Chapter 8 Introduction To Turing Machines

Chapter 8 Introduction to Turing Machines
Rothenberg, Germany
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Outline
Problems that Computers Cannot Solve The Turing Machine (TM) Programming Techniques for TMs Extensions to the Basic TM Restricted TMs TMs and Computers
8.0 Introduction
Concepts to be taught ---
Studying questions about what languages can be defined be any computational device?? There are specific problems that cannot be solved by computers! --- undecidable! Studying the Turing machine which seems simple, but can be recognized as an accurate model for what any physical computing device is capable of doing.
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8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

Purpose of this section ---
to provide an informal proof , C-programmingbased introduction to proof of a specific problem that computers cannot solve.
The problem:
whether the first thing a C program prints is hello, world. We will give the intuition behind the formal proof.
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8.1.1 Programs that print Hello, World
A C program that prints Hello, World :
main() { print(hello, world\n);
}
Define hello, world problem to be: determine whether a given C program, with a given input, prints hello, world as the first 12 characters that it prints.

8.1.1 Programs that print Hello, World
The problem described alternatively using symbols:
Is there a program H that could examine any program P and input I for P, and tell whether P, run with I as its input, would print hello, world? (A program H means an
algorithm in concept here.)
The answer is: undecidable! That is, there exists no such program H. We will prove this by contradiction.

8.1.2 Hypothetical Hello, World Tester
1st step: assume H exists in the following form:
Hello-world yes if P, with input I, prints hello world 2nd step: transform H to another form H2 in simple ways which can be done by C tester programs no if not. H P rd Figure 8.3 3 step: prove H2 not existing. So H also not existing.
8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve 8.1.2 Hypothetical Hello, World Tester
2nd step:
(1) transform H to H1 in the following way -
Hello-world (2) transform H1 to H2 in the following way tester
yes Figure 8.4 hello, world

(print hello, world instead of no)
H1
Use P both as input and program!
Hello-world P tester H2
yes
Figure 8.5 hello, world
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8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve 8.1.2 Hypothetical Hello, World Tester
2nd step (contd): Hello-world
The function of H2 is: P
yes
tester
Figure 8.5
given any programHP as input, hello, world 2 if P prints hello world as first output, then H2 makes output yes; if P does not prints hello world as first output, then H2 prints hello world.

3rd step:
Prove H2 does not exist as follows
Let P for H2 in Fig. 8.5 (last figure) be H2 itself, as follows:
Hello-world H2 tester H2 (H2 Takes H2 as input to itself)
yes Figure 8.6 hello, world
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3rd step (contd):

Prove H2 does not exist by contradiction as follows (contd)
Now, yes Hello-world (1) if the box H2, given itself as input, makes output yes, then it means that
Figure 8.6 tester the input H2, given itself as input, prints hello world as first output. world But this is contradictory because we H just suppose that H2, given hello, itself as input, makes output yes. H2
2
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3rd step (contd):
Prove H2 does not exist as follows (contd)
The above contradiction means the other alternative must be true (since itFigure must be 8.6 one or the other), H that is --2 tester (2) the box H2, given itself as input, prints hello, world. This then world means that Hello, H2 such H2, when taken as input H2 to the box H2(itself), will make the box H2 to make output yes. Contradiction again because we just say that the box H2, given itself as input, prints hello, world.
Hello-world
yes
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3rd step (contd):
Prove H2 does not exist as follows (contd)
Since both cases lead to contradiction, we conclude that the assumption that H2 exists is wrong by
Hello-world
yes
H2 of contradiction for tester the principle proof.

