PLANNING

DEFINITION TYPES / CLASSIFICATIONS STEPS IN PLANNING MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES

DEFINITION
Planning involves the selecting missions &objectives as well as the actions to achieve them, which requires decision-making, that is choosing a course of action from among alternatives. Planning is the process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve a desired goal. Planning involves the creation and maintenance of a plan. As such, planning is a fundamental property of intelligent behaviour. This thought process is essential to the creation and refinement of a plan, or integration of planning it with other plans; that is, it combines forecasting of developments with the preparation of scenarios of how to react to them.

NATURE OF PLANNING
1. Planning is goal-oriented: Every plan must contribute in some positive way towards the accomplishment of group objectives. Planning has no meaning without being related to goals. 2. Primacy of Planning: Planning is the first of the managerial functions. It precedes all other management functions. 3. Pervasiveness of Planning: Planning is found at all levels of management. Top management looks after strategic planning. Middle management is in charge of administrative planning. Lower management has to concentrate on operational planning. 4. Efficiency, Economy and Accuracy: Efficiency of plan is measured by its contribution to the objectives as economically as possible. Planning also focuses on accurate forecasts.

NATURE OF PLANNING contd.

5. Co-ordination: Planning co-ordinates the what, who, how, where and why of planning. Without co-ordination of all activities, we cannot have united efforts. 6. Limiting Factors: A planner must recognize the limiting factors (money, manpower etc) and formulate plans in the light of these critical factors. 7. Flexibility: The process of planning should be adaptable to changing environmental conditions. 8. Planning is an intellectual process: The quality of planning will vary according to the quality of the mind of the manager.

IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
Planning increases the efficiency of an organization. It reduces the risks involved in modern business activities. It facilitates proper coordination within an organization. It aids in organizing all available resources. It gives right direction to the organization. It is important to maintain a good control. It helps to achieve objectives of the organization. It motivates the personnel of an organization. It encourages managers' creativity and innovation. It also helps in decision making.

Purpose of Planning
1. To manage by objectives: All the activities of an organization are designed to achieve certain specified objectives. However, planning makes the objectives more concrete by focusing attention on them. 2. To offset uncertainty and change: Future is always full of uncertainties and changes. Planning foresees the future and makes the necessary provisions for it. 3. To secure economy in operation: Planning involves, the selection of most profitable course of action that would lead to the best result at the minimum costs. 4. To help in co-ordination: Co-ordination is, indeed, the essence of management, the planning is the base of it. Without planning it is not possible to co-ordinate the different activities of an organization. 5. To make control effective: The controlling function of management relates to the comparison of the planned performance with the actual performance. In the absence of plans, a management will have no standards for controlling other's performance. 6. To increase organizational effectiveness: Mere efficiency in the organization is not important; it should also lead to productivity and effectiveness. Planning enables the manager to measure the organizational effectiveness in the context of the stated objectives and take further actions in this direction.

Types of Plans (Classifications)

Types of Plans (Classifications)

Plans can be broadly classified as a) Strategic plans (Missions, Objectives, Strategies) b) Tactical plans c) Operational plans (Single use{Programmes & Budgets}, Standing plans{Policy, Procedure, Rules}) d) Contingency plans

Types of Plans (Classifications)

MISSIONS (PURPOSE): The basic purpose or functions or tasks of an enterprise or agency or any part of it. OBJECTIVES(GOALS): The end towards which the activity is aimed. STRATEGY: The determination of basic long term objectives of an enterprise and the adoption of courses of action and allocation of resources necessary to achieve these goals. POLICIES: General statements or understandings that guide or channel thinking in decision making. PROCEDURES: Plans that establish a required method of handling future activities.

Types of Plans (Classifications)

RULES: Spells out specific required action or non actions, allowing no discretion. PRORAMMES: Are a complex of goals, policies, procedures, rules, tasks assignments, steps to be taken, resources to be employed, and other elements necessary to carry out a given course of action. BUDGETS: A statement of expected results expressed in numerical terms.

STEPS IN PLANNING

PLANNING: Objectives
Objectives may be defined as the goals which an organisation tries to achieve. Objectives are described as the end- points of planning. According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "an objective is a term commonly used to indicate the end point of a management programme." Objectives constitute the purpose of the enterprise and without them no intelligent planning can take place.

PLANNING: Objectives - features

The objectives must be predetermined. A clearly defined objective provides the clear direction for managerial effort. Objectives must be realistic. Objectives must be measurable. Objectives must have social sanction. All objectives are interconnected and mutually supportive. Objectives may be short-range, medium-range and longrange. Objectives may be constructed into a hierarchy.

