ENGINE STRUCTURE

STRUCTURE OF FOUR STROKE AND TWO STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Four stroke engine

Structural part of diesel engine

Basic construction
Engine structure includes all stationary parts that hold the engine together. Basic function is to support and keep aligned all moving parts. Additionally, supports auxiliaries to run the engine, provides jackets and a sump for lubricating oils.

Four stroke engine

piston, liner. cylinder head houses fuel injector,inlet/exhaust valves and other mountings.

connecting rod top joins to piston by gudgeon pin.

connecting rod bottom joins to crankpin, which forms part of crankshaft. crankshaft arranged to drive through gears the camshaft.

camshaft directly or through push-rods operates rocker-arms

rocker-arm open inlet and exhaust valves. crankcase surrounds the crankshaft Engine frame supports cylinders and houses the crankshaft

Two stroke engine

stationary parts
Bedplate Main bearing Frame Cylinder block Cylinder liner Cylinder head Valves or ports

Moving parts
piston Connecting rod Cross head pin,guide shoe Conn rod bolts Crankshaft Flywheel

Other parts
Fuel injection pump Cam shaft Valve actuating gear Governor Turbocharger

Starting/reversing gear
Safety devices

Auxiliaries - are the piping system

Two stroke engine

piston solidly connected to piston rod. Piston rod attached to crosshead bearing at other end. connecting rod top end also joined to crosshead bearing. cylinder liner contains port for air inlet cylinder head houses exhaust valve and other mountings. crankshaft supported within engine bedplate by main bearings

A frame mounted on the bed plate and houses guides in which the crosshead travels up and down.
entablature mounted above the frame and made up of cylinders, cylinder head and scavenge manifold.

BED PLATES

The Bedplate Of The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine

The Bedplate is the foundation on which the 2 stroke engine is built. It must be rigid enough to support the weight of the rest of the engine, and maintain the crankshaft, which sits in the bearing housings in the transverse girders, in alignment. At the same time it must be flexible enough to hog and sag with the foundation plate to which it is attached and which forms part of the ships structure.

If the bedplate was too rigid, then as the hull flexed, the holding down bolts, which secure the engine into the ship would be likely to break, and there would be a danger of the bedplate cracking.
Basically the bedplate consists of two longitudinal girders which run the length of the engine. Connecting these longitudinal girders are the transverse girders which are positioned between each crankshaft throw, and either side of the thrust collar. Built into the transverse girders are the main bearing pockets for the crankshaft to run in.

The main functions of the engine bedplate are as follows: The bedplate must be strong enough for providing rigid support for the main bearings and crankshaft. It is the main platform for accurately mounting other parts such as columns, frames and guides which support engine cylinders, entablature and all working parts. In large engines, must withstand heavy fluctuating stresses from operation of the engine and also transmit the load over an area to the ships hull. Collect crankcase lubricating oil and return to drain tank for further use. The two types of bedplate in general use is: 1. The Trestle Type- Require elevated seating. 2. The Box Form or Flat Bottom Type- More popular with most engine manufacturers since the engine can directly be bolted to tank- top.

Forces applied to the bedplates:

I. Firing load from cylinders. II. Side thrust from guide faces. III. Unbalanced inertia forces in the running gear. IV. Weight of engine structure & running gear. V. Torque reaction from propeller. VI. Hull deflections due to hogging, sagging, racking. VII. Vibration due to torque variations, shock loading. VIII. Thermal stresses due to atmospheric and lubricating oil temperature changes. IX. Inertia & gyroscopic forces due to ship's movement in heavy seas.

In addition to withstand forces due to the above causes, the bedplate should provide: An oil tight chamber to contain the oil splash & spray of the forced lubricating oil system. A drainage grid to filter out large particles before they enter the oil sump or drain tank. A housing for the thrust bearing. Having provided for all the above the bedplate should also be small & light to keep the overall size and mass of the engine to a minimum.

Basic Structure: The bedplate consists of longitudinal and transverse girders as shown below:

Longitudinal Girders may be single or double plate construction

Box girders- A box girder is stronger and more rigid then I or H section girder of the same c.s.a.

