDY ANALYSIS
Wind ow study analysis
46
2.2 Wind Energy
POSSSIBLE WIND TURBINE PLACEMENT LOCATION
Figure 44:
SUMMARY FOR WIND ENERGY
ADVANTAGES:
Winc cncrgy is g~ining ncncntun
in New Zealand as wind energy production is
already being estimated to increase 6 times by
2030 from the New Zealand Wind Association.
Sc~~|c scurcc cl ~ ~rgc ~ncunt cl
energy; similar to solar but at a larger scale.
Sustainable approach to energy generation
to avoid committing great initial capital cost;
which lowers the risk.
uick tc st~rtup ~nc inst~
compared to power-plants.
Onccltnccnc~pcstlcrnclrcncw~|c
energy per kWh.
Cnristcnurcnn~sgcccwincpctcnti~
within the mountain ranges of which aids in
cutting down transmission infrastructure
costs.
Acstnctic ~ppc~ ~nc cw inp~ct
on the environment; working together with
nature.
DISADVANTAGES:
Hign initi~ c~pit~ ccst ~nc wcuc
be unafordable for an average household as
wind turbines become more efcient as they
become bigger.
Ncisc ~nc sizc cl tnc tur|incs ccuc
be impractical within the city if the number
of wind turbines to be used is to provide a
signicant amount of energy. This could be
used similar to the solar option of being a
beacon or sculpture piece of a new sustainable
era in Christchurch.
CONCLUSION:
Wind energy could be used in Christchurch by
forging an alliance with the energy companies
to invest within Christchurch and the city of
Christchurch will supply the demand to make
it economically viable for them. Instead of
relying on coal as a stable source of energy;
wind should be used. The government also
instead of investing in oil should invest in
the wind industry. This would help spark
and create more demand for renewable
technologies (high-value products) within
Christchurchs economy.
48
2.3 Biomass Energy
BIOMASS
Biomass is any organic matter like trees, plants,
or animal waste that can be used as an energy
source. Energy comes from the sun through a
process called photosynthesis, and is released
when biomass is burned or decomposes.
Leftover wood and crop waste from factories
and farms can be burned cleanly to produce
electricity. (Green Mountain Energy n.d.)
From the table below; it would make economic
sense to use Biomass in the form of heating/
inverted heating (cooling) rather than to use
this resource to generate power.

1. Wood scraps, sawdust and crop waste are collected from farms or manufacturing plants
2. The waste is burned to heat water and create steam
3. Steam is sent to a turbine, which spins to power a generator
4. Generator creates electricity and is transmitted to the grid
Approximate Bio-Mass Cost
Total Electricity Option Cost $33,333 ($0.12/ kWh)
Power Energy Generated 1 TJ
Total Heating Option Cost $5,556 ($0.02/ kWh)
Heat Energy Generated 1 TJ
Amount of Wood Waste needed for 1TJ 143 tonnes
Cost of Wood Waste for 143 tonnes $8570 ($60/ton)
Figure 45:
Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Biomass Energy

Figure 46:
BIOMASS SUPPLIES
From the diagram above of aforestation
developments we can see that the main forest
industry in New Zealand is in the North Island.
Interestingly enough the region of Canterbury
has the least amount of forestry activities
due to the dominant agriculture sector of
grain crops and dairy farming. This is an
early warning sign that Biomass has a limited
potential in terms of energy generated
due to the limitations of plantations close
to Christchurch. As excessive usage may
lead to unsustainable developments due to
deforestation.
BIO-GAS
The greenhouse gas, Methane, is produced by
bacteria dissolving organic waste either from
livestock or from human rubbish; this can then
be captured, ltered, processed and burned to
produce electricity or use as fuel for heating.
(Green Mountain Energy n.d.)
1. Animal/Landll/ Human waste is collected in a large tank or pond with bacteria
2. As bacteria decomposes the waste, methane is released
3. Methane is then burned to heat water and generate steam
4. Steam turns a generator turbine to create electricity, which is sent to transmission lines
Figure 47:
CASE STUDY: BURWOOD LANDFILL

