METHODS OF RESEARCH

Prepared By:

Prof. Rene D. Estember

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
a) Research is a purposive, systematic, and scientific process of gathering, classifying, organizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for the reservation and improvement of the quality of life. (Aguinaldo, 2000).

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
b) Research is searching for theory, testing for theory or for solving a problem. It means a problem exists and has been identified and that the solution of the problem is necessary. (Sevilla et al, 1992)

c) Research is a careful, critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles, a diligent investigation to ascertain something. It is an unbiased investigation of a problem based, insofar as possible, on demonstrable facts, and involves refined distinctiveness, interpretations, and usually some generalizations. (Andres, 1998)

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1) It is systematic. In research, there is a need to conduct the investigation in a step by step procedure. The procedure to be followed must be orderly, disciplined and organized.

2) It is controlled. Observations must be controlled and not haphazardly done by making sure the research instruments are carefully prepared and its validity and reliability properly established. The research variables must be carefully measured while extraneous variables are kept to a minimum.

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

3) It is empirical. There is a need to gather factual data which can be scrutinized and tested. It relies on empirical data which can be used. 4) Research is an inquiry. It is a process that investigates or searches for problems, possible solutions, theories, relevant studies to come up with reliable knowledge. 5) It is about problem solving. The essence of research is to find answers to problems raised. Humankind is beset with varied problems and situations that need improvement. It is the task of every human being to use his intelligence, harness his skills and existing knowledge to bring about progress and development.

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

6) It is about adherence to a method. Research is not just about gathering data for the sake of accumulating data. More than that, it is concerned with the how, the right manner by which findings are arrived through proper methodology and procedure. Without the right method, .any data or findings arrived at will not be accurate nor reliable. Without a method, we are left with chance and research cannot rely on chance. 7) It concentrates on a specific subject/topic. Life abounds with complex and broad problems and issues that it will be impossible to tackle all of them one at a time. A particular broad subject/topic should be properly narrowed down to a specific research subject/topic which means it must have a scope and limits in its inquiry or investigation. A good researcher sets limits to his own inquiry to bring about feasible solutions to problems.

KINDS OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

1) Basic or pure research When research is conducted to develop theories and principles, for intellectual pursuit of knowledge and acquire learning, it is classified as basic or pure research. The inquiry is done for knowledge sake. An individuals passion and desire to discover the unknown is essential in the discovery and acquisition of knowledge.

2) Applied research When the results of basic research are used and/or utilized to address situations and/or solve problems, research is classified as applied. This happens when the theories and principles obtained from pure research are put to a test. In applied research, the theories and principles of basic research are subjected to a test to find out if these have practical application to specific problems and/or situations.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH Three central components of Scientific or Critical Thinking: 1) The Use of Empirical Evidence (empiricism). Empirical evidence is evidence that can be discerned by and or susceptible to the senses. It is something that can be experienced by others, aside from the researcher. It is repeatable that it can be verified by others. Empirical evidence is the only type of evidence that is utilized by scientists and researchers to formulate conclusions and make decisions.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH Three central components of Scientific or Critical Thinking:
2) The Practice of Logical Reasoning (rationalism).
Logic is the art of reasoning correctly. Logical reasoning is a skill and or discipline that is best learned in a formal educational environment where people are encouraged to reason out freely. Logic, at times, can be painful and difficult because it can force one to face and accept realities which others find complicated and troublesome to accept. But every scientific research must remember that emotions are not exactly evidence, feelings are not facts and subjective beliefs are not substantive enough. Statements and arguments must be based on evidence after it has been thoroughly analyzed.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH Three central components of Scientific or Critical Thinking:
3) The Possession of a Skeptical Attitude (skepticism) Skepticism is the constant evaluation of ones beliefs and conclusions. Good scientists and researchers constantly examine the evidence, arguments and reasons for their beliefs. The only way to avoid deception by others and by ones own self-deception(state by which people deceive themselves without really being fully conscious of it) is to rigorously examine ones basis for holding those beliefs. True knowledge is knowledge that will overcome any scrutiny or questioning. Outright adherence to a belief without being open to other possibilities is closed or single-mindedness. A skeptical scientist hold beliefs tentatively and is open to evidence and rational arguments about those beliefs. Rigorous examination of evidence are necessary to evaluate, polish and advance truth and knowledge.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH

Five distinct steps involved in the scientific method of research: 1. The research problem should be clearly identified. This may be an unexplained discrepancy in ones field of knowledge or a gap to be closed. 2. Step should be taken to define the problem more precisely to establish its scope and limits. Efforts should be exerted to search out every possible solution. Ideas are considered and ones imagination and freedom of thought are allowed and should be encouraged. Researcher should be able to project the consequences of each of the possible solutions that have been conceived. Researcher should test the solutions to find out what consequences actually bring results.

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CHARACTERISTICS NEEDED TO BE A GOOD RESEARCHER

1. Knowledge-oriented. A good researcher must believe in the value and power of knowledge. 2. Open-minded. A good researcher must be open to various ideas, views, criticisms, and feedbacks from other people or fellow researchers. 3. Hardworking. Research is a difficult challenge. There is no easy path in achieving meaningful things. It takes a lot of time, resources and efforts. In research, there is no substitute for hardwork.

CHARACTERISTICS NEEDEDTO BE A GOOD RESEARCHER

4. Resourceful. Pursuing research requires a great deal of time, money, materials and other resources. How the researcher will budget all his resources requires resourcefulness. He must also be as resourceful when faced by obstacles in his search for valuable knowledge. 5. Scientific in attitude. Research is a scientific undertaking. It requires a scientific attitude of acquiring data, analyzing and interpreting such data to make it a part of the body of knowledge. Being scientific in attitude requires adherence to systematic, disciplined and objective way of conducting the entire research task.

COMMON PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN RESEARCH

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Difficult in finding or conceptualizing a good research problem. Scarcity or unavailability of updated and relevant references. Financial (limited budget or funds). Time constraints. How to put into writing ones own ideas. Lack of teamwork among the groups members or inadequate assistance. Uncooperative respondents or officials of an institution. Personal problem get in the way of a good research work.

PLANNING THE THESIS

PLANNING THE THESIS

A. Selecting a Topic
Does it make a contribution to knowledge in this field? (Was there a problem to be investigated and did the thesis attempt to solve this problem?)

B. A Source of Problem for Investigation

1) Direct Contact with personnel at a research institution. The research fellow, lecturer or professor who is active in research is usually a fund of research problems. 2) Journal Literature Review The literature review is an important source of ideas signalling gaps., likely future directions, or inconsistencies in patterns of research findings in a particular area.

PLANNING THE THESIS

B. A Source of Problem for Investigation
3) Familiarity with recent masteral and doctoral studies in your field of interest. Publications such as Thesis/Dissertation Abstracts present concise summaries of thesis/doctoral dissertations submitted at most leading universities. Often these summaries conclude with suggestions for future research.

PLANNING THE THESIS

C. Criteria for Selecting a Topic
1. Is there Adequate Supervision? There should be a member of faculty in the institution who has the expertise or interest in a particular topic. as thesis topics. 2. Does the Topic Really Interest You? Most research projects take at least a year and successful completion often depends on whether the topic continues to hold interest. Lose this and the task becomes the worst kind of chore.

PLANNING THE THESIS

C. Criteria for Selecting a Topic
3. Can the topic be Completed in the Required Time? Some topics by their very nature require time to elapse before data can be collected. Longitudinal growth studies and long-term attitude studies fall into this category. However desirable these types of studies may be, they are rarely practical. 4. Is the Necessary Equipment Available? Specialized and expensive equipment is required for many studies. Unless there is reasonable assurance that necessary equipment will be available when required, a different choice of topic may be advisable.

PLANNING THE THESIS

C. Criteria for Selecting a Topic
5. Are Subjects Available? Much research, especially in the social sciences, requires the ready cooperation of participants to submit to questionnaires or experimental treatments and testing. Many a thesis has been delayed or had its focus changed because the question of availability of subjects are not carefully considered at the outset.