From the simple beam bending equation we have; M /I = s /y = E/R M = Bending moment I = 2nd moment of area of the cross section s = Stress y=distance from the axis of bending to the outer surface E= modulus of elasticity R= radius of curvature of the bending. This can be arranged into s = (M/I) . y

It can be seen that for the same bending moment on a symmetrical shape of same size, the stress is reduced on the increasing 2nd moment of area. The second moment of area increase with moving of material away from the axis of bending towards the extremes of the section. Because of this the commonest way of construction a fabricated bedplate is by creating two box section girders and tie them using transverse girders.

BED PLATES
On the small bore engines, the bedplate can be made from cast iron as a single casting. Larger engines have a fabricated bedplate. This means it is welded together from steel sections, steel castings and plate. The steel is to Classification Society specifications and is a low carbon steel with a maximum carbon content of 0.23%. Earlier fabricated bedplates had box section longitudinal girders and box section fabricated transverse girders. Problems were encountered with cracking of the transverse girders, which increased as engine powers and crankshaft throws got larger.

The modern bedplate is constructed from fabricated longitudinal girders with cast steel transverse sections containing the bearing pockets and tie bolt holes welded into place. After manufacture, the bedplate is stress relieved, the bearing pockets are line bored and landing surfaces machined.

The bedplate should be inspected regularly for evidence of cracking. This can occur in the welds joining the transverse girders to the longitudinals, and under the bearing pockets, where the cracks can be radial or follow the line of the pocket. As well as faulty manufacturing techniques, causes can be uneven loading/ overloading of engine units, loose tie bolts and loose holding down bolts.

BEDPLATE CONSTRUCTION
Two main longitudinal box structures -Stiffening members and webs,lightening holes Transverse members or girders joining two boxes by butt weldingone each between each crank throwcast steel. carries main bearing secure by stud,nuts / jack bolts.

Faults found in Bedplates: Cracks. Oil leaks. Loose chocks. Loose A frames.

1.

Cracks that usually occur: Under bearing pockets on fabricated mild steel bedplates. Radially around tie bolt & frame boltholes. Between longitudinal and transverse girders. Around lightening holes. At the base of serrated seating for main bearing keeps.

Causes may be:

Bearing wear & therefore overloading. Slack tie bolts. Vibration. Poor welding or stress relieving. Stress risers on welds -(Coarse welds should be

ground).

HOLDING DOWN BOLTS & CHOCKS

Holding down bolts secures bed plate to ships structure. Supporting Chocks supports the bed plate fitted around underside, used for adjustments (alignment) of engine. Holding down bolts pass through holes in supporting chocks and in foundation plate. End chocks positions and absorbs collision,also absorbs propeller thrust incase of integral thrust block. Side chocks to absorb side loads due to unbalanced reciprocating forces, preventing chaffing of supporting chocks and resists lateral forces during vessel rolling. Chock material CI,CS, epoxy resin/chock fast.

Holding down bolts & chocks

Operational information about Holding Down bolts and Chocking The engine is mounted on resin or cast iron chocks and bolted to the hull using holding down bolts. The engine must be securely fixed into the ship. As the engine turns the propeller, the propeller tries to push or thrust the propeller shaft and engine crankshaft forward into the ship. The thrust bearing which is situated at the aft end of the engine transmits this thrust from the crankshaft to the bedplate. The bedplate is mounted on chocks and is securely bolted to the engine foundation plate on which it sits and which forms part of the structure of the hull.

The Engine must also be lined up with the propeller shaft. If the engine output driving flange was higher or lower, or to port or stbd of the propeller shaft, then it is easy to visualise that trying to connect them would cause bending stresses to be set up.
The engine must also be bolted to a flat surface. If the surface was uneven, then when the bolts were tightened the bedplate would be distorted, which in turn would distort the crankshaft, causing unacceptable stresses to be set up when the engine was running. Before the engine is bolted down it is supported on jacks whilst it is aligned with the tailshaft bearing. This can be done by stretching a wire above the tailshaft and crankshsft, and measuring the distance from the wire to the crankshaft bearing centres. Modern methods use a laser.