The Burwood landll gas is used generate heat
and electricity. Gas from the Burwood landll
is piped 3.7 kilometres underground to the QE
II swimming pool and sports complex after a
simple drying process that takes place at the
landll site. At QE II, the landll gas is fed into
two boilers and a co-generation plant which
produces both electricity and heat. The pipes
also run to the Art Gallery and new Council
Civic Ofces to help fuel their boilers.
ENERGY SAVINGS
C~r|cn cicxicc s~ings in cxccss cl
tonnes a year.
Encrgys~ingsincxccssclniicn~yc~r
Rccnuclrcntncs~cclc~r|cncrccits
million)
(Christchurch City Council, 2010)
50 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Biomass Energy
2.3 Biomass Energy
DISTRICT ENERGY SCHEME (DES)
Christchurch Agency for Energy (CaFE)
realizes the potential in Bio Mass and is
proposing a District Energy Scheme (DES)
that involves a 50MW heat boiler and 38 MW
combined heat and power (CHP) generator to
provide Bio-mass fuel for Central Christchurch.
The total capital cost is $275 Million over 4
Phases. (5 years)and 7-8 years respectively with
operating costs of around $4 Million per year.
The district energy scheme simply is about
heating up water in a central location using
biomass boilers; in which heat is distributed
around the near these boilers; providing for
a more efcient source of heating during the
winter.
Figure 48:
Figure 49:

Figure 50:
Figure 51:
Figure 52:
DISTRICT ENERGY SCHEME (DES)

The DES is efective for city developments
in which there is a signicant density of
infrastructure surrounding the biomass boilers
so the efciency of the heat transfer can be
used more efciently. City density is key to the
success of the scheme being efective.
What is interesting to note is the larger the
boiler does not relate to the efciency of
the system; as the larger the boiler does not
necessarily mean that it is more efcient
than a series of medium sized boilers. This is
largely due to the logistics of such a big boiler;
the waste from burning the delivery of the
biomass.
52 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Biomass Energy

2.3 Biomass Energy
SUMMARY FOR BIO-MASS
ADVANTAGES:
Mininizcs w~st~gc ~nc utiizcs w~stc lcr
heating which is a major energy component
during the cold Christchurch winters. Stable
supply of energy when necessary.
Rcncw~|c ~nc Ncw Zc~~nc n~s ~ ~rgc
forest industry to draw resources from; limited
to heating only as too much reliance may
result in inefciencies.
DISADVANTAGES:
Ancunt cl cncrgy nccccc tc suppy
electricity and other needs other than heating
would be inefcient due to having to grow
large areas of forests for energy supply.
Energy Savings for the DES Scheme
Total Heating Demand 1440 TJ/p.a.
Total Cooling Demand 550 TJ/pa
Total Energy Generated 1,990 TJ/p.a.
Total Biomass Needed
675,000 m3 = Wood Chips
270,000 m3 = Solid Wood
Total Biomass Fuel Cost $20 Million
Total Capital Cost $275 Million (5 years)
Price per kWh for Fuel Only $0.036 / kWh
Tr~nspcrt~ticn n~ncing ~nc prcccssing cl
the wood fuel may prove to be challenging due
to the large scale of the DES as a 50 MW Plant
is quite substantial.
Ccnpctiticn witn ctncr incustrics ~s ncrc
energy users (Fonterra Plant in Dareld) will
be looking at biomass for fuel but the heat
demand for them is usually in the summer
where the DES has a winter demand. Potential
for collaboration. (Peter Weir, (Bizcat, Aurecon,
FVB. 2012) 65.)
CONCLUSION:
Good source of renewable heat energy
from waste; hence minimizing wastage.
Utilizing timber wastage from the forest and
construction industry for useful heat energy.
Converting harmful polluting gas from
landlls into energy to provide a stable form
of energy.
Figure 53:

2.4 Geothermal Energy
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
The main Geothermal source in New Zealand
is in the North Island around the Taupo
Volcanic Zone. Hence Geothermal energy
generated locally within Christchurch would
not be viable. The geothermal areas in the
South Island are mainly low temperature
springs and are used mainly for recreational
purposes.
Figure 54:
2.5 Hydro Energy