PLANNING: Objectives - advantages

Clear definition of objectives encourages unified planning. Objectives provide motivation to people in the organization. When the work is goal-oriented, unproductive tasks can be avoided. Objectives provide standards which aid in the control of human efforts in an organization. Objectives serve to identify the organization and to link it to the groups upon which its existence depends. Objectives act as a sound basis for developing administrative controls. Objectives contribute to the management process: they influence the purpose of the organization, policies, personnel, leadership as well as managerial control.

PLANNING: Management By Objectives (MBO)

DEFINITION MBO is a process whereby the superior and the mangers of an organization jointly identify its common goals, define each individuals major area of responsibility in terms of results expected of him, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members.

PLANNING: Management By Objectives (MBO)

FEATURES 1. MBO is concerned with goal setting and planning for individual managers and their units. 2. The essence of MBO is a process of joint goal setting between a supervisor and a subordinate. 3. Managers work with their subordinates to establish the performance goals that are consistent with their higher organizational objectives. 4. MBO focuses attention on appropriate goals and plans. 5. MBO facilitates control through the periodic development and subsequent evaluation of individual goals and plans.

Management By Objectives (MBO): Steps

Corporate Strategic Goals

ACTION PLANS

Departmental Goals

Individual Goals
REVIEW PROGRESS

APPRIASAL OF OVER ALL PERFORMANCE

CORRECTIVE ACTIONS

Management By Objectives (MBO): Steps

1) Setting objectives: For Management by Objectives (MBO) to be effective, individual managers must understand the specific objectives of their job and how those objectives fit in with the overall company objectives set by the board of directors. The managers of the various units or sub-units, or sections of an organization should know not only the objectives of their unit but should also actively participate in setting these objectives and make responsibility for them. Management by Objective (MBO) systems, objectives are written down for each level of the organization, and individuals are given specific aims and targets. Managers need to identify and set objectives both for themselves, their units, and their organizations.

Management By Objectives (MBO): Steps

2) Developing action plans Actions plans specify the actions needed to address each of the top organizational issues and to reach each of the associated goals, who will complete each action and according to what timeline. An overall, top-level action plan that depicts how each strategic goal will be reached is developed by the top level management. The format of the action plan depends on the objective of the organization. 3) Reviewing Progress: Performance is measured in terms of results. Job performance is the net effect of an employee's effort as modified by abilities, role perceptions and results produced. Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee uses in performing a job. Abilities are personal characteristics used in performing a job and usually do not fluctuate widely over short periods of time. Role perception refers to the direction in which employees believe they should channel their efforts on their jobs, and they are defined by the activities and behaviors they believe are necessary.

Management By Objectives (MBO): Steps

4) Performance appraisal: Performance appraisals communicate to employees how they are performing their jobs, and they establish a plan for improvement. Performance appraisals are extremely important to both employee and employer, as they are often used to provide predictive information related to possible promotion. Appraisals can also provide input for determining both individual and organizational training and development needs. Performance appraisals encourage performance improvement. Feedback on behavior, attitude, skill or knowledge clarifies for employees the job expectations their managers hold for them. In order to be effective, performance appraisals must be supported by documentation and management commitment.

Management By Objectives (MBO): Advantages

Motivation Involving employees in the whole process of goal setting and increasing employee empowerment. This increases employee job satisfaction and commitment. Better communication and Coordination Frequent reviews and interactions between superiors and subordinates helps to maintain harmonious relationships within the organization and also to solve many problems. Clarity of goals Subordinates have a higher commitment to objectives they set themselves than those imposed on them by another person. Managers can ensure that objectives of the subordinates are linked to the organization's objectives.

Management By Objectives (MBO): Limitations

There are several limitations to the assumptive base underlying the impact of managing by objectives, including: It over-emphasizes the setting of goals over the working of a plan as a driver of outcomes. It underemphasizes the importance of the environment or context in which the goals are set. That context includes everything from the availability and quality of resources, to relative buy-in by leadership and stake-holders. Companies evaluated their employees by comparing them with the "ideal" employee. Trait appraisal only looks at what employees should be, not at what they should do. When this approach is not properly set, agreed and managed by organizations, self-centred employees might be prone to distort results, falsely representing achievement of targets that were set in a short-term, narrow fashion. In this case, managing by objectives would be counterproductive.

PLANNING: STRATEGIES - Def.

