Sequence Stratigraphy - The Basics

STRATIGRAPHY
Vertical and Lateral relationship of Rocks

Lithostratigraphic method uses time-transgressive lithofacies boundaries methods use boundaries, which are not physical surfaces.

Biostratigraphic

Allostratigraphic unit "a mappable stratiform body of sedimentary rock that is defined and identified on the basis of its bounding discontinuities" (NACSN,1983). Sequence stratigraphy defines sequence boundaries based on a chronostratigraphic framework of cyclic, genetically related strata.

Sequence stratigraphy is another form of stratigraphic analysis where the building block is the SEQUENCE

Lithostratigraphy
defined based on observable characteristics of rock Fundamental rock unit is a formation
mappable, lithologically distinct body of rock having recognizable boundries (contacts) with other formations formations subdivided into members or grouped into groups

Correlation and Time

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

versus

ALLOSTRATIGRAPHY Lithostratigraphy is facies-driven and doesn't honour Biostratigraphy On the contrary Allostratigraphy and Biostratigraphy should co-operate

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Biofacies Law of Faunal Succession Biostratigraphic events- defined by the presence of a taxon in its time
context; as derived from its position in a rock sequence. FAD LAD Common or peak occurrence Events are the result of biological evolution of life on Earth

USES

Correlation Paleo-ecology & Paleo-geographical studies Bathymetry Age

Method
Biozones Correlation Quantitative Biostratigraphy PMI

Example of definition of biostratigraphic events.

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
FOSSIL ABUNDUNCE MINIMAS ARE OFTEN

ASSOCIATED WITH SEQUENCE BOUNDARIES

MICROFOSSIL ABUNDUNCE PEAKS OFTEN

INDICATE CONDENSED SECTIONS

VARIATIONS IN BOTH ABUNDUNCE

PATTERNS AND SPECIFIC FOSSIL CONTENT CAN BE USED TO CHARACTERIZE DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEM TRACTS

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Syst. Tract TST SB HST Mfs TST TS LST SB CD
DRY
SH/SST

BATHY BENTHIC PLANKTIC CALCAR

FORAMS FORAMS NANNOS

DINOCYST CLIMATE

KEROGEN REWORK ACCUM RATE

R T

D C C

D WET C

M A R I N E

T E R R I G E N O U S

I N P L A C E

R E WL OO RW K E D

H I G H

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Biostratigraphy can support sequence analysis in the following ways: Development of a constrained time framework. Analysis of biofacies. Understanding temporal and spatial relationships within and between systems tracts. Assisting development of play fairway concepts. Predictive modelling of relationships between depositional systems.

SEQUENCE
State of being Sequent or following Order of succession A series of things following an order Unbroken series A set of things that belong next each other on some

principle of order
A relatively conformable succession of genetically related strata bounded at its top and base by unconformities and their correlative conformities (Vail et al., 1977) A succession of genetically linked deposition systems (systems tracts) and is interpreted to be deposited between eustatic-fall inflection points (Posamentier et al., 1988).

Sequence Stratigraphy
A New Paradigm?

Most concepts in sequence stratigraphy not new Relies on understanding of how sea level change effects deposition of sediments. Suess 1885: plotted extent of marine transgression and estimated water depth on basis of lithology and fossils.

Modern sequence stratigraphy: origins 1940: Sloss

OK What is it?
Study of genetically related sediments which are bounded by surfaces of erosion or nondeposition Sequence represents a group of sediments reflecting large scale global sea level change KEY: unconformity based stratigraphy - trying to correlate the gaps in time: trying to correlate unconformites that formed at the same time. Sequence stratigraphy: LOADS of terminology - will try to keep it to a minimum

SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
(Definition, Factors and Controls) Sequence stratigraphy - a new correlation tool that integrates outcrop, well-log and seismic data to identify and define the genetic character of different types of physical surfaces and stratigraphic intervals within the rock record.

The building block is the SEQUENCE

Within sequence stratigraphic framework, the distribution of depositional environments and the lithofacies tracts are defined.

It bears both chrono-stratigraphic and genetic stratigraphic meanings.

Sequence stratigraphic units are scale independent both spatially and temporally.

1st order to 6th order sequences are defined.