HYDRO ENERGY
Hydro energy uses the natural ow of water
to turn turbines which generates electricity.
Dams are built to store water supplies; which
in turn stores the energy source which powers
the hydro stations. These facilities are very
costly to construct and have signicant
environmental efects to mitigate and require
careful maintenance and operation. However,
hydropower does provide stable renewable
certainty over long periods of time as once
the stations are built, the fuel has no ongoing
costs and can lasts for a very long time. This
Figure 55:
certainty is the key to providing renewable

energy for the long-term. This can be seen
from the vast amounts of hydro stations
already being implemented in New Zealand.
Reference at Figure 26: Location of Electricity
Generation in NZ.
However because New Zealand already has
tapped into such a large amount of hydro
potential; the remaining sources are either too
environmentally damaging or would not be as
efcient.
54 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Hydro Energy
2.5 Hydro Energy
HYDRO ENERGY STORAGE
Most countries that uses hydro power relies on
large snow or water reservoirs. New Zealand
typically has a water storage capacity of around
60 days. This is relatively small compared to
globally. For an example the Tasmanian hydro
power station has up to 18 months of storage.
COMPLEMENTING OTHER RENEWABLES
As discussed previously, hydro power would
be a big piece in the renewable energy puzzle
but what is important is how to complement
hydro with other renewable energy sources.
The variability of hydro supply needs to
be matched with exibility in other power
generation with attention to energy demands.
From the diagram on the right we can see that
the demand is high during the day when the
sun is out. Solar power can be used to avoid
peak loads during the day and preserve hydro
energy during the night. The main role for the
other renewable sources is to ensure the water
storage supplies are not strained and used up
to quickly.
EXISTING HYDROPOWER WILL BE USED AS A

STABLE SOURCE OF ENERGY ON WINDLESS
NIGHTS IN CHRISTCHURCH.
NEW ZEALAND DAILY HYDRO STORAGE
The scale on the right is up to 5000 gigawatt
hours (GWh) compared with New Zealands
annual consumption of 40 000 GWh. This
indicates that the storage available at any time
is less than an eighth of the total annual use;
which means that there is not as much water
storage as people would like to believe.
Figure 56:
Figure 57:

COST OF HYDRO
The tables below illustrates the cost factors of
hydro energy. Firstly the signicant amount
of infrastructure needed to create a dam but
at the same time the low running cost; which
leads to a very low cost per kwh.
Benmore Dam
Capacity 540,000 KW
Capital Cost
$1,944,000,000
$1.94 Billion
Total Energy Generated 9000 TJ/p.a.
Running Cost
$8.1 Million + $12.5 Million
(Variable) =
$15 Million
(approximation)
Price per kWh (running costs) $0.006
Price per kWh (total costs/life
span)
$0.006
Lake area 74.5 ksqm
Life Span 150 Years
Waimakariri Gorge
Capacity 15,700 KW
Capital Cost
$69,765,000
$70 Million
Total Energy Generated 300 TJ/p.a.
Running Cost
$ 235,500 + $416,670
(Variable) =
$500,000 (approximation)
Price per kWh (running costs) $0.006
Price per kWh (total costs/life
span)
$0.0116
Land area 5000 ha
Life Span 150 Years
56 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Hydro Energy

2.5 Hydro Energy
ADVANTAGES:
St~|c rcncw~|c rcscurcc cl ~rgc
amounts of energy.
Tnc lcunc~ticn cl tnc cxisting
electricity energy demand in New Zealand.
Vcrycngilcsp~ncl~ncstin~tcccl
150 years.
Cnc~pcst scurcc cl cncrgy |y pricc
per kWh; taken into account lifespan and fuel
costs.
DISADVANTAGES:
Vcry ~rgc inlr~structur~ c~pit~
cost and may have a large impact on the
surrounding water eco-system if not thought
through carefully.
Tncrcugn ~n~ysis ncccs tc |c ccnc
prior due to signicant cost; which leads to
longer start-up times.
NcwZc~~ncn~s~rc~cy|uit~cry
signicant amount of hydro power schemes;
remaining resources would not be as cost-
efective or efcient. The existing sites might
compromise existing eco-systems.
Linitcc stcr~gc cl luc w~tcr ~nc
reliance on water levels.
CONCLUSION:
Hydro energy is the foundation of the energy
plan and can supply the majority of the base
load of energy. Hydro energy even though
being the most cost-efcient source of energy
over the long run; is however simply too
expensive for it to be part of a transition plan.
However the existing hydro energy will be
utilized more efectively so that it only supplies
energy for the base load and the supply is kept
at a comfortable amount for windless nights;
due to the peak loads being met by the Wind
and Solar sources.
2.6 Energy Efciency
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Another method of substituting the fossil fuel
energy sources is by reducing the amount of
energy used from each households. Space
heating contributes to a large portion of the
residential energy demands; and by making
houses more energy efcient we can not
only reduce the total energy demand but also
create healthier homes for people to live in.
This reduces health problems which leads to a
better quality of life within the city.
Figure 58:
58 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Energy Efficiency

