Some Typical Waveforms
Some Typical Waveforms
Some Typical Waveforms
The Sinusoid
The Pulse
1
Waveforms and their Notation
Let us now define some of the more useful waveforms that we shall
use repeatedly later
The constant This is the simplest waveform; it is
described by
f (t ) = K for all t where K is a constant
The sinusoid To represent a sinusoidal waveform or
sinusoid for short, we use the traditional
φ A cos(ωt+φ)
sec notation
ω f (t ) = A cos(ωt + φ )
A where the constant A is called
amplitude of sinusoid, the
t
constant ω is called the (angular)
frequency (measured in radians
per second), and the constant φ is
2π
Period= , sec called phase (See Fig.3.1)
ω
Fig.3.1 A sinusoidal waveform of amplitude A and phase 2
The unit step The unit step function as shown in Fig.3.2
is denoted by u(⋅) and is defined by
0 for t<0 (3.1)
u (t ) =
1 for t >0
1
And its value at t=0 may be taken to be 2 0, , or 1. Throughout
this curse we shall use the letter u exclusively for the unit
function.
Suppose we delayed a unit step by t0 sec. The resulting
waveform has u(t-t0)as an ordinate at time t. Indeed, for t<t0,
the argument is negative, and hence the ordinate is zero; for
t>t0, the argument is positive and the ordinate is equal to 1
u(t)
(See Fig.3.3). u(t-t0)
1 1
t t
Fig.3.2 The unit step function u(.) Fig.3.3 The delayed unit step function3
The pulse
We shall frequently have to use a rectangular
pulse and for his purpose we define pulsep∆ (⋅)
function
0 t<0
1 (3.2)
p∆ (t ) = 0<t <∆
∆
0 ∆<t
In other words, p∆ is a pulse of height 1/∆, of width ∆, and
starting at t=0.
t=0 Note that whatever the value of the positive
parameter ∆, the area under p∆ (⋅) is 1 (see Fig.3.4). Note that
p∆(t) u (t ) − u (t − ∆)
p∆ (t ) = for all t (3.3)
1 ∆
∆
−
∫ξ f (t )δ (t )dt = f (0) (3.8)
for any positive ξ
6
From (2.3) and (2.11) we can show that
t
r (t ) = ∫ u (t ′)dt ′ (3.10)
and −∞
r(t) dr (t )
= u (t ) (3.11)
dt
1
0 t
8
Capacitor
s
What is a Capacitor?
Two conductors separated by an insulator:
A simple capacitor: i(t)
+
v(t)
q(t)
–
9
εA
C=
d Area A
___________________ v(t)
q
a) linear
b) non-linear
c) time-invariant
d) time-varying
12
The Linear Time-Invariant Capacitor
From definition of linearity and time invariance, the
characteristic of a linear time invariant capacitor can be
written as
q (t ) = Cv (t ) (3.16)
dq dv 1 dv (3.17)
i (t ) = =C =
dt dt S dt
Where S=C-1, and is called the elastance. Integrating
(3.17) between 0 and t we get 13
t
1
v(t ) = v(0) + ∫ i (t ′)dt ′ (3.18)
C0
• is(t)=u(t)
• is(t)=δ(t)
• is(t)=Acos(ωt+φ)
Exercise 2 Let a voltage source vs(t) be connected to a linear
time-invariant capacitor with capacitance C and
v(0)=0.
v(0)=0
Determine the current form i(⋅) across the capacitor for
• vs(t)=u(t)
• vs(t)=δ(t)
• vs(t)=Acos(ωt+φ) 15
Example
A current source is connected to the terminals of a
linear time-invariant capacitor with a capacitance
of 2 Farads and an initial voltage v(0)=-1/2 volt (see
Fig.3.10 a)
i, amp
i(t)
2
C=2F +
i(t) v(t)
0 1 2
– t
-2
(a) (b)
v, volts
Fig.3.10 Voltage and current 1
waveform across a linear time- 2
invariant capacitor
0 1 2
t
− 12 (c)
16
Let the current source be given by the simple waveform i(⋅)
shown in Fig.3.10 b. The branch voltage across the
capacitance can be computed immediately from Eq.3.18. as
t
v(t ) = − 12 + 12 ∫ i (t ′)dt ′
0
20
If the current i (⋅) in a linear time-invariant capacitor remains
bounded for all time in the closed interval [0,T], the voltage v
across the capacitor is a continuous function in the open
interval (0,T); that is the branch voltage for such a capacitor
cannot jump instantaneously from one value to a different
value as long as the current remains bounded.
dq dv dC (3.23)
i (t ) = = C (t ) + v(t )
dt dt dt
Exercise i(t)
Consider the circuit shown in Fig.
+
= A cos ω1t
3.13. Let the voltage be va(t )sinusoid, v(t) - C(t)
where the constant ω1 = 2πf1 is the angular
frequency.
Fig.3.13 A linear time-varying
capacitor is driven by a sinusoidal
22
voltage source
Let the linear time varying capacitor be specified by
C (t ) = C0 + C1 cos 3ω1t
where C0 and C1 are constants. Determine the current i(t) for all t.
The current
having i(t) form
slope . Eq. (3.15) is
dq df dv2 (3.26)
+ i (t ) = =
+
i(t) dt dv v1 dt
v2(t) - v q=f(v) Note that v1 is a constant. Thus, as
v1 far as the small-signal v2 is
- C (v1 ) =
df
concerned , the capacitance
dv v1
Fig. 3.15 A nonlinear capacitor is is a linear time-invariant
driven by a voltage v which is the
sum of a dc voltage v1 and a small capacitance and is equal to the
varying voltage v2. slope of the capacitor 24
If the nonlinear capacitance is used in a parametric amplifier,
the voltage v1 is not a constant ; however v2, which represents
the time varying signal is still assumed to be small so that the
approximations used in writing (3.25) are still valid.