 When the bedplate is in perfect alignment, cast iron chocks are hand fitted between the machined underside of the bedplate and machined spots on the foundation plate. This is a skilled task and 80% contact is the aim.

 Once the engine is supported by the chocks the jacks are removed and the holding down bolts are tightened using a hydraulic jack to stretch the bolts.

 Holding down bolts should be checked regularly for tightness. If they are allowed to come loose, then the mating surfaces will rub against each other and wear away in a process known as fretting. If this continues and the bolts are subsequently tightened down, the bedplate (and main bearings) will be pulled out of alignment.

Conventional Holdingdown bolt

 Side chocks are fitted to prevent the engine from moving sideways due to the movement of the vessel or because of the sideways component of thrust from the reciprocating and rotating parts. The chock is welded to the foundation plate as shown, a liner is hand fitted on a 100:1 taper and then driven home.

 This is a side chocking arrangement, where after driving the liner home, locking screws are hardened down as shown.

Side Chocking

End Chock (aft end of the engine only)

Resin Chocking
Steel chocking has the disadvantages that each block must be individually fitted, a time consuming process, and after fitting are susceptible to fretting and wear. Resin chocks are poured and therefore are much quicker to apply. They form into the shape of the clearance and key into surface imperfections. This much reduces damage due to fretting and removes bending momemts on the holding down bolts. The disadvantage is that the resin creation must be precise and that it is less straight forward to replace in the event of damage of misaligenement.

Properties The material used for the resin chocking is Class tested to ensure minimum standards. A sample cured in the correct way is tested for the following;
The impact resistance Hardness. Compressive strength (stress at maximum load) and modulus of elasticity. Water absorption. Oil absorption. Heat deflection temperature. Compressive creep Curing linear shrinkage. Flammability.

MOST IMPORTANT This is a liquid; it conforms to all irregularities in the fitting surface, providing a precise contact fit between machinery bases and foundations (after solidification). Properties of the chock after it has cured:
Compressive strength: 1330 kg/cm2. Tensile strength: 350 kg/cm2. Shear strength: 380 kg/cm2. Heat distortion temperature: 93*C.

A FRAME

 Frames were earlier made of cast iron and made hollow to reduce the weight. They were sandwiched between bedplate and cylinder block by tie bolts, which left them in compression. The frames were later fabricated from mild steel tube and plate. Guides (cast iron ) were bolted on the frames. This arrangement used individual frames at each cross girder (of the bedplate) position. The spaces between the frames along the length of the engine are fitted with plates bolted to the frames.

 This type of structure is strong transversely, but comparatively little flexible longitudinally. Heavy covers or longitudinal stiffness are to be used to make side covers oil-tight. This would be a weak structure to withstand a crankcase explosion. Alignment of cylinder block to bedplate would vary under ship movement. Longitudinal girder construction is the latest development for this part of the structure. These, with most engines, are prefabricated steel; they carry guide surfaces and are usually bolted to bedplate and cylinder blocks or entablature, the latter being used for air supply purposes, jacket and cylinder support,

A Frames OF The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine

Otherwise known as the A Frames. These carry the crosshead guides and support the engine entablature (the cylinder block). On older engines, the A frames were individually erected on the bedplate directly above the transverse girders. When boxed in with plating they formed the crankcase. The trend nowadays is to build the frame box as a separate fabricated construction and then, after stress relieving and machining the mating surfaces, to mount it on the bedplate. This has the advantage of saving weight.

 Lowering the A frame onto the bedplate. A small amount of jointing compound is used to ensure an oil tight joint.

 When the frames are aligned on the bed plate they are secured together by drilling and reaming and using fitted bolts.

 Cracking in A frames can occur leading to misalignment and excessive wear of the running gear. Cracks can start from welds, sharp changes in section and where strengthening stringers are terminated sharply. Repairs can involve cutting the crack out, grinding and rewelding. The danger is that after repair there may still be misalignment.