According to Koontz and O' Donnell, "Strategies must often denote a general programme of action and deployment of emphasis and resources to attain comprehensive objectives". Strategies are plans made in the light of the plans of the competitors because a modern business institution operates in a competitive environment. They are a useful framework for guiding enterprise thinking and action. A perfect strategy can be built only on perfect knowledge of the plans of others in the industry. This may be done by the management of a firm putting itself in the place of a rival firm and trying to estimate their plans. Characteristics of Strategy It is the right combination of different factors. It relates the business organization to the environment. It is an action to meet a particular challenge, to solve particular problems or to attain desired objectives. Strategy is a means to an end and not an end in itself. It is formulated at the top management level. It involves assumption of certain calculated risks.

Strategic Planning Process / Strategic Formulation Process

1. Input to the Organization : Various Inputs (People, Capital, Management and Technical skills, others) including goals input of claimants (Employees, Consumers, Suppliers, Stockholders, Government, Community and others)need to be elaborated. 2. Industry Analysis : Formulation of strategy requires the evaluation of the attractiveness of an industry by analyzing the external environment. The focus should be on the kind of compaction within an industry, the possibility of new firms entering the market, the availability of substitute products or services, the bargaining positions of the suppliers, and buyers or customers. 3. Enterprise Profile : Enterprise profile is usually the starting point for determining where the company is and where it should go. Top managers determine the basic purpose of the enterprise and clarify the firms geographic orientation. 4. Orientation, Values, and Vision of Executives : The enterprise profile is shaped by people, especially executives, and their orientation and values are important for formulation the strategy. They set the organizational climate, and they determine the direction of the firm though their vision. Consequently, their values, their preferences, and their attitudes toward risk have to be carefully examined because they have an impact on the strategy.

Strategic Planning Process / Strategic Formulation Process

5. Mission (Purpose), Major Objectives, and Strategic Intent : Mission or Purpose is the answer to the question: What is our business? The major Objectives are the end points towards which the activates of the enterprise are directed. Strategic intent is the commitment (obsession) to win in the competitive environment, not only at the top-level but also throughout the organization. 6. Present and Future External Environment : The present and future external environment must be assessed in terms of threats and opportunities. 7. Internal Environment : Internal Environment should be audited and evaluated with respect to its resources and its weaknesses, and strengths in research and development, production, operation, procurement, marketing and products and services. Other internal factors include, human resources and financial resources as well as the company image, the organization structure and climate, the planning and control system, and relations with customers. 8. Development of Alternative Strategies : Strategic alternatives are developed on the basis of an analysis of the external and internal environment. Strategies may be specialize or concentrate. Alternatively, a firm may diversify, extending the operation into new and profitable markets. Other examples of possible strategies are joint ventures, and strategic alliances which may be an appropriate strategy for some firms.

Strategic Planning Process / Strategic Formulation Process

9. Evaluation and Choice of Strategies : Strategic choices must be considered in the light of the risk involved in a particular decision. Some profitable opportunities may not be pursued because a failure in a risky venture could result in bankruptcy of the firm. Another critical element in choosing a strategy is timing. Even the best product may fail if it is introduced to the market at an inappropriate time. 10. Medium/Short Range Planning, Implementation through Reengineering the Organization Structure, Leadership and Control : Implementation of the Strategy often requires reengineering the organization, staffing the organization structure and providing leadership. Controls must also be installed monitoring performance against plans. 11. Consistency Testing and Contingency Planning : The last key aspect of the strategic planning process is the testing for consistency and preparing for contingency plans.

TYPES OF STRATEGIES
According to Michel Porter, the strategies can be classified into three types. They are a) Cost leadership strategy b) Differentiation strategy c) Focus strategy

Cost leadership strategy

This generic strategy calls for being the low cost producer in an industry for a given level of quality. The firm sells its products either at average industry prices to earn a profit higher than that of rivals, or below the average industry prices to gain market share . In the event of a price war, the firm can maintain some profitability while the competition suffers losses. Even without a price war, as the industry matures and prices decline, the firms that can produce more cheaply will remain profitable for a longer period of time. The cost leadership strategy usually targets a broad market. Some of the ways that firms acquire cost advantages are by improving process efficiencies, gaining unique access to a large source of lower cost materials, making optimal outsourcing and vertical integration decisions, or avoiding some costs altogether. If competing firms are unable to lower their costs by a similar amount, the firm may be able to sustain a competitive advantage based on cost leadership.

Cost leadership strategy

Firms that succeed in cost leadership often have the following internal strengths: Access to the capital required to make a significant investment in production assets; this investment represents a barrier to entry that many firms may not overcome. Skill in designing products for efficient manufacturing, for example, having a small component count to shorten the assembly process. High level of expertise in manufacturing process engineering. Efficient distribution channels. Each generic strategy has its risks, including the low-cost strategy. For example, other firms may be able to lower their costs as well. As technology improves, the competition may be able to leapfrog the production capabilities, thus eliminating the competitive advantage. Additionally, several firms following a focus strategy and targeting various narrow markets may be able to achieve an even lower cost within their segments and as a group gain significant market share.