More effective in predicting sandstone continuity and trend directions of reservoirs, superior to shale tops Improved methods for predicting reservoir, source and seal facies away from wells Better at locating sands: Basinal; shoreface; incised valleys; HS and LS regressive sands Prediction of diagenesis, porosity and permeability Definition of new stratigraphic play types Improved ability to define and locate subtle stratigraphic traps Reevaluate producing fields to increase reserves More integrated stratigraphic framework for risking new plays

CYCLE CHART
THE DURATION AND EPIDOCITY OF GEOLOGICAL EVENTS AND STRATIGRAPHIC CYCLICITY SPAN DIFFERENT ORDERS OF CYCLICITY

Nature of the Cycle Chart

A working model based on best available data in 1987; An averaged global curve; Events on the chart included only if found in three or more non-contiguous basins; Firmly tied to European Stage Stratotypes; Biostratigraphic resolution improves upwards - Further improvements to be expected as new data accumulates.

Usefulness of Cycle Charts

Age Estimation First approximation in frontier basins First order global correlations Depositional Trends Duration and magnitude of unconformities Duration and magnitude of Condensed Sections Extent of lateral migration of Facies Duration of exposure in Carbonates

Cycle
1st order

Duration (m.y.)

200-500 A global supercontinent cycle generated by assemblages of supercontinents in space and time (Wilsons cycle of sea opening and closing), Rifting-seafloor spreading and drifting of continents and finally collision and reassembling 10-100 Eustatic cycles induced by volume change at MOR and tectonic subsidence of basement

2nd order

3rd order

1-10

4th order & 5th order

Regional to local cycle of basement movement induced by regional plate kinematics and intra-plate stress regime 0.2-0.5 Global cycles generated by orbital forcing, glacioeustasy, productivity cycle etc. 0.01-0.2

Sequence stratigraphy

Sequence stratigraphy is the study of rock relationships

within time-equivalent depositional successions bounded by surfaces of erosion or nondeposition. An interruption in sedimentation (discontinuity) is commonly accompanied by a period of erosion that can cause a significant gap in the rock record (unconformity). In sequence stratigraphy, unconformities define the ends of depositional sequences and the beginnings of new sequences. Sequence stratigraphy can be used as a lithological predictor and as a tool for unraveling basin-fill history. High resolution sequence stratigraphy is useful in petroleum reservoir correlation and modelling.

Transgression

Forced Regression

The potential space available for sediment to fill

Accommodation

Accommodation is a function of changes in relative sea level (Jervey, 1988,)

It is also a function of rates of sedimentation; e.g.

if the sea level rises and there is a zero or low sediment flux, then transgression results.

if sea level rises and there is a low rate of sediment flux, then retrogradation of the coastal parasequence results.
if sea level rises and the rate of sediment flux matches the sea level rise, then aggradation of the coastal parasequence results. if sea level rises and the rate of sediment flux exceeds the sea level rise, then progradation of the coastal parasequence results

Position of of sea surface relative to a fixed datum near the sea floor: takes into account two components: eustasy and vertical movement of the sea floor (tectonism

SEQUENCE AND DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCE

Sequence - a relatively conformable succession of

genetically related strata bounded by unconformities.

Original definition has been broadened to include

".....and their correlative conformities

Thus, a depositional sequence (DS) is defined as a conformable

succession of genetically related strata bounded above and below by unconformities or their correlative conformities.
Laterally includes two portions: the landward unconformable portion and the correlative basin-ward conformable portion.

Sequences composed of depositional systems tracts

Wheller Diagram :

(After Loutit et al., 1987)

Parasequence
Parasequence-a relatively conformable succession of genetically related bed or bed set bounded by flooding surface or their correlative surfaces. Parasequence set a succession of genetically related parasequence forming a distinctive stacking pattern bounded by major flooding surface and their correlative surfaces.

Parasequence Characters

oGenetically related package exhibiting shoaling succession of vertical facies oBoundaries (flooding surfaces) represent surfaces above which there has been rapid sea level rise oParasequence boundaries approximate time lines oCan be used to create high-resolution seq. strat. framework oGrain-size increase upwards oBed & bed-set thicken upwards oTypically 5-30 m thick oBest expressed in shallow marine settings

System Tract
Linkage of contemporaneous depositional systems, defined objectively by stratal geometries at bounding surfaces, position within sequences and internal parasequence patterns.
Dip direction - fluvial, delta, and shelf and slope/basin systems
Strike section - delta, barrier-bar/lagoon and strand plain, and tidalflat/estuary systems

Each is associated with a specific segment of the eustatic curve

1. Eustatic lowstand - lowstand wedge 2. Eustatic rise - transgressive Eustatic highstand -highstand system tracts

Tertiary eustatic changes of sea level after Vail and Hardenbol

(1979).
Metres above or below sea level are tentative.