2.6 Energy Efciency
SAVINGS FROM SIMPLE ACTIONS
Total Savings of approximately $500 p.a. for an
average household if simple steps as described
above were met:
$500 / $2,380 = 21%
A reduction of approximately 20% on the
average electricity usage can be met if simple
steps were followed.
Cost = Minimal
20 % reduction =
Scaled down to 10% due to practicability and
realistic feasibility of behavior change; and
people who are already energy efcient
If every house hold in Christchurch changes
their energy behavior through simple
initiatives and lowers the regional residential
electricity consumption by 10 percent as a
whole.
The commercial and industrial sector could
also implement similar changes which would
cut their total energy consumption by 10%.
10325 (Electricity Sector) X 77% = 7950 TJ
7950 TJ X 90% = 7,155 TJ (a reduction of 795
TJ)
= 795 TJ p.a. saved from simple energy efcient
initiatives (residential only) (40% of total
energy)
= 2,000 TJ P.A. SAVED FROM SIMPLE ENERGY
EFFICIENT INITIATIVES (ALL SECTORS ONLY)
Total Cost = minimal Marketing Costs
ACTION COST TO DO ESTIMATED SAVINGS
Switch off your second or beer fridge Free $100 to $300 a year
Dry your clothes outside rather than using a dryer Free Around $200 a year
Only use your heated towel rails when needed Free Around $120 a year
Switch your appliances off at the wall when not in use Free Varies
Shut your curtains at dusk to keep the heat in Free Varies
Wash your clothes in cold rather than warm water Free $50 - $80 a year
Set your computer's power-saving options Free Varies
Replace a 100W bulb with an energy saving bulb $5 $120 over life of the bulb
If youi showei ills up a litie bucket in less than a
minute install an eficient showei heau
Varies $150 or more a year
Wiap youi electiic hot watei tank anu the iist few
metres of hot water pipe
$70 $80 a year for an older cylinder
Use a household energy meter to monitor power use Varies Varies
Figure 59:

RETROFIT PACKAGES
The energy calculations are done by assuming
that the housing stock to be retrotted are
done as estimated below:
Percentage of Housing stock and retrot
packages assumed in analysis:
upgr~ccctctncB~sicI~ck~gc
upgr~ccctctncSt~nc~rcI~ck~gc
upgr~ccctctncEnn~ncccI~ck~gc
The charts on the right illustrates the NPV
for each retrot upgrade; assuming heating to
18 degrees, a 30% take back period and 3% pa
electricity price escalation.
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
Auck Well Chch Inverc
N
e
t

p
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s
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n
t

v
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u
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$
NPV composion - Mass 1940-60s house- Basic package
Ecient lights
Dryer vents/duct
Extractors kitch/ bathrm
Grd polythene
Flow restrictors (cold taps)
Low ow shower head
Pipe lagging
HWC wrap
Dual ush cistern
HWC thermostat
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
N
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p
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$
NPV composion - Mass 1940-60s house Standard Package
Comfort value
Wood burner
Underoor insultn
Ceiling insultn
Basic package
-5000
5000
15000
25000
35000
45000
55000
65000
75000
85000
N
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s
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n
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v
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$
NPV composion - Mass 1940-60s house - Enhanced package
Heat transfer Sys.
2nd Glazing
Wall insultn
Raintank(garden)
Hotwater HP
Curtains/pelmt
Standard package

RETROFIT PACKAGES COSTS
BASIC PACKAGE
= $1,700
NPV Savings = + $9,000
STANDARD PACKAGE
(inclusive of Basic Package)
= $8,400
ENHANCED PACKAGE
(inclusive of Standard Package)
= $24,020
Figure 60:
60 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Energy Efficiency

SAVINGS FROM INFRASTRUCTURE
RETROFITS
From the energy use prole; the main focus
of energy consumption is space and water
heating. Water heating can be done by solar
technologies as explained later on. So the main
component to reduce energy consumption in
buildings is to retain heat; insulation.
Total Housing stock to be retrotted = 120,200
(from previous BCR analysis in research)