Differentiation Strategy
A differentiation strategy calls for the development of a product or service that offers unique attributes that are valued by customers and that customers perceive to be better than or different from the products of the competition. The value added by the uniqueness of the product may allow the firm to charge a premium price for it. The firm hopes that the higher price will more than cover the extra costs incurred in offering the unique product. Because of the product's unique attributes, if suppliers increase their prices the firm may be able to pass along he costs to its customers who cannot find substitute products easily.
Firms that succeed in a differentiation strategy often have the following internal strengths: Access to leading scientific research. Highly skilled and creative product development team. Strong sales team with the ability to successfully communicate the perceived strengths of the product. Corporate reputation for quality and innovation. The risks associated with a differentiation strategy include imitation by competitors and changes in customer tastes. Additionally, various firms pursuing focus strategies may be able to achieve even greater differentiation in their market segments.

Focus Strategy
The focus strategy concentrates on a narrow segment and within that segment attempts to achieve either a cost advantage or differentiation. The premise is that the needs of the group can be better serviced by focusing entirely on it. A firm using a focus strategy often enjoys a high degree of customer loyalty, and this entrenched loyalty discourages other firms from competing directly. Because of their narrow market focus, firms pursuing a focus strategy have lower volumes and therefore less bargaining power with their suppliers. However, firms pursuing a differentiation-focused strategy may be able to pass higher costs on to customers since close substitute products do not exist. Firms that succeed in a focus strategy are able to tailor a broad range of product development strengths to a relatively narrow market segment that they know very well. Some risks of focus strategies include imitation and changes in the target segments. Furthermore, it may be fairly easy for a broad-market cost leader to adapt its product in order to compete directly. Finally, other focusers may be able to carve out subsegments that they can serve even better.

PLANNING Policies
Policies are general statements or understandings that guide managers thinking in decision making. They usually do not require action but are intended to guide managers in their commitment to the decision they ultimately make.

Policies Steps in Policy formulation

Policies Essentials of Policy Formulation

A policy should be definite, positive and clear. It should be understood by everyone in the organization. A policy should be translatable into the practices. A policy should be flexible and at the same time have a high degree of permanency. A policy should be formulated to cover all reasonable anticipatable conditions. A policy should be founded upon facts and sound judgment. A policy should conform to economic principles, statutes and regulations. A policy should be a general statement of the established rule.

Policies Importance They provide guides to thinking and action and provide support to the subordinates. They delimit the area within which a decision is to be made. They save time and effort by pre-deciding problems They permit delegation of authority to mangers at the lower levels.

PLANNING - Decision Making

The word decision has been derived from the Latin word "decidere" which means "cutting off". Thus, decision involves

cutting off of alternatives between those that are desirable

and those that are not desirable.

"Decision-making is the selection based on some criteria from two or more possible alternatives". - George R. Terry

Decision Making - Characteristics

Decision making implies that there are various alternatives and the most desirable alternative is chosen to solve the problem or to arrive at expected results. The decision-maker has freedom to choose an alternative. Decision-making may not be completely rational but may be judgemental and emotional. Decision-making is goal-oriented. Decision-making is a mental or intellectual process because the final decision is made by the decision-maker. A decision may be expressed in words or may be implied from behaviour. Choosing from among the alternative courses of operation implies uncertainty about the final result of each possible course of operation. Decision making is rational. It is taken only after a thorough analysis and reasoning and weighing the consequences of the various alternatives.

TYPES OF DECISIONS
a) Programmed and Non-Programmed Decisions: Herbert Simon has grouped organizational decisions into two categories based on the procedure followed. They are: i) Programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are routine and repetitive and are made within the framework of organizational policies and rules. These policies and rules are established well in advance to solve recurring problems in the organization. Programmed decisions have short-run impact. They are, generally, taken at the lower level of management. ii) Non-Programmed Decisions: Non-programmed decisions are decisions taken to meet non-repetitive problems. Non-programmed decisions are relevant for solving unique/ unusual problems in which various alternatives cannot be decided in advance. A common feature of nonprogrammed decisions is that they are novel and non-recurring and therefore, readymade solutions are not available. Since these decisions are of high importance and have long-term consequences, they are made by top level management.