Surface Features of the Earth

Oceans cover 71 % of Earth's surface -- average depth 3.7 km. Land covers remaining surface with average of 0.8 km above sea level

Ocean Basins
Continental Shelf, Slope, and rise Abyssal Plains Oceanic ridges Oceanic

Lowstand and highstand

H IG H ST A N D
SEA LEV EL

SH ELF/SLOPE BREAK

LO W ST A N D
SEA LEV EL SH ELF/SLOPE BREAK

M B

N B

O N

M N

IN

Sequence Boundaries (SB)

Fundamental stratal unit Relatively conformable, genetically related succession of parasequences bounded by unconformities or correlative conformities SB in response to relative fall in base-level TYPE 1 - subaerial exposure, concurrent erosion, stream rejuvenation; basinward shift in facies, downward shift coastal onlap, onlap of overlying strata TYPE 2 - subaerial exposure, no erosion, downward shift in coastal onlap landward of shoreline break

Criteria for Recognition

Regional truncation Onlap Abrupt basinward facies shift (regional) Abnormal subaerial exposure Major biostratigraphic breaks

Type 1 Sequence
sea-level fall below the shelf-slope break
Van Wagoner et al. (1990)

Van Wagoner et al.,1990

Type 2 Sequence
sea-level does not fall below the shelf-slope break

Van Wagoner et al, 1990

Lowstand systems tract

(reproduced from Van Wagoner et al.)

Lowstand System Tract (LST)

Relative lowstand of sea level Above Type 1 boundaries Progradation of shorelines on mid- and outer shelf (Lowstand Prograding Complex ) Basin-floor fans develop when sea level falls beneath shelf-slope break Fluvial incisement discharges sediment onto slope Downslope accumulations due to gravity flow (turbidites) Laterally progresses into deeper shale facies

Early Phase LowStand System Tract

a. Falling stage of relative sea level induced by eustasy falling rapidly and/or tectonic uplift outpacing the rate of change in sea level position

b. Fluvial incision with formation unconformity or sequence boundary and the focus of sediment input at the shoreline c. Forced regressions induced by the lack of accommodation produces stacking patterns of downward stepping prograding clinoforms d. Slope instability caused by the rapid deposition of sediment from the fluvial systems e. Basin floor fans formed from sediment transported from the shelf margin when this fails under the weight of the rapid sediment accumulation f. Shelf margin and slope fans form when rates of sedimentation slows and slope instability is reduced g. Onlap of sediments onto the prograding clinoforms below the shelf break

TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT

Retrogradational parasequence set
Finning and thinning upward units with shale near top: Beach and shore face sands near base: Pelagic shales in the basin: Retrogradational parasequence are time transgressive. Sequence Boundary: Erosion during low-stand ; Incised valley with low-stand Sands: retrogradational units onlap on to the lower boundary updip and downlap in basinward direction. The top of the system tract is the downlap surface

Maximum Flooding Surface

Clay/Shale with abundant planktonics;

Lowest resistivity highest Gamma due to abundance of organic richnes

May show apparent truncation below boundary.

Condensed Section
Thin marine stratigraphic units consisting of pelagic to hemipelgic sediments characterised by very low sedimentation rates.

Arealy most extensive at the time maximum regional transgression of the shoreline.
Associated commonly with marine hiatus and often occur either as thin but continuous zones of burrowed, slightly lithified beds (omission surfaces) or marine hard-grounds. Characterized by abundant planktonic and benthic microfossil assemblages, authigenic minerals (Glauconites, Phosporites, and Siderites), Organic Matter, and Bentonites. Possess concentrations of platinum elements like iridium.

Transgressive systems tract (reproduced from Van Wagoner et al.).

HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT

Below Type 1 or 2 boundaries Form during: Late part of sea-level rise Early Highstand Systems Tract (EHST) Stillstand Early part of sea-level fall Late Highstand Systems Tract (LHST) Aggradational to progradational with fluvial sediments in latter part of system Classic regressive deposition on shelf Strata downlap onto Maximum Flooding Surface Terminated by unconformity by next sea-level fall

Highstand systems tract

(reproduced from Van Wagoner et al.).

Terms: Top Boundary: Truncation, Toplap, Concordance Bottom Boundary: Onlap, Downlap, Concordance.