Capital Cost $2.164 Billion
120,200
Type of Housing
f Mass Construction types during the 1940-1960s
f Houses built in the 1970-1978.
Energy saved 3074 TJ p.a.
True cost p.a.
$108.2 Million p.a. over 20 years. (with a BCR of
approximately 2.6; over 30 years)
Water Saved 7 million liters cumulative total over 30 years.
FINAL SUMMARY
ADVANTAGES:
Tnc ccst cl rctrctting wcuc |c rccuccc
due to the fact that a major rebuild is currently
underway in Christchurch. Most of the
buildings that was damaged are in need of
retrotting anyways; and would be logical to
take this opportunity of rebuilding the walls,
to add in the insulation at the same time.
Encrgy s~ings wcuc cccur cuc ~ ~rgc
amount of energy consumed is for space
heating purposes; and when heat is able to be

DISADVANTAGES:
Vcry ~rgc inlr~structur~ c~pit~ ccst ~nc
may have a large impact on the surrounding
water eco-system if not thought through
carefully.
Tncrcugn ~n~ysis ncccs tc |c ccnc pricr
due to signicant cost; which leads to longer
start-up times.
Ncw Zc~~nc n~s ~rc~cy |uit ~ cry
signicant amount of hydro power schemes;
remaining resources would not be as cost-
efective or efcient. The existing sites might
compromise existing eco-systems.
Linitccstcr~gccllucw~tcr~ncrci~ncc
on water levels.
CONCLUSION:
Hydro energy is the foundation of the energy
plan and can supply the majority of the base
load of energy. Hydro energy even though
being the most cost-efcient source of energy
over the long run; is however simply too
expensive for it to be part of a transition plan.
However the existing hydro energy will be
utilized more efectively so that it only supplies
energy for the base load and the supply is kept
at a comfortable amount for windless nights;
due to the peak loads being met by the Wind
and Solar sources. This is done so that the
supply from Hydro energy is not strained due
to high loads during the cold winters and low
rainfall.
Summary of Energy Savings from
Capital Cost $2.17 Billion
Energy saved 5,070 TJ p.a.
True cost p.a. $110 Million p.a. over 20 years
2.6 Energy Efciency
2.7 Localized Production
Local Farming Initiative
Land owner lea
s
e
s
b
a
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y
a
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d

t
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f
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s
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lls
produce
a
t

l
o
c
a
l

m
a
r
k
e
t
LAND OWNER GETS FRESH
PRODUCE IN RETURN, AND FREE
GARDEN MAINTENANCE
RESIDENTIAL
RAINWATER HARVEST
FOR IRRIGATION
AN ORGANIZATION WILL
BE CREATED FOR THE
GARDEN FARMERS
LOCAL MARKET WILL DISTRIBUTE
FRESH PRODUCE SUSTAINABLY TO
CITY DWELLERS
Figure 61:
LOCALIZED PRODUCTION
Another aspect of the home which could utilized
to be more efcient is the backyard. The typical
suburban lawn is valuable piece of arable land in
which Christchurch is blessed in abundance with.
The rationale behind importing globally for food
when fresher healthier produce can be grown right
outside your house just makes sense. The idea of
people not wanting to get dirty can just employ
a local farmer from the Local Farming Initiative as
explained below. This cuts down transportation
and energy used to grow large industrial crops.
The diagram below illustrates the local farming
initiative in which the backyard is used as arable
land for growing local crops. This reinforces the
community and brings the people back to nature
which is critical for a transition towards a green
economy.
Figure 62:
62 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Localized Production

