CHAPTER 3: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

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Functions of the Cell

Basic unit of life Protection and support through production and secretion of various kinds of molecules Movement. Various kinds occur because of specialized proteins produced in the cell Communication. Cells produce and receive electrical and chemical signals Cell metabolism and energy release Inheritance. Each cell contains DNA. Some cells are specialized to gametes for exchange during sexual intercourse.
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Basic Structure of the Cell

Plasma membrane Cytoplasm containing organelles Nucleus

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The plasma Membrane

Function of the plasma membrane

Separation of intracellular vs. extracellular materials Production of charge difference (membrane potential) across the membrane by regulation of intracellular and extracellular ion concentrations Outside of membrane positively charged compared to inside because of gathering ions along outside and inside Glycocalyx: combinations of carbohydrates and lipids (glycolipids) and proteins (glycoproteins) on outer surface. Fluid-mosaic model
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Membrane Lipids
Phospholipids and cholesterol predominate Phospholipids: bilayer. Polar heads facing water in the interior and exterior of the cell (hydrophilic); nonpolar tails facing each other on the interior of the membrane (hydrophobic) Cholesterol: interspersed among phospholipids. Amount determines fluid nature of the membrane Fluid nature provides/allows Distribution of molecules within the membrane Phospholipids automatically reassembled if membrane is damaged Membranes can fuse with each other
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Membrane Proteins

Integral or intrinsic Extend deeply into membrane, often extending from one surface to the other Can form channels through the membrane Peripheral or extrinsic Attached to integral proteins at either the inner or outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer Functioning depends on 3-D shape and chemical characteristics. Markers, attachment sites, channels, receptors, enzymes, or carriers.
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Marker Molecules: Glycoproteins and Glycolipids

Allow cells to identify one another or other molecules
Immunity Recognition of oocyte by sperm cell Intercellular communication

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Attachment Sites
Integrins, membrane-bound proteins Attachment sites to other cells or to extra/intracellular molecules.

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Channel Proteins (Integral):

hydrophilic region faces inward; charge determines molecules that can pass through Non-gated ion channels: always open
Responsible for the permeability of the plasma membrane to ions when the plasma membrane is at rest

Gated ion channels can be open or closed

a) Ligand gated ion channel: open in response to small molecules that bind to proteins or glycoproteins b) Voltage-gated ion channel: open when there is a change in charge across the plasma membrane
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Receptor Molecules

Proteins in membranes with an exposed receptor site Can attach to specific ligand molecules and act as an intercellular communication system Ligand can attach only to cells with that specific receptor
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Receptors Linked to Channel Proteins

Receptor molecules linked to channel proteins Attachment of receptor-specific ligands (e.g., acetylcholine) to receptors causes change in shape of channel protein Channel opens or closes Changes permeability of cell to some substances Cystic fibrosis: defect in genes causes defect(s) in channel proteins Drugs used to alter membrane permeability through attachment to channel proteinlinked receptors

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A Receptor Linked to a G Protein

Alter activity on inner surface of plasma membrane Leads to intracellular chemical signals that affect cell function Some hormones function in this way
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Enzymes

Enzymes: some act to catalyze reactions at outer/inner surface of plasma membrane. Surface cells of small intestine produce enzymes that digest dipeptides.

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Carrier Protein
Carrier proteins: integral proteins move ions from one side of membrane to the other Have specific binding sites Protein change shape to transport ions or molecules
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Movement through the Plasma Membrane

1. 2. 3. 4. Diffusion Osmosis Filtration Mediated transport mechanisms
Facilitated diffusion Active transport Secondary active transport

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1. Diffusion

Movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration in solution Concentration or density gradient: difference between two points Viscosity: how easily a liquid flows
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2. Osmosis
Diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves from an area of low concentration of solute to an area of high concentration of solute Osmotic pressure: force required to prevent water from moving across a membrane by osmosis
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Osmosis