High-resolution seismic profile showing conformable U. PaleoceneEocene deposits overlain by S-SE prograding Oligocene-M. Miocene deposits, onlapped by aggradationel M. Miocene - L. Pleistocene depoits.

Santa Cruz Terrace Deposits Downlapping onto unconformity

Genetic Stratigraphic Sequences

Galloway (1989), described genetic stratigraphic sequence as a package of sediments recording a significant episode of basin-margin outbuilding and basin margin flooding.
Product of a depositional episode. Depositional episode records one complete relative sea-level fluctuation from maximum flooding to maximum flooding RST followed by a TST together form a genetic stratigraphic sequence, bounded by maximum flooding surfaces (MFS). Xue and Galloway (1993) used three terms: Progradational Systems tract (PST) Lowstand Prograding Complex (LPC) Retrogradational Systems Tract (RST)

FACTORS CONTROLLING STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCES

Dynamic interplay of three principal factors: eustatic changes, sediment supply and basin subsidence rate.

EUSTACY
Eustatic Sea-level change (E) - glacial, tectonic & geoidal Glacial eustatic changes result from the changing volume of continental ice caps and have potential change rates of 10 to 100 m/1000 years (Pitman, 1978) Tectono-eustatic changes results from changes in ocean volume by largescale lithospheric plate interactions like variation of sea-floor spreading rate, volume loss in subduction etc. Geoidal eustacy is due to change in the ambient geoid (sea-level surface). The geoid is the equipotential surface of the combined rotational and gravitational potential fields and corresponds to mean sea level.

Subsidence (T)
-Product of tectonics (crustal extension, cooling, tectonic loading) or sedimentary loading. Total subsidence changes along the dip direction of the basin margin.
(1) Rate of subsidence increases towards sea (Intracratonic or passive margins as well as along some leading edges of active margins)
Rate of subsidence increases towards land (Foreland basins on the margin adjacent to orogenic belt)

(2)

(3) Rate of subsidence is constant along a dip profile (basins where the local
tectonic activity is dormant and where the crust has cooled sufficiently so that little differential subsidence occur).

Sediment Supply (S)

Overall terrigenous clastic supply is a complex response to source-to-basin relief and climate of the source area. Relief, in turn, is controlled by tectonics of the source terrain and immediate transport pathways to the basin.

Interplay of the different Factors

Accommodation- Eustacy and subsidence together generate the space i.e.
the accommodation for the sediment. Jervey (1988) combined the effect of both these factors with a broader term of relative sea-level (RSL) changes and defined accommodation as the space made available for potential sediment accumulation.(which) is a function of both sea-level fluctuation and subsidence. Change of accommodation is independent of sediment influx. Rather the thickness of potential sediment fill is a function of accommodation.

(1) dS/dt > dA/dt - systems tract progrades. (2) dS/dt < dA/dt - systems tract retrogrades (3) dS/dt = dA/dt - systems tract aggrades.

MAJOR VARIABLES

Sediment supply

climate

eustacy

subsidence

These three together control the water-depth changes

Or,

W = R- S (1) W= E+T-S . ...(2)

Differentiating, dW/dt = dR/dt-dS/dt .(3) Or, dW/dt = dE/dt +dT/dt dS/dt ..(4)

i) A positive rate of change of water-depth (i.e . dW/dt>0 or dR/dt>dS/dt, deepening), results upward-deepening facies (UDF), transgression. ii) A negative rate of change of water-depth (i.e. dW/dt<0, or dR/dt<dS/dt shallowing), results upward-shallowing facies (USF).Normal regression iii) The boundary between the UDF and the overlying USF (and vice versa: MFS and CTS respectively) occurs at the point where the rate of water-depth change is equal to zero (dW/dt = 0 or dR/dt = dS/dt) iv) Correlative conformity portion of the depositional sequence boundary (c.c), forms when the rate of relative sea-level changes equal to zero (i.e. dR/dt =0)

 If magnitude of one of the variables is always much larger than the others, then the effect of the smaller variables will be effectively suppressed. The higher-frequency variable will be the driving force behind the high-frequency changes in the stratigraphic record. Eustasy is the higher-frequency variable (Posamentier and James, 1993). Tectonic subsidence/uplift may be the driving force in many foreland basins. Sequence and their systems tracts are controlled by the interplay of - the rate of change in accommodation - the rate of sediment supply