CHRISTCHURCH ARABLE LAND
POTENTIAL
The diagram on the right illustrates an
example of a typical suburb in Christchurch
and the amount of arable land that could be
used to grow local produce.
The table below is an estimate on the
total arable land potential for the whole
of Christchurch; and the logic behind this
estimation.
2.7 Localized Production
Figure 63:
Land Area for Christchurch
Average Suburban House
usable garden space
40 sqm
Total Zoned Land for
residential
13,232 Ha
50% of this is for the actual
dwelling plots
176.5 sqm
25% of 175sqm
43 sqm:
Hence the initial
estimate of 40 sqm can
be assumed
Total Usable Arable Land
16,540,000 sqm
1654 Ha
SPACE REQUIREMENTS
The table below indicates an approximation
of the required land needed to grow a variety
of produce in an average New Zealand farm.
(LINZ, 2010)
A comparison of average farm sizes in NZ (ha)
Apple / Pear 26
Berry 24
Citrus 15
Kiwifruit 12
Olives 7
Vegetables (outdoor) 8 6
Vegetables (under-cover) 14
Total land needed 184 ha.
Total Farms in 1654 Ha 9
ESTIMATED ENERGY SAVINGS
Example of apple production in New Zealand
farms (Saunders, 2006) 77.
The quantity of electricity use was estimated
at 1,180 kWh/ha.
Based on the energy coefcient for diesel in
fuel use on the orchard is 23,540 MJ/ha or 380
MJ/tonne apples. Carbon dioxide emissions
from all liquid fuels is 1,307 kg CO2/ha or 26.1
kg CO2/tonne apples.
Electricity at 1,180 kWh/ha is 9,600 MJ/ha or
192 MJ/tonne apples.
Carbon dioxide emissions are 184 kg CO2/ha
or 3.7 kg CO2/tonne apples.
Total Energy Usage for apple production is
33,140 MJ/ha. (0.03314 TJ/ ha.)
Rough Assumption that all the other produce
would use approximately the same amount of
energy we can calculate the total energy saved
from growing locally from the edible gardens.
(In the report onions and apples were both
respectively 2,889MJ/Tonne and 2980MJ/
Tonne.)
0.03314 TJ/ ha X 1654 Ha. = 54.8 TJ.
TOTAL ENERGY SAVED JUST FROM THE
PRODUCTION OF PRODUCE (APPLES) IN NEW
ZEALAND IS 55 TJ/P.A.
This does not include transportation energy
from the farms to the supermarket and back
to the homes. More over the energy would
be far greater if the produce is imported from
overseas.
Example of transportation costs of produce
(Saunders, 2006) 58.
Assumption of the Energy Coefcient of
transportation costs (MJ per tonne km) = 0.419
0.419 x 75 (Tonnes per hectare apple yields) x
1654 ha x 1,000 km (distance from Auckland to
Christchurch) =
Source for apple yields: http://www.teara.govt.
nz/en/apples-and-pears/2
ESTIMATION OF ENERGY SAVED IN
TRANSPORTATION COSTS = 52 TJ P.A.
Hence an estimation of 100 TJ p.a. would seem
logical as the total embodied energy saved
from localized production
SUMMARY
What can we do with 40 sqm of usable land?
With this much land an average family is be
able to self-sustain an average familys needs
of fruits and vegetables and produce excess
stock in times of good harvest.
What does this localized production imply in
energy terms?
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globally
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health problems
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Christchurch
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heavy rains
Hard to accurately gauge exact energy savings
due to complexity of food transport routes, but
from rough calculations as previously shown,
we can see that there would be energy savings
of approximately 100 TJ/p.a.
The only economic cost is to create an
organization to promote awareness for this
campaign and the capital would be supplied
by the residents taking part in this edible
garden movement.
TOTAL ENERGY SAVED = 107 TJ P.A.
64 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Transportation
TRANSPORTATION ANALYSIS
A New Zealand car uses on average 10 litres of
fuel per 100 kilometres (km) travelled.

30 Billion km per year is driven in cars, vans,

utes and SUVs; in New Zealand.
(New Zealand Household Travel Survey)
Total fuel consumption 3 Billion litres of fuel
p.a. in NZ.
Total amount of energy = 33,000,000,000 kWh
= 118,800 TJ.
118,800 x 8.15% = 9,682 TJ/pa
Total Energy used for transportation in
Christchurch = 9,682 TJ p.a.
Assumption that a 20% reduction due to the
success of the car-sharing application (Kiwi-
Go) and better public transport service
= 1,940 TJ P.A
2.8 Transportation
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
One of the key components of the scheme is
to incorporate Electric Vehicles EV as part of
the energy network. The reason being that the
batteries within the Electric Vehicles will act
as a backup source of energy in terms of crisis.
The housing unit becomes an autonomous
system in which the solar panels generate
electricity to charge the battery for the car and
the battery can run signicant appliances if
needed.
The better place organization is currently
leading the change towards the electric vehicle
era, as the electric car is 5.2 times more efcient
than a standard car running on fossil fuel car.
The downfalls such as long charge times are
changed in which the batteries can be swapped
at battery outlets; and you can charged for how
much you travel. Faster than pumping petrol
at Shell.
This signicantly reduces the cost of an EV as
the battery is the major cost in the nal price.
TRANSPORTATION
Resilient Electricity Generation

PV PANEL GENERATES POWER
EV IS USED AS A PORTABLE BATTERY PACK, CHARGED BY
PV PANELS
CAR BATTERY CAN BE USED TO RUN HOME APPLIANCES
WHEN CAR IS BEING USED FOR COMMUTE, HOME
APPLIANCES WILL RUN ON GRID POWER.
1.
2.
3.
4.
PV PANEL POWER
1
2
3
4
GRID POWER
Figure 64:
Summary of Energy Savings from Transportation Initiative
Reduction of vehicles from
Car-Sharing app and better public
transport service =
20% reduction
Energy saved from this reduction 1,940 TJ p.a.
Cost p.a. Developing / Marketing = Estimation of $2 Million p.a.
cy of Electric Vehicles
compared to Fossil Fuel Vehicles

