Structural Geology University of Glamorgan 22/03/2012

Seismic Outline
What is Seismic? Exploration Geophysics The basic concept Some evil maths Wavelets into a seismic section Geophysical Workflow: Acquisition Pre-Processing Main Processing Post-Processing Structures in Seismic SHOW ME THE MONEY!

What is Seismic?
The term seismic can be as

confusing as a pineapple with a speech bubble

It could refer to earthquake

tremors caused by seismic waves or earthquakes in the field of seismotectonics

What is Seismic?
The term seismic can be as

confusing as a pineapple with a speech bubble

It could refer to earthquake

tremors caused by seismic waves or earthquakes in the field of seismotectonics

But for our purposes it concerns

data manufactured by a source that creates faux seismic waves to penetrate the subsurface

Exploration Geophysics
This can include electrical resistivity, and

gravity/magnetic studies which can be very useful tools for imaging the subsurface. For now: we are solely interested in how to convert dynamite into this:

Seismic Section: A collection of waves

Geometry of a Seismic Wave

Wavelength () distance over which a wave repeats

v = *f

Exploration Geophysics the basics

Reflection Seismology
Receiver cable streamer Source airgun

Shot Gather
Offset (m) two-way travel time

reflection hyperbola

Exploration Geophysics the basics

Goal: to boost signal to noise ratio
a b

Geophysics Model vs. Reality

Idealised schematic subsurface

Potentially prospective subsurface

Mapping Changes in Depth

geophone Seismic source Position trace

Two-Way Travel Time

Seismic Attributes
Wed like this in DEPTH!!!
Position Two-Way Travel Time

Fortunately:
Speed = Distance / Time

- Velocity Analysis provides the depth we need.

(90% processors time is spent doing velocity analysis)

Building a Stronger Signal

However, the shot gather does not record energy from the same subsurface location
Data are re-sorted to common midpoint (CMP) gathers. (you might see these termed common depth-point (CDP) gathers old terminology).

Pitfalls
Two-Way Travel Time

One layer gives many reflections!!!!

migration provides a mean of correcting this problem.

Pitfallsin 3D

in plan view

migration can fix this problem. In a 2-D line, only energy reflected in the plane of the survey can be correctly migrated.
A 3-D acquisition allows energy to be 3-D migrated; both in- and outof-plane energy can be corrected. Out of plane energy is termed sideswipe.

Pitfalls II Surface Ghost

The surface ghost is a source-generated noise source.
For any offset, the ghost always has a constant lag behind the primary energy since there is a fixed extra travel distance

Sea Surface (RC = -1)

Primary energy

Surface Ghost Sea-bottom

Pitfalls III Multiples

Both the sea bed and the sea surface provide strong reflection coefficients (sea surface = -1). This means energy bounces around in the water column, and can obscure reflected energy. Multiples undergo suppression during velocity analysis (the main processing stage).

EVIL MATHS!
So now we know the basics, but causes a reflection to

be different at one layer than another? This idea is routed in Acoustic Impedance.

AI = *
velocity

=m/V
mass volume

density

=d/t
distance time

Acoustic Impedance

Acoustic Impedance

Acoustic Impedance II
A change in lithology between beds will cause a

change in both density and velocity:

Sandstone: = 2323 kg/m3 v = 2000 m/s Halite (salt): = 2323 kg/m3 v = 4000 m/s

AI = 4,646,000

AI = 9,292,000

Acoustic Impedance II
- ve + ve

A positive change in acoustic impedance, signals a kick to the right response of the wavelet This is called a hard reflection BEWARE OF POLARITY

Wave Travel Times

We need to understand how waves passing through

various layers changes travel time

Also need to understand how refracted waves and

reflected waves are affected by subsurface changes and how this in turn affect travel timebut to do this, we need to remember more EVIL MATHS!

EVIL MATHS II
If a seismic wave travels through an interface, it is

similar to a ray of light passing through different media = wave refraction. Hence Snells Law:

sin1/v1 = sin2/v2 v1 v2
1
If v1 > v2, then bent in toward normal 2 If v2 > v1, then bent away from normal

Wave Travel Times

Sinc = v1/v2

Seismic Workflow
Data Acquisition Pre-Processing (boosts signal level)

Main Processing (velocity analysis provides a starting velocity model and boosts signal level)

Post Processing (migration focuses an image improved match to real structure; Improved depth conversion)

Pre-Processing
When creating a seismic survey, we get residual noise.

On land this could be from city sounds, in the oceans this could be from the ships motor conducting the survey. Noise can be created by the explosion needed to generate the waves.
If the noise is of a frequency significantly different

from the signal, it can be muted using various filters and algorithms.

Ground-roll - Coherent - slow, low frequency Airblast -Coherent -300 m/s, high frequency

Noise in Land Surveys

Weather - random

Cultural random or coherent

Multiples -Coherent - short-path (e.g. ghost, intrabed) - long path

Noise in Marine Surveys

Swell noise - ambient, but coherent Propellor noise - ambient, but coherent

Multiples: Surface ghost, Long path etc - Source generated, coherent

Bubble pulse - Source generated, coherent

Drilling platforms - coherent, some random?

Ocean-bottom cables - coherent

Filters
4
ampltidue

1 2 3

20 Hz

50 Hz

500 Hz

High-pass filter permits energy higher than some chosen frequency. Low-pass filter permits energy lower than some chosen frequency. Bandpass filter is a combined high- and low-pass filter.