H2
Figure 8.6
Hello, world
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3rd step (contd):
H2 does not exist H1 does not exist (otherwise, H2 must exist)
H does not exist (otherwise, H1 must exist)
The above self-contradiction technique, similar to the diagonalization technique (to be introduced later), was used by Alan Turing for proving undecidable problems.
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8.1.3 Reducing One Problem to Another
Now we have an undecidable problem, which can be used to prove other undecidable problems by a technique of problem reduction. That is, if we know P1 is undecidable, then we may reduce P1 to a new problem P2, so that we may prove P2 undecidable by contradiction in the following way:
If P2 is decidable, then P1 is decidable. But P1 is known undecidable. So, contradiction! Consequently, P2 is undecidable.
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An illustration of this idea is:
P1 instance P2 instance
Construct
Decide
yes
if and only if Old problem New problem no
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Example 8.1 We want to prove a new problem P2 (called calls-foo problem):
does program Q, given input y, ever call function foo?

to be undecidable. Solution: regard Q as P1; reduce P1: the hello-world problem to P2: the calls-foo problem in the following way:
(continued in the next page)
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Example 8.1 (contd) Solution: reduce P1 to P2 in the following way:
as Q. () Add to Q1 a function foo doing nothing & not called a new Q2 Modify Q2 to remember the first 12 characters that it prints, storing them in a global array A
If Q has a function called foo, rename it and all calls to that function a new program Q1 doing the same
Q3
Modify Q3 so that whenever it executes any output statement, it checks A to see if it has written 12 characters or more, and if so, whether hello, world are the first characters. In that case, call the new function foo
R with input z = y.
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Example 8.1 (contd) Solution (contd): Now,
(1) if Q with input y prints hello, world as its first output, then R will call foo; (2) if Q with input y does not print hello, world, then R will never call foo. (3) That is, R, with input z = y, calls foo if and only if Q, with input y, prints hello, world. (4) So, if we can decide whether R, with input z, calls foo, then we can decide whether Q, with input y, prints hello, world. (5) But the latter is impossible, so the former is impossible.
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The above example illustrates how to reduce a problem to another. An illustration of this idea is:
Construct P2 instance Decide
P1 instance
yes
if and only if
Old problem New problem no
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8.2 The Turing Machine

Concepts to be taught:
The study of decidability provides guidance to programmers about what they might or might not be able to accomplish through programming. Previous problems are dealt with programs. But not all problems can be solved by programs.
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Concepts to be taught:
We need a simple model to deal with other decision problems (like grammar ambiguity problems) The Turing machine is one of such models, whose configuration is easy to describe, but whose function is the most versatile: all computations done by a modern computer can be done by a Turing machine. (a hypothesis!)
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8.2.1 The Quest to Decide All Mathematical Questions
At the turn of 20th century, D. Hilbert asked:
whether
it was possible to find an algorithm for determining the truth or falsehood of any mathematical proposition. (in particular, he asked if there was a way to decide whether any formula in the 1st-order predicate calculus, applied to integer, was true)
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In 1931, K. Gdel published his incompleteness theorem:
A certain formula in the predicate calculus applied to integers could not be neither proved nor disproved within the predicate calculus.
The proof technique is diagonalization, resembling the self-contradiction technique used previously.
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Natures of computational model -- Predicate calculus --- declarative Partial-recursive functions --- computational (a programming-language-like notion) Turing machine --- computational (computer-like) (invented by Alan Turing several years before true computers were invented)
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Equivalence of maximal computational model:

They all compute the same functions or recognize the same languages, having the same power of computation.
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Unprovable Church-Turing hypothesis (or thesis):

Any general way to compute will allow us to compute only the partial-recursive functions (or equivalently, what the Turing machine or modern-
day computers can compute).
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8.2.2 Notion for the Turing Machine
A model for Turing machine:
Finite control
B B X1 X2
Xi
Xn B B
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A move of Turing machine includes:
change state; write a tape symbol in the cell scanned; move the tape head left or right.
Formal definition:
A Turing machine (TM) is a 7-tuple M = (Q, S, G, d, q0, B, F) where Q: a finite set of states of the finite control; S: a finite set of input symbols; G: a set of tape symbols, with S being a subset of it;
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Formal definition (contd):
d: a transition function d(q, X) = (p, Y, D) where

q: the current state, in Q;
X: a tape symbol being scanned;