Frame with Guides

GUIDES IN THE CROSSHEAD TYPE ENGINE These guides are fitted to crosshead engines and are vertical sliding bearings which locate and maintain alignment of the crosshead over the whole length of engine stroke. They are subjected to fluctuating load from the transverse components of the connecting rod reaction. Guide bars or surfaces are secured to the frame adjacent to the unit and have either cast iron or steel bearing surfaces. Guide slippers (or shoes) are attached to the ends of the crossheads and may be free to articulate: they are white metal lined with oil grooves lubricated from the crosshead.

 Guide clearances must be checked periodically and should not exceed 0.7 mm for a large engine. Excess clearance will cause noise, wear on bearings and glands, uneven loads and fatigue. There are two major forms of guide / guide way : the 2-faced guides and the four faced guides are there as shown.

Cross head guides

Fitted to cross head
only. Vertical sliding bearings locates and maintain alignment of the cross head during entire stroke. Subjected to fluctuating loads from conn. rod reaction Guide bars are secured to the frame adjacent to the units. material CI or steel there are 2 forms of guides:2 faced guide ( M.A.N ENGINE) 4 faced guide (B&W, Sulzer)
2 face enginesguide 4 face guide

TIE-BOLTS
The entablature, A-frames and bedplate are held together by long tie-bolts that transmit the combustion gases from the tops of the cylinder down to the bedplate cross-members. The tiebolts are hydraulically tightened to pre-stress the structure, maintaining the engine structures in compression. Bracing screws are located at the length of the bolts to reduce the vibrations. The firing load from the cylinder covers is transferred through the bottom studs to the cylinder beams. The beam transfers the load through the tie-bolt nuts and the tie-bolts to the bedplate cross girders.

Operational Information The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine The Tie Bolts or Tie Rods
To understand the importance of the role played by the tie bolts or tie rods, it is necessary to appreciate what is happening inside the cylinder of the engine. When the piston is just after top dead centre the pressure inside the cylinder can rise as high as 140 bar (14000kN/m2). This acts downwards through the piston rod and conrod, pushing the crankshaft down into the bearing pockets. At the same time, the pressure acts upwards, trying to lift the cylinder cover.

The cylinder head studs screwed into the entablature prevent this happening and so this upward acting force tries to lift the entablature from the frames and the frames from the bedplate, putting the fitted location bolts into tension. As the piston moves down the cylinder the pressure in the cylinder falls, and then rises again as the piston changes direction and moves upwards on the compression stroke. This means that the fitted bolts are under are cyclic stress. Because they are not designed to withstand such stresses they would soon fail with disastrous consequences.

 To hold the bedplate , frames and entablature firmly together in compression, and to transmit the firing forces back to the bedplate, long tie bolts are fitted through these three components and then tightened hydraulically. To prevent excessive bending moments in the transverse girders, the tie bolts are positioned as close to the centre of the crankshaft as possible. Because the tie bolts are so close to the crankshaft, some engines employ jack bolts to hold the crankshaft main bearing cap in position instead of conventional studs and nuts.

 Operating the engine with loose tiebolts will cause the fitted bolts holding the bedplate, frame and entablature in alignment to stretch and break. The machined mating surfaces will rub together, corrode and wear away (this is known as fretting). Once this has happened the alignment of the engine running gear will be destroyed. Loose tie bolts will also cause the transverse girders to bend which could lead to cracking, and main bearing misalignment.

 Once fretting between the mating surfaces has occurred, then tightening of the tie bolts will pull the engine out of alignment. The crosshead guides, the cylinder liner, and the stuffing box will no longer be in line and excessive wear will occur. Because the tie bolts will no longer be pulled down squarely they will be subject to forces which may lead to them breaking. If fretting has occurred, then the only solution is to remove the entablature or/and frame and machine the fretted mating surfaces (a very costly exercise).

 Tie bolts can break in service. To reduce the risk of this happening they must be checked for tightness; not overtightened; and the engine not overloaded. If a breakage does occur, this is not disastrous, as the engine can be operated with care for a limited period (the load on the engine may have to be reduced). The position of the fracture will dictate how the broken pieces are removed.