TYPES OF DECISIONS
b) Strategic and Tactical Decisions: Organizational decisions may also be classified as strategic or tactical. i) Strategic Decisions: Basic decisions or strategic decisions are decisions which are of crucial importance. Strategic decisions a major choice of actions concerning allocation of resources and contribution to the achievement of organizational objectives. Decisions like plant location, product diversification, entering into new markets, selection of channels of distribution, capital expenditure etc are examples of basic or strategic decisions. ii) Tactical Decisions: Routine decisions or tactical decisions are decisions which are routine and repetitive. They are derived out of strategic decisions

TYPES OF DECISIONS
The various features of a tactical decision are as follows: Tactical decision relates to day-to-day operation of the organization and has to be taken very frequently. Tactical decision is mostly a programmed one. Therefore, the decision can be made within the context of these variables. The outcome of tactical decision is of short-term nature and affects a narrow part of the organization. The authority for making tactical decisions can be delegated to lower level managers because: first, the impact of tactical decision is narrow and of short-term nature and Second, by delegating authority for such decisions to lower-level managers, higher level managers are free to devote more time on strategic decisions.

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

1. Specific Objective: The need for decision making arises in order to achieve certain specific objectives. The starting point in any analysis of decision making involves the determination of whether a decision needs to be made. 2. Problem Identification: A problem is a felt need, a question which needs a solution. In the words of Joseph L Massie "A good decision is dependent upon the recognition of the right problem". The objective of problem identification is that if the problem is precisely and specifically identifies, it will provide a clue in finding a possible solution. A problem can be identified clearly, if managers go through diagnosis and analysis of the problem.
Diagnosis: Diagnosis is the process of identifying a problem from its signs and symptoms. A symptom is a condition or set of conditions that indicates the existence of a problem. Diagnosing the real problem implies knowing the gap between what is and what ought to be, identifying the reasons for the gap and understanding the problem in relation to higher objectives of the organization.

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

Analysis: Diagnosis gives rise to analysis. Analysis of a problem requires: Who would make decision? What information would be needed? From where the information is available? Analysis helps managers to gain an insight into the problem.

3. Search for Alternatives: A problem can be solved in several ways; however, all the ways cannot be equally satisfying. Therefore, the decision maker must try to find out the various alternatives available in order to get the most satisfactory result of a decision. A decision maker can use several sources for identifying alternatives:
His own past experiences Practices followed by others and Using creative techniques.

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

4. Evaluation of Alternatives: After the various alternatives are identified, the next step is to evaluate them and select the one that will meet the choice criteria. /the decision maker must check proposed alternatives against limits, and if an alternative does not meet them, he can discard it. Having narrowed down the alternatives which require serious consideration, the decision maker will go for evaluating how each alternative may contribute towards the objective supposed to be achieved by implementing the decision. 5. Choice of Alternative: The evaluation of various alternatives presents a clear picture as to how each one of them contribute to the objectives under question. A comparison is made among the likely outcomes of various alternatives and the best one is chosen. 6. Action: Once the alternative is selected, it is put into action. The actual process of decision making ends with the choice of an alternative through which the objectives can be achieved.

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

7. Results: When the decision is put into action, it brings certain results. These results must correspond with objectives, the starting point of decision process, if good decision has been made and implemented properly. Thus, results provide indication whether decision making and its implementation is proper.

Characteristics of Effective Decisions

An effective decision is one which should contain three aspects. These aspects are given below: Action Orientation: Decisions are action-oriented and are directed towards relevant and controllable aspects of the environment. Decisions should ultimately find their utility in implementation. Goal Direction: Decision making should be goal-directed to enable the organization to meet its objectives. Effective in Implementation: Decision making should take into account all the possible factors not only in terms of external context but also in internal context so that a decision can be implemented properly.

RATIONAL DECISION MAKING MODEL

DECISION MAKING UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS

a) Certainty: In a situation involving certainty, people are reasonably sure about what will happen when they make a decision. The information is available and is considered to be reliable, and the cause and effect relationships are known. b) Uncertainty: In a situation of uncertainty, on the other hand, people have only a meagre database, they do not know whether or not the data are reliable, and they are very unsure about whether or not the situation may change. Moreover, they cannot evaluate the interactions of the different variables. For example, a corporation that decides to expand its Operation to an unfamiliar country may know little about the country, culture, laws, economic environment, and politics. The political situation may be volatile that even experts cannot predict a possible change in government. c) Risk: In a situation with risks, factual information may exist, but it may be incomplete. 1o improve decision making One may estimate the objective probability of an outcome by using, for example, mathematical models On the other hand, subjective probability, based on judgment and experience may be used