10% of car travels converted to EV 780 TJ
Cost of a Nissan Leaf EV A pprox. NZD $55,000
Policy Cost of 1000 of cars converted
to EV with an incentive of a 10%
reduction
$5.5 Million
ENERGY SAVINGS CALCULATIONS
7470 kWh per person spent on transport using
an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicle.
Assumption of energy usage for an electric
vehicle = 21 kWh/100km (energy usage for a
Nissan Leaf)
Assumption of energy usage for a ICE vehicle
= 110 kWh/100km
An electric vehicle is approximately 5.2 times
more efcient than a vehicle running on a
fossil fuel engine
FOR AN ENERGY SAVING OF 525 TJ P.A. =
650 TJ of ICE transportation would be needed
to be converted to EVs. (approximately 6.7% of
the existing car population)
Sustainable Transportation Culture
DAY
NIGHT
1. PERSONAL VEHICLES ARE
LEFT AT HOME
2. COMMUTE TO PUBLIC
TRANSPORT VIA WALKING
3. COMMUTE TO WORK VIA
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
4. COMMUTE BACK HOME
VIA PUBLIC TRANSPORT
5. PERSONAL EV ARE USED FOR
NIGHT TIME LEISURE WHEN
HOME APPLIANCES WILL USE
GRID POWER
Figure 65:
Figure 66:
66 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Final Summary
2.9 Final Summary
THE GREEN ENERGY PLAN:
SOLAR ENERGY
Supplies the peak energy loads during the day
and to charge the batteries from the Electric
Vehicles. The Solar Panels, Electric Vehicle
and the houses becomes an autonomous unit;
if needed in times of need.
WIND ENERGY
Supplies intermittence base energy demands.
BIOMASS ENERGY
Supplies peak heating energy demands during
the winter to the CBD and main hubs to reduce
the pressure during the Winter.
HYDRO ENERGY
Supplies back-up base load energy when
the wind and solar energy resources are
not meeting the demand. Storage from the
hydro dams should not be strained due to the
majority of the energy demands during the day
is met by the other renewable sources.
0.00
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Figure 67:
LOCALIZED PRODUCTION
Helps to promote the sense of a local energy
efcient culture which helps to bring the
community back to nature and is crucial to the
transition in a more sustainable future.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Allows the community to experience rsthand
the diference between an energy efcient
culture compared to their previous lifestyles.
For the reason that homes will be warmer
during the winter; and also not needing to heat
up their homes inefciently; which reduces
health problems.
TRANSPORTATION SHIFT
Initial phase is to change the behavior of using
cars in the city; via a car sharing application
(KiwiGo). In conjunction to this, a transition
of using electric vehicles (EV) will be done
by providing incentives and the necessary
infrastructure (battery swap centers ) that will
be needed for this to happen. Collaboration
with the Better Place organization that is
leading this global transition to EV would be
benecial. By having an EV network within
the city; Christchurch would always have a
signicant amount energy of stored in the
form of the batteries of the EV.
5,070
2500
100
4260
4500
2000
Breakdown of Energy Plan (TJ/p.a)

Energy Eficiency
Transportation Shift
Localized Production
Solar Power
Wind Power
Bio Mass
62%
38%
Non-Renewable Total
Renewable Total
Non-Renewable Total
18,118 Tera-Joules (TJ)
Figure 68:
2.9 Final Summary
0
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$NZD Million)
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Cost of Energy Plan (Global Standard $NZD
Million)
TOTAL COST = $452 MILLION P.A. TOTAL COST = $334 MILLION P.A.
Figure 69:
10325

