Fermats Theorem

Cryptography and Network Security Chapter 8
Prime Numbers
prime numbers only have divisors of 1 and self

they cannot be written as a product of other numbers note: 1 is prime, but is generally not of interest
eg. 2,3,5,7 are prime, 4,6,8,9,10 are not prime numbers are central to number theory list of prime number less than 200 is:
2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173 179 181 191 193 197 199
Prime Factorisation
to
factor a number n is to write it as a product of other numbers: n=a x b x c
note
that factoring a number is relatively hard compared to multiplying the factors together to generate the number the prime factorisation of a number n is when its written as a product of primes
eg. 91=7x13 ; 3600=24x32x52
Relatively Prime Numbers & GCD
two numbers a, b are relatively prime if have no common divisors apart from 1
eg. 8 & 15 are relatively prime since factors of 8 are 1,2,4,8 and of 15 are 1,3,5,15 and 1 is the only common factor
conversely can determine the greatest common divisor by comparing their prime factorizations and using least powers
eg. 300=21x31x52 18=21x32 hence GCD(18,300)=21x31x50=6
Fermat's Theorem
ap-1
= 1 (mod p)
where p is prime and gcd(a,p)=1
also
known as Fermats Little Theorem also ap = p (mod p)

useful
in public key and primality testing
Euler Totient Function (n)

when doing arithmetic modulo n complete set of residues is: 0..n-1 reduced set of residues is those numbers (residues) which are relatively prime to n

eg for n=10, complete set of residues is {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} reduced set of residues is {1,3,7,9}
number of elements in reduced set of residues is called the Euler Totient Function (n)
Euler Totient Function (n)

to
compute (n) need to count number of residues to be excluded in general need prime factorization, but

for p (p prime) (p) for p.q (p,q prime) (pq)
= p-1 =(p-1)x(q-1)
eg.
(37) = 36 (21) = (31)x(71) = 2x6 = 12
Euler's Theorem
a generalisation of Fermat's Theorem a(n) = 1 (mod n)
for any a,n where gcd(a,n)=1
eg.
a=3;n=10; (10)=4; hence 34 = 81 = 1 mod 10 a=2;n=11; (11)=10; hence 210 = 1024 = 1 mod 11
Primality Testing
often need to find large prime numbers traditionally sieve using trial division
ie. divide by all numbers (primes) in turn less than the square root of the number only works for small numbers
alternatively can use statistical primality tests based on properties of primes
for which all primes numbers satisfy property but some composite numbers, called pseudo-primes, also satisfy the property
can use a slower deterministic primality test
Miller Rabin Algorithm

a test based on Fermats Theorem algorithm is:
TEST (n) is: 1. Find integers k, q, k > 0, q odd, so that (n1)=2kq 2. Select a random integer a, 1<a<n1 3. if aq mod n = 1 then return (maybe prime"); 4. for j = 0 to k 1 do j 5. if (a2 q mod n = n-1) then return(" maybe prime ") 6. return ("composite")
Probabilistic Considerations
Miller-Rabin returns composite the number is definitely not prime otherwise is a prime or a pseudo-prime chance it detects a pseudo-prime is < 1/4 hence if repeat test with different random a then chance n is prime after t tests is:
if

Pr(n prime after t tests) = 1-4-t eg. for t=10 this probability is > 0.99999
Prime Distribution
prime but
number theorem states that primes occur roughly every (ln n) integers
can immediately ignore evens so in practice need only test 0.5 ln(n) numbers of size n to locate a prime

note this is only the average sometimes primes are close together other times are quite far apart
Chinese Remainder Theorem

used
to speed up modulo computations if working modulo a product of numbers
eg. mod M = m1m2..mk
Chinese
Remainder theorem lets us work in each moduli mi separately since computational cost is proportional to size, this is faster than working in the full modulus M
Chinese Remainder Theorem
can implement CRT in several ways to compute A(mod M)

first compute all ai = A mod mi separately determine constants ci below, where Mi = M/mi then combine results to get answer using:
Primitive Roots
from Eulers theorem have a(n)mod n=1 consider am=1 (mod n), GCD(a,n)=1
must exist for m = (n) but may be smaller once powers reach m, cycle will repeat
if smallest is m = (n) then a is called a primitive root if p is prime, then successive powers of a "generate" the group mod p
these are useful but relatively hard to find
Discrete Logarithms
the inverse problem to exponentiation is to find the discrete logarithm of a number modulo p that is to find x such that y = gx (mod p) this is written as x = logg y (mod p) if g is a primitive root then it always exists, otherwise it may not, eg.
x = log3 4 mod 13 has no answer x = log2 3 mod 13 = 4 by trying successive powers
whilst exponentiation is relatively easy, finding discrete logarithms is generally a hard problem
Summary
have

considered:
prime numbers Fermats and Eulers Theorems & (n) Primality Testing Chinese Remainder Theorem Discrete Logarithms

Fermats Theorem

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Cryptography and Network Security Chapter 8

prime numbers only have divisors of 1 and self

factor a number n is to write it as a product of other numbers: n=a x b x c

eg. 91=7x13 ; 3600=24x32x52

Relatively Prime Numbers & GCD

eg. 300=21x31x52 18=21x32 hence GCD(18,300)=21x31x50=6

where p is prime and gcd(a,p)=1

known as Fermats Little Theorem also ap = p (mod p)

in public key and primality testing

Euler Totient Function (n)

Euler Totient Function (n)

for p (p prime) (p) for p.q (p,q prime) (pq)

(37) = 36 (21) = (31)x(71) = 2x6 = 12

a generalisation of Fermat's Theorem a(n) = 1 (mod n)

for any a,n where gcd(a,n)=1

alternatively can use statistical primality tests based on properties of primes

can use a slower deterministic primality test

Miller Rabin Algorithm

Chinese Remainder Theorem

to speed up modulo computations if working modulo a product of numbers

eg. mod M = m1m2..mk

Chinese Remainder Theorem

can implement CRT in several ways to compute A(mod M)

these are useful but relatively hard to find

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