 However in the worst possible scenario where the bolt is broken at mid length, then one solution is to lift out the top half, remove the bottom nut, and then feed a loop of braided wire cable (about 7mm diameter) down the tie bolt tube, down the side of the broken tie bolt and once it emerges at the bottom a supporting piece can be fitted to the wire enabling the broken tie bolt to be withdrawn.

Tie-bolt centers should be as close to the crankshaft as possible to reduce bending stresses on the girdles and to prevent unbalanced loads being transmitted into the welds. Tie-bolt should be checked for tightness and flaws. If any of the bolts were slack, the cylinder beam would flex and lift at the location. Landing faces of the tie-bolt upper and lower nuts, landing faces of the cylinder beam on the frame would fret and machined faces would eventually be destroyed. The bracing bolts would also be slackened.

Tie bolt
Entablature, A-frame and bedplate are held together by tie-bolt. They transmit the combustion gas load from top of the cylinder to the bed plate cross members. Tightened to pre-stress the structure maintaining them in compression.

Gas load from cyl head is transferred to the cyl block by studs, cyl block transfers load to bed plate through Tie bolt.

Tierod

Jack bolts

Sulzer Jackbolts
In Sulzer Engines, instead of bolts and nuts, Jackbolts are used for tigtening the main bearing. By this arrangement, the tie rods are brought as close as possible to the crankshaft centreline, which helps to reduce the bending stress in the cross girders of the bedplate.

On the MAN B&W MC-C engine the tie bolts do not pass through the bedplate transverse girder in the traditional way. Instead there are two pairs of tie bolts fitted either side of the single plate A frame and screwed into the bedplate transverse girder. This, it is claimed, reduces the distortion of the bedplate during engine operation.

 When checking the tightness of tie bolts, refer to manufacturers instructions for tightening pressures for the jacks and the order in which to carry out the check. The normal order is to start at the centre and work outwards checking the bolts in pairs

 The MC -C engine with its twin tie bolts is an exception, starting at the fwd end and working aft. If the engine is fitted with bearing jacking bolts, then these must be slackened before tightening the tie bolts. Any pinch bolts fitted must also be slackened off

CYLINDER Liner and Jacket (Entablature)

The structure above the bedplate and the frame to which the cylinders are attached is known as the entablature. In 2-stroke engines, it is generally of box form.

Operational Information The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine The Entablature

The entablature is the name given to the cylinder block which incorporates the scavenge air space and the cooling water spaces. It forms the housing to take the cylinder liner and is made of cast iron. castings are either for individual cylinders which after machining on the mating surfaces are bolted together to form the cylinder beam, or they may be cast in multi - cylinder units, which are then bolted together. The underside of the cylinder beam is machined and then it is aligned on the A frames and fastened in position using fitted bolts

It is important to remember that the fitted bolts used to bolt the entablature, A frames and Bedplate together are for alignment and location purposes only. They are not designed to resist the firing forces which will tend to separate the three components. This is the job of the tie bolts.

In the photograph opposite, the liners can be seen in place in the entablature. Note also the diaphragm plate and the stuffing box housing.

Entablature Mounted On A Frame With Liners In Place

Operational Information The Medium Speed 4 Stroke Trunk Piston Engine The Engine Frame

The engine frame of a modern 4 stroke medium speed diesel can be produced as a single casting or fabricated from cast steel sections and steel plates welded together. With this design, there is no separate bedplate, frame and entablature as with a 2 stroke slow speed engine. The photograph shows the frame of an engine with the liners and crankshaft in place.

 An alternative method of construction is shown opposite. A separate bedplate is bolted to an entablature which holds the underslung crankshaft.

 Shown here is a partial cross section from a one piece medium speed engine frame. The Crankshaft is underslung, and it can be seen in this example that the load on the bearing caps is transferred back to the frame by the use of tie bolts. Note the use of the side tie bolts which locate the bearing cap, and prevent sideways movement.