p: the next state, in Q; Y: the tape symbol written on the cell being scanned, used to replace X; D: either L (left) or R (right) telling the move direction of the tape head;
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Formal definition (contd):

q0: the start state, in Q; B: the blank symbol in G, not in S (should not be an input symbol); F: the set of final (or accepting) states.
A TM is a deterministic automaton with a two- way infinite tape which can be read and written in either direction.
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8.2.3 Instantaneous Descriptions for Turing Machine
The instantaneous description (ID) of a TM is represented by X1X2Xi1qXiXi+1Xn in which q is the current state; The tape head is scanning the ith symbol Xi from the left; X1X2Xn is the portion of the tape between the leftmost and the rightmost nonblank symbols.
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Moves of a TM M are denoted by or as follows:
If d(q, Xi) = (p, Y, L) (a leftward move), then _we write _ | |M the following to describe the left move:
X1X2Xi1qXiXi+1Xn X1X2Xi2pXi1YXi+1Xn Right moves are defined similarly.
|_ M
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Example 8.2 --- Design a TM to accept the language L = {0n1n | n 1} as follows.
Starting at the left end of the input. Change 0 to an X. Move to the right over 0s and Ys until a 1.
Change 1 to Y.
Move left over Ys and 0s until an X. Look for a 0 immediately to the right. If a 0 is found, change it to X and repeat the above process.
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Example 8.2 --- Design a TM to accept the language L = {0n1n | n 1} as follows. (continued) 0011 X011 X0Y1 XXY1 XXYY XXYYB
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Example 8.2 --- Design a TM to accept the language L = {0n1n | n 1} (contd).
M = ({q0~q4}, {0, 1}, {0, 1, X, Y, B}, d, q0, B, {q4})
Transition table: in the next page.
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Example 8.2 ---
8.2.3 Instantaneous Descriptions for TM

symbol
state q0 q1 q2 q3 0
(q1, X, R)1 (q1, 0, R)2 (q2, 0, L)5
Y
(q3, Y, R)8 (q1, Y, R)3 (q2, Y, L)6 (q3, Y, R)9
(q2, Y, L)4
(q0, X, R)7
q4
(q4, B, R)10
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8.2.3 Instantaneous Descriptions for TM

Example 8.2 (contd)
To accept 0011 ---
_ | (use instead of )
q00011 Xq1011 X0q111 Xq20Y1 q2X0Y1 Xq00Y1 XXq1Y1 XXYq11 XXq2YY Xq2XYY XXq0YY XXYq3Y XXYYq3B XXYYBq4B
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8.2.4 Transition Diagrams for TMs

If d(q, X) = (p, Y, L), we use label X/Y on the arc. If d(q, X) = (p, Y, R), we use label X/Y on the arc. Example 8.3 --- Transition diagram for Example 8.2. See the textbook, p. 331. Example 8.4 --- TM as a function-computing machine. No final state is needed. For details, see the textbook and part b.
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8.2.5 The Language of a TM
Let M = (Q, S, G, d, q0, B, F) be a TM. The language accepted by M is
The set of languages accepted by aM TM is often called the recursively enumerable language or RE language.
L(M) = {w | wS* and q0w apb with pF} (w _ final state accept!!!)
|*
The term RE came from computational formalism that predates the TM.
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8.2.6 TMs and Halting

Another notion for accepting strings by TMs --- acceptance by halting. We say a TM halts if it enters a state q scanning a tape symbol X, and there is no move in this situation, i.e., d(q, X) is undefined.
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Acceptance by halting may be used for a TMs functions other than accepting languages like Example 8.4 and Example 8.5.
We assume that a TM always halts when it is in an accepting state. It is not always possible to require that a TM halts even when it does not accept.
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Languages with TMs that do halt eventually, regardless whether or not they accept, are called recursive languages (considered in Sec. 9.2.1)
TMs that always halt, regardless of whether or not they accept, are a good model of an algorithm.
So TMs that always halt can be used for studies of decidability (see Chapter 9).
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8.3 Programming Techniques for TMs

Concepts to be taught
Showing how a TM computes.
Indicating that TMs are as powerful as conventional computers.