The voltage across the capacitor is v1(t)+v2(t). Consequently, the
charge is q (t ) = f (v (t ) + v (t ))
1 2
25
This charge q2 is proportional to v2 and can be considered as
26
Inductors
Inductor are used in electrical
circuits because they store Flux
energy in their magnetic fields.
What is an
Inductor? i
Current
φ = Li
N turns h
φ = Flux linkage in volt-sec
i = Amperes
L = Henries (physical property of inductor)
∴ v = Ld i
dt
29
The two-terminal element will be called an inductorinducto if at any
time t its flux φ(t) and its current i(t) satisfy a relation defined
by a curve in the i φ plane. This curve is called the
characteristic of the inductor at time t.
There is a relation between
A instantaneous value of the flux φ(t) and
i(t) the instantaneous value of the current
+ i(t).
v(t) The voltage across the inductor
– (measured with reference direction
(see Fig 3.16) is given by Faraday’s
induction law as
B dφ
Fig.3.16 Symbol for an inductor v(t ) = (3.29)
dt
where v is in volts and φ is in
webers
30
Let us verify that (3.29) agrees with Lenz’s law which states
that the electromotive force induced by a rate change of flux
will have a polarity such that it will oppose the cause of that
rate of change of flux.
Consider the following case: The current i increases; di / dt > 0
that is,
The increasing current creates an increasing magnetic field;
hence the flux φ increases; that is dφ/dt>0.
/dt>0 According to
(3.29), v(t)>0,
v(t)>0 which means that the potential of node A is
larger than the potential of node B; this is precisely the
polarity required to oppose any further increase in current.
As in the case of resistors and capacitance we have a
four way classification of Inductors
a) linear
b) non-linear
c) time-invariant
d) time-varying
31
The Linear Time-Invariant Inductor
By definition the characteristic of the linear time invariant
inductor has an equation of the form
φ (t ) = Li (t ) (3.30)
• is(t)=u(t)
• is(t)=δ(t)
Exercise 2
Let a voltage source vs(t) be connected to a linear
time-invariant inductor with inductance L and
i(0)=0.
i(0)=0
Determine the current form i(⋅) in the inductor for
• vs(t)=u(t)
• vs(t)=δ(t)
• vs(t)=Acosωt, where A and ω are constants
34
Remarks • Equation (3.32) states that time t the branch
current i(t), (where t≥0),
0) in a linear time-
invariant inductor is a sum of two terms.
The first term is the current i(0) at t=0,
t=0 that is the initial
current in the inductor. The second term is the current at
time t in an inductor L if at t=0 this inductor has zero initial
current.
Thus, given any linear time-invariant inductor with an initial
current i(0), can be considered as the parallel connection of a
dc current source I0=i(0) and the same inductor with zero
initial current, as shown
i(t)in Fig. 3.17
i(t) Zero
initial
+ L current
v (t) I0
v(t) L i(0)=I0
__
(b)
(a)
Fig. 3.17 The inductor with an initial current i(0)=I0 in (a) is
equivalent to the parallel connection of the same inductor
with zero initial current and a constant current source35I0 in
• Consider a linear time-invariant inductor with zero initial
voltage; that is, i(0)=0.
i(0)=0 It is connected in parallel with an
arbitrary voltage current source is(t) as shown in Fig. 3.18a.
The parallel connection is equivalent to the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.18b in where the same inductor is connected in series
with a voltage source vs(t), and dis
vs (t ) = L (3.34
dt )
The current source is(t) in Fig. 3.18a is given in terms of the
voltage source vs(t), in Fig. 3.18b.
1
t
i(t)
is =
L0 ∫
vs (t ′)dt ′ i(t) (3.35
)
+ +
L
v(t) is(t) v(t)
L
vs(t)
__ __
37
The Linear Time-varying Inductor
di dL (3.37
v(t ) = L(t ) + i (t ) )
dt dt
38
The Nonlinear Inductor
By (3.29) we have
d dφ di d tanh i dA cos ωt
v(t ) = φ (i (t )) = =
dt di i (t ) dt di i (t ) dt
1
= (− Aω sin ωt )
cosh ( A cos ωt )
2
We conclude that
sin ωt
v(t ) = − Aω
cosh 2 ( A cos(ωt )
φ1 i1,φ1
2
1
-i3 -i2 3
0 i4 i1 i
2
3
Linear Nonlinear
Time-invariant Time varying Time-invariant Time varying
+ i
i (t ) = C
- dt i (t ) =
dC
v (t ) + C (t )
dv df dv ∂f ∂f dv
1
t
dt dt i (t ) = i (t ) = +
v(t ) = v (0) + ∫ i (t ′) dt ′ dv dt ∂t ∂v dt
C0 v (t ) v (t )
Inductors v = dφ φ (t ) = Li (t ) φ (t ) = L(t )i (t ) φ (t ) = f ( i (t ) ) φ (t ) = f ( i (t ), t )
dt
+ v -
v (t ) = L
di
dt t df di ∂f ∂f di
1 v (t ) =
dL
i (t ) + L(t )
di v(t ) = v(t ) = +
i (t ) = i (0) + ∫ v (t ′)dt ′ dv i (t ) dt ∂t ∂v i (t ) dt
i L0 dt dt
42