3033

4260

4500

Hydro
Bio-Mass
Solar Power
Wind Power
10325
8038
7244
2727
1033

2012 Energy Composition
Electricity
Petrol
Diesel
Other fossil fuels
Biofuels
2035 Green Energy Composition
TJ / pa TJ / pa
Figure 70:
2.9 Final Summary
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
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.
Timeline
Comparison between Oil Economy and Green Economy Plan
Figure 71:
The above is the energy costs for Christchurch
comparing the Business-as-Usual (B.A.U.)
Oil dependent plan and the zero carbon Green
Economy plan. We can see that the very slight
increase in short term costs would clearly pay
for itself in the long term. The reason being
that Oil costs will inevitably rise and the
demand for energy will as well. The costs of
utilizing green technologies would not, due
to the low running costs of the renewable
technologies. The reason for the short-term
costs being slightly higher is because green
technologies have a more expensive initial
capital costs; but is more efcient in the long
term than fossil fuels due to minimal running
and fuel costs.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
$

M
i
l
l
i
o
n

p
.
a
.
Timeline
Transition from Oil sources to Renewables sources
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

E
n
e
r
g
y

P
l
a
n

p
.
a
.
Timeline
Adoption Percentage of the Green Economy Plan
This is a breakdown on how the transition from
the oil economy to the Green economy might
happen. The plan will happen in three phases
PHASE 1 (INTRODUCTION):
The rst phase is to introduce the concept of
the green economy and to develop catalyst
initiatives; to get momentum going for full
adoption of the plan. In this phase, incentives
for early adopters of the plan will be crucial as
a critical mass of support will be needed to be
achieved for the success of Phase 2.
Green technology is strongly encouraged
to take a develop a change from the Oil
dependent culture. The plan is only 20% in
completion.
Time Period: 2012 - 2020
PHASE 2 (PLOT):
In Phase 2 the plan is steadily increasing
each year to ensure the target of zero-carbon
is achievable by 2035; despite rising energy
demands. A cumulative increase of 25
million pa will be needed to meet this goal.
In this phase, the whole energy structure is
undergoing a severe reconstruction from the
oil economy to the economy. Petrol stations
are being converted to Electric Vehicle battery
swap stations. Solar Panels are a common
component within the housing stocks and a
large green economic boom is happening due
to the large demand for the supply of green
technologies
Time Period: 2020 - 2030
PHASE 3 (CONCLUSION):
In the conclusion phase, Christchurch does not
need oil anymore and is reaping the rewards of
being a self sustainable city. The energy cost
for Christchurch is steadily going down due
to the necessary infrastructure already put in
place and the low running costs of the solar
panels, wind turbines and hydro dams.
Despite the global energy crisis happening
worldwide; Christchurch is unafected and is
well equipped if a crisis was to happen again.

Christchurch can now truly call itself the
Green Garden City.
Time Period: 2030 - 2035+
2.9 Final Summary
GOVERNMENT / COUNCIL
Feed-In Tarrifs (FIT)
Retailers Transmission Energy Generation
Wind Energy
Hydro Energy
Other Clean Energy
Solar Panels
CHRISTCHURCH PUBLIC
Micro-Generation (Wind)
(+) Demand
(+) Supply
Corporate
Electric Vehicles (Private)
Electric Vehicles (Public)
Battery Storage (Back-Up)
Business opportunities / Green Jobs / Future Investments
Economic Growth
Interest in Clean Technology sector
More funding for Research and Development
More Innovation
Tax Incentives
Relationship of Economic Forces
Other Consumers
Figure 74:
2.10 Bibliography

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Future Christchurch :

7 Zhi Jian (David) Wong

Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | A Green Economy

15 Zhi Jian (David) Wong

Through the analysis of the housing typology

Through the analysis of the housing typology

Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | Economics of Ecology

DOMESTIC HEATING IS THE PROBLEM

THE ECONOMIC COST

Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | Economics of Solar

1.5 kWp 3.0 kWp 6.0 kWp

SOLAR PRICE DROPPING

ALAN BOOTH, ENASOLAR

PERCEIVED BARRIERS TO SOLAR

Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Research | Bibliography

CURRENT SOLAR ENERGY

TYPE OF WIND TURBINE

= 500kW peak energy output

Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Wind Energy

Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Biomass Energy

CASE STUDY: BURWOOD LANDFILL

51 Zhi Jian (David) Wong

DISTRICT ENERGY SCHEME (DES)

52 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Biomass Energy

53 Zhi Jian (David) Wong

2.5 Hydro Energy

certainty is the key to providing renewable

EXISTING HYDROPOWER WILL BE USED AS A

55 Zhi Jian (David) Wong

56 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Hydro Energy

58 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Energy Efficiency

59 Zhi Jian (David) Wong

60 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Energy Efficiency

62 Future Christchurch: A Green Economy | Urban | Localized Production

30 Billion km per year is driven in cars, vans,

Resilient Electricity Generation

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