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Osmosis
Comparative terms used to describe osmotic pressures of solutions Isosmotic: solutions with the same concentrations of solute particles Solution with a greater concentration of solute is hyperosmotic Solution with a lesser concentration of solute is hyposmotic
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Osmosis and Cells

Important because large volume changes caused by water movement disrupt normal cell function Cell shrinkage or swelling Isotonic: cell neither shrinks nor swells Hypertonic: cell shrinks (crenation) Hypotonic: cell swells (lysis)

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3. Filtration
Works like a sieve Depends on pressure difference on either side of a partition Moves from side of greater pressure to lower Example: urine formation in the kidneys. Water and small molecules move through the membrane while large molecules remain in the blood

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4. Mediated Transport Mechanisms

Involve carrier proteins or channels in the cell membrane Characteristics
Specificity for a single type of molecule Competition among molecules of similar shape Saturation: rate of transport limited to number of available carrier proteins
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Mediated Transport Mechanisms

Move large, water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules across the plasma membrane. Amino acids and glucose in, manufactured proteins out.
Facilitated diffusion: carrier- or channel-mediated. Passive. Active transport Secondary active transport

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Active Transport
Requires ATP. The use of energy allows the cell to accumulate substances Rate of transport depends on concentration of substrate and on concentration of ATP Example: Na/K exchange pump that creates electrical potentials across membranes
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Secondary Active Transport

Ions or molecules move in same (symport) or different (antiport) direction. This example shows cotransport of Na+ and glucose. 1. A sodium-potassium exchange pump maintains a concentration of Na that is higher outside the cell than inside. Active transport. 2. Na moves back into the cell by a carrier protein that also moves glucose. The concentration gradient for Na provides the energy required to move glucose against its concentration gradient.
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Endocytosis
Internalization of substances by formation of a vesicle Types
Phagocytosis Pinocytosis Receptor-mediated endocytosis

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Pinocytosis

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Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

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Exocytosis

Accumulated vesicle secretions expelled from cell Examples Secretion of digestive enzymes by pancreas Secretion of mucous by salivary glands Secretion of milk by mammary glands
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Cytoplasm
Cellular material outside nucleus but inside plasma membrane Composed of Cytosol, Cytoskeleton, Cytoplasmic Inclusions, Organelles Cytosol: fluid portion. Dissolved molecules (ions in water) and colloid (proteins in water)

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Cytoskeleton
Supports the cell but has to allow for movements like changes in cell shape and movements of cilia Microtubules: hollow, made of tubulin.
Internal scaffold, transport, cell division

Microfilaments: actin.
Structure, support for microvilli, contractility, movement

Intermediate filaments: mechanical strength Cytoplasmic inclusions: aggregates of chemicals such as lipid droplets, melanin
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Organelles
Small specialized structures with particular functions Most have membranes that separate interior of organelles from cytoplasm Related to specific structure and function of the cell

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Nucleus
Membrane-bound Nucleoplasm, nucleolus and nuclear envelope Much of the DNA in a cell located here

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Nucleus
Membrane-bound Nucleoplasm, nucleolus and nuclear envelope Much of the DNA in a cell located here

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Chromosome Structure
Chromatin: DNA complexed with proteins (histones) During cell division, chromatin condenses into pairs of chromatids called chromosomes. Each pair of chromatids is joined by a centromere

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Spindle Fibers

Spindle fibers are aggregates of microtubules that move chromosomes during cell division.
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Centrosomes and centrioles

Located in centrosome: specialized zone near nucleus Center of microtubule formation Before cell division, centrioles divide, move to ends of cell and organize spindle fibers

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Cilia
Appendages projecting from cell surfaces Capable of movement Moves materials over the cell surface

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Flagella
Similar to cilia but longer Usually only one per cell Move the cell itself in wave-like fashion Example: sperm cell

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Movement of cilia vs flagella

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Microvilli

Extension of plasma membrane Increase the cell surface area Normally many on each cell One tenth to one twentieth size of cilia Does not move
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Ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis Composed of a large and a small subunit Types Free Attached (to endoplasmic reticulum)
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
Types Rough Has attached ribosomes Proteins produced and modified here Smooth No attached ribosomes Manufactures lipids Cisternae: Interior spaces isolated from rest of cytoplasm