No filter

0-20 Hz

50-80 Hz

80-120 Hz

20-30 Hz

30-50 Hz

120-160 Hz

160-200 Hz

Main Processing
Static corrections
Velocity analysis Stacking

Static Corrections
Distortion of reflections in gathers
offset

time

Velocity Analysis
Velocity analysis is a powerful tool, which is at the centre of seismic data processing.
It provides an estimate of subsurface velocity and

the depth to layers, and also suppresses residual random and coherent noise from the dataset using NMO corrections and stacking.

The output from velocity analysis and stacking is a stacked section, interpretable as a cross-section through the subsurface.

Velocity Analysis II
Interval velocity, vINT vINT = 2*layer thickness time in the layer Average velocity, va va = 2*layer depth travel-time
z1 z2
vINT1

t01
vINT2

z3

vINT3

t02 t03

Root-Mean-Square Velocity, vRMS vRMS = sum of (interval velocity * travel-time in the layer) total travel-time

offset

offset

offset

t0 t-t0
reflection moveout

t0
Two-way travel time

Two-way travel time

Two-way travel time

normal moveout (NMO) correction

Stacking
Suppression of multiples
Ideally, if the multiple only occurs from a single

reflection then putting a bunch of similar reflections together will drown out the noise and leave true reflections True reflections will behave with constructive interference and multiples will behave with destructive interference

Post Processing
Its all about a term called migration
This serves to improve the resolution of your seismic

data. Most effective when used pre-stack and applied to 3D data (because out of plane reflections can exist).

Migration!
Migration uses velocity

information to zip up diffraction hyperbolae, focussing them at their apex.

Kirchhoff migration is a

common technique used.

Because of the restoration

of hyperbolae to their apex, migrated stacked sections are visibly more focussed than unmigrated sections.

Problem CMP not always a true CMP

Reflections points on dipping layers move in the up-dip direction!

Raypaths from Post-Stack Migration

- CMP gather

- migrated CMP position

- stacked CMP gather

Raypaths from Pre-Stack Migration

- CMP gather

- True CMP gather

stacked CMP gather - migrated CMP position

Migration

Post-stack

Pre-stack

The Final Picture

Seismic Resolution
What cant we see?
What may be one

apparent fault in seismic could actually be many smaller ones.

Vertical resolution =

Interpretation
So now we know a bit about where this seismic stuff comes from, we can go ahead and interpret it.
Things to remember: Seismic data is large scale, some lines can be up to 300km long
If vertical scale is exaggerated, then we will see a warped view of the

data, which can lead to incorrect interpretation of structure

In 2D seismic, spacing between lines can be up to 40/50km and

therefore the structures that vary hugely in a small area will be missed. Interpretation is subjective, that means your interpretation of a structure may be different to that of your neighbourbut it must make geological sense.

Interpretation II
In general there are some rules about seismic interpretation:
A change in acoustic impedance response often indicates a

change in lithology, so in a sense where a sharp reflector is seen, it is often a contact between packages or layers. It could also be an unconformityhow do we tell?
Look for angular truncations/relationships Knowledge of the regional geology

Faults are obvious where the seismic response degrades or

becomes blurry. This is probably due to intense fracturing in the damage zone

Thinking in 3D with 2D
A seismic line is like a cross-section: The best

representation of a structure is seen perpendicular to strike (parallel to dip), known as a dip section. However, often seismic lines cut through a structure parallel to structure or even oblique to structure. Example: simple syncline A
A

Thinking in 3D with 2D
Oblique view

produces very strange apparent structures! Obviously this is not a product of bizarre rocks, but instead the view.

Thinking in 3D with 2D

Out of plane faults and horizon reflections

Interpretation III
Ideal set-up: seismic lines are correlated with

boreholes, this allows a match between real geology and a particular set of reflectors known as a horizon. Once a horizon is selected, use a grass fire method to pick by interpreting one line then using a perpendicular line to loop tie the horizon out of plane. From there, continue building out until the desired horizon is picked.

Interpretation III

Interpretation III

Interpretation III

Interpretation III

Interpretation IV
What can we interpret here? Bedding, unconfomities,

faults. We can also interpret sediment packages. This is useful for determining relative ages of deformation (remember pre-kinematic, syn-kinematic, and postkinematic from the first practical). We can also determine seismic artefacts such as multiples.

Seismic Stratigraphy

Onlap Downlap Toplap Erosional Truncation

Useful for determining structural growth timings as

well as paleo-sea level (e.g. high stand systems tract, low stand systems tract) and thus the depositional environment

Seismic Attributes
Provides excellent views of features such as canyons,

channels, folds, and falt scarps in 3D (but needs 3D data)

Where the money at?

Seismic is the most important tool for hydrocarbon

exploration because we can use it to locate oil and gas. But in order to find it, we must understand how hydrocarbon formation works:
Source rocks (often an organic rich shale) Oil bearing rocks (e.g a highly porous and permeable

sandstone) Cap rocks (e.g. a shale with no permeability)

Density of gas < oil < water

Migration
Hydrocarbons form in

source rocks such as organic rich shales that undergo a degree of baking known at thermal maturation After formation, they will migrate according to the laws of buoyancy through porous rocks like sandstone

Traps
An accumulation of

hydrocarbons is called a trap This is because hydrocarbons migrate until trapped by a sealing membrane

2 Types
Structural Stratigraphic

Structural Traps I
By folding, e.g. an anticline. (in 3D, an anticline forms a four-way closure).

By faulting, e.g. fault acts as a seal or barrier to the fluid flow

Structural Traps II
Traps can occur in high occurrence in an area due to many faults/folding acting as traps.

Traps can overflow and leak out

Stratigraphic Traps I
Unconformity Stratigraphic pinch-out

Channels

Lenses