PLANNING THE THESIS

C. Criteria for Selecting a Topic 6. Are Travel Funds Available to Locate Data Sources? Often travel is needed fort field trips to collect data, to use particular equipment or to interview participants. Such investigation may require extensive travel; therefore, costing and availability of funding need to be considered

7. Are Library Facilities Sufficient? Library facilities are essential for literary or analytical research studies. A particular topic may prove unsuitable simply there is not ready access to the requisite source materials. For example, it is common for some source material not to be made available during the lifetime of an individual or for some years after an event. Other materials may not be held at a particular library or may not be available or inter-library loan because of its value.
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C. Criteria for Selecting a Topic 8.

PLANNING THE THESIS

Is the Study Achievable?

Another question to consider is whether the research techniques for testing a particular problem have been developed or are sufficiently refined. This question implies that you need to determine the techniques to be used before embarking upon a study.
9. Is the Problem a Significant One? Whether a problem is significant is never an easy question, for its answer requires considering the practical as well as the theoretical justification for the problem(s) under investigation. An important part of any thesis is a section on the significance of the study. Therefore, you should consider this question early in the life of the study. At various key stages in planning a thesis, the feasibility of conducting a study must be faced. You need to ask hard questions about the resources needed for tackling a particular problem, and the justification in terms of time, effort and expense.

PLANNING THE THESIS

8. Is the Study Achievable?

Another question to consider is whether the research techniques for testing a particular problem have been developed or are sufficiently refined. This question implies that you need to determine the techniques to be used before embarking upon a study.
9. Is the Problem a Significant One? Whether a problem is significant is never an easy question, for its answer requires considering the practical as well as the theoretical justification for the problem(s) under investigation. An important part of any thesis is a section on the significance of the study. Therefore, you should consider this question early in the life of the study. At various key stages in planning a thesis, the feasibility of conducting a study must be faced. You need to ask hard questions about the resources needed for tackling a particular problem, and the justification in terms of time, effort and expense.

PLANNING THE THESIS

E. Reviewing the Literature 1) A review of related literature is a task that you will continue throughout the duration of a thesis. 2) It begins with a search of a suitable topic.

3) Since a thesis aims to be a contribution to knowledge, you need to check carefully that the proposed study has not previously been undertaken.
4) Although completely new and original problems are rare, a previous study should not be exactly replicated unless the techniques used were faulty, or the findings and conclusions doubtful, or unless some new sources of information have been discovered to provide information about the problem. A good test is whether the problem still requires solution.

PLANNING THE THESIS

E. Reviewing the Literature 5) Once you have decided a topic, it is essential to review all relevant material that has a bearing on the topic. This review of the literature is included in the final written thesis as a key section or chapter. It is necessary to show how the problem under investigation relates to previous research studies. In some subject areas it is important to locate the problem within a theoretical framework and, in such cases, the underlying theory needs to be reviewed as well.

In surveying a field initially, it is useful to work from the general to the specific, or from tertiary and secondary sources of information to primary sources.

PLANNING THE THESIS

E. Reviewing the Literature

5.1 Primary Sources

Primary sources of information include first-hand accounts of experimentation and investigation (articles in professional journals, monographs, doctoral theses, interviews and questionnaires), original works (letters, diaries, eyewitness accounts, poems, novels, autobiographies) and reports (proceedings of Parliament, court testimony, report of government departments and agencies, annual reports, minutes).

PLANNING THE THESIS

E. Reviewing the Literature

5.2

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources of information are summaries of information gathered from primary sources. These include translations, summaries and reviews of research (for example, encyclopedia articles), abstracts, guide books and other publications, containing information, commentaries, and so on.

PLANNING THE THESIS

E. Reviewing the Literature 5.3 Tertiary Sources Textbooks are usually examples of tertiary sources of information, since these are generally compiled from secondary sources. Tertiary sources of information can be useful in providing an overview or broad summary of a field. They may even be acceptable as references because some textbooks become acknowledged as authorities. For certain types of research, the original source material may be lost or inaccessible and heavy reliance therefore must be made on secondary sources. However, there is no substitute for consulting primary sources if these are available, and postgraduate work in most subject areas demands it. The reliability of sources of information generally decreases as the number of hands through which the information has passed increases.