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Golgi Apparatus
Modification, packaging, distribution of proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use Flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other

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Function of Golgi Apparatus

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Action of Lysosomes

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Peroxisomes and Proteasomes

Peroxisomes
Smaller than lysosomes Contain enzymes to break down fatty acids and amino acids Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of breakdown

Proteasomes
Consist of large protein complexes Include several enzymes that break down and recycle proteins in cell
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Mitochondria
Major site of ATP synthesis Membranes
Cristae: Infoldings of inner membrane Matrix: Substance located in space formed by inner membrane

Mitochondria increase in number when cell energy requirements increase. Mitochondria contain DNA that codes for some of the proteins needed for mitochondria production.
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Cell Metabolism
Metabolism is defined as the sum total of all the chemical reactions that take place within the body to convert the food that we eat into useful molecules that can be utilized by the body to produce energy and support its activities such as growth, repair and reproduction.

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Cellular Reproduction
Unicellular organisms undergo direct cell division or amitosis wherein a constriction appear on the plasma membrane which deepens and divides both cytoplasm and nucleus resulting into daughter cells. Prokaryotic cells undergo this type of division.

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 Cells of multi-cellular organisms undergo indirect cell division or mitosis wherein several changes take place in the cell prior to division. This type of cell division typifies cellular reproduction in eukaryotic cells.

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The cell cycle

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Cell Life Cycle

Interphase: phase between cell divisions

Replication of DNA Ongoing normal cell activities

Mitosis: series of events that leads to the production of two cells by division of a mother cell into two daughter cells. Cells are genetically identical.
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Cytokinesis: division of cell cytoplasm

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Mitosis

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Stages of mitosis
Prophase Metaphase

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Stages of mitosis
Anaphase Telophase

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NEXT MEETING: TISSUES, GLANDS AND MEMBRANES, SEE YA!

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Cellular Aspects of Aging

Cellular clock. After a certain amount of time or certain number of cell divisions, cells die. Death genes. Turn on late in life, or sometimes prematurely causing cells to deteriorate and die. Apoptosis. DNA damage. Telomeres at ends of chromosomes TTAGGG. During replication, nucleotides are lost. Telomerase protects telomeres, enzymes seem to be lost with aging. Free radicals. DNA mutation caused by free radicals (atoms or molecules with an unpaired electron. Mitochondrial damage. Mitochondrial DNA may be more sensitive to free radicals. Loss of energy, cell death.

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Overview of Cell Metabolism

Production of ATP necessary for life ATP production takes place in the cytosol (anaerobic) and mitochondria (aerobic)
Anaerobic does not require oxygen. Results in very little ATP production. Aerobic requires oxygen. Results in large amount of ATP.

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Overview of Protein Synthesis

Transcription: DNA used to form RNA Translation: synthesis of a protein at the ribosomes using mRNA, tRNA and rRNA

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Transcription

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Post-transcriptional Modification of mRNA

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Translation

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Regulation of Protein Synthesis

All nucleated cells except germ cells have the full complement of DNA. During development, differentiation occurs and some segments of DNA are turned off in some cells while those segments remain on in other cells. During the lifetime of a cell, the rate of protein synthesis varies depending upon chemical signals that reach the cell.
Example: thyroxine from the thyroid causes cells to increase their metabolic rate. More thyroxine, higher metabolic rate; less thyroxine, lower metabolic rate.
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1.

Saturation of a Carrier Protein

2.

3.

When the concentration of x molecules outside the cell is low, the transport rate is low because it is limited by the number of molecules available to be transported. When more molecules are present outside the cell, as long as enough carrier proteins are available, more molecules can be transported; thus, the transport rate increases. The transport rate is limited by the number of carrier proteins and the rate at which each carrier protein can transport solutes. When the number of molecules outside the cell is so large that the carrier proteins are all occupied, the system is saturated and the transport rate cannot increase.
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