Even some extended TMs can be simulated by the original TM.
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Section 8.2 revisited
TMs may be used as a computer as well, not just a language recognizer.
Example 8.4 (not taught in the last section)

Design a TM to compute a function called monus, or proper subtraction defined by m n = m n if m n;
=0
if m < n.
_
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Example 8.4 (contd)
Assume input integers m and n are put on the input tape separated by a 1 as 0m10n (two unary numbers using 0s separated by a special symbol 1) The TM is M = ({q0, q1, , q6}, {0, 1}, {0, 1, B}, d, q0, B).
No final state is needed.
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Example 8.4 (contd) M conducts the following computation steps: 1. find its leftmost 0 and replaces it by a blank; 2. move right, and look for a 1; 3. after finding a 1, move right continuously 4. after finding a 0, replace it by a 1; 5. move left until finding a blank, & then move one cell to the right to get a 0; 6. repeat the above process.
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symbol
state
q0
0 (q1, B, R)
1 (q5, B, R)
B -
q1
q2 q3 q4 q5 q6
(q1, 0, R)
(q3, 1, L) (q3, 0, L) (q4, 0, L) (q5, B, R) -
(q2, 1, R)
(q2, 1, R) (q3, 1, L) (q4, B, L) (q5, B, R) -
(q4, B, L) (q0, B, R) (q6, 0, R) (q6, B, R) 48

q00010 1 Bq1010 3 B0q110 4 B01q20 5 B0q311 9 Bq3011 8 q3B011 10 Bq0011 1 BBq111 4 BB1q21 6 BB11q2B 7 BB1q41 12 BBq41B 12 Bq4BBB 13 B0q6BB halt! (B0)
q00100 Bq1100 B1q200 Bq3110 q3B110 Bq0110 BBq510 BBBq50
BBBBq5B BBBBBq6 halt! (q501B)
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8.3.1 Storage in the State
8.3.2 Multiple Tracks 8.3.3 Subroutines
For details of the above three topics, see the textbook.
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8.4 Extensions to the Basic TM

Extended TMs to be studied:
Multitape Turing machine Nondeterministic Turing machine
The above extensions make no increase of the original TMs power, but make TMs easier to use:
Multitape TM --- useful for simulating real computers Nondeterministic TM --- making TM programming easier.
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8.4.1 Multitape TMs
Finite control
Tape 1 Tape 2 Tape 3
Figure 8.16. A multitape TM.

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8.4.1 Multitape TMs
Initially,
the input string is placed on the 1st tape; the other tapes hold all blanks; the finite control is in its initial state; the head of the 1st tape is at the left end of the input; the tape heads of all other tapes are at arbitrary positions.
A move consists of the following steps:

the finite control enters a new state; on each tape, a symbol is written; each tape head moves left or right, or stationary.
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8.4.2 Equivalence of Onetape & Multitape TMs
Theorem 8.9 Every language accepted by a multitape TM is recursive enumerable. (That is, the one-tape TM and the multitape one are equivalent) Proof: see the textbook.
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8.4.3 Running Time and the Many-Tapes-to-One Construction
Theorem 8.10 The time taken by the one-tape TM of Theorem 8.9 to simulate n moves of the k-tape TM is O(n2). Proof: see the textbook. Meaning: the equivalence of the two types of TMs is good in the sense that their running times are roughly the same within polynomial complexity.
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8.4.4 Nondeterministic TMs
A nondeterministic TM (NTM) has multiple choices of next moves, i.e., d(q, X) = {(q1, Y1, D1), (q2, Y2, D2), , (qk, Yk, Dk)}. The NTM is not more powerful than a deterministic TM (DTM), as said by the following theorem. Theorem 8.11 If MN is NTM, then there is a DTM MD such that L(MN) = L(MD). (for proof, see the textbook)
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8.4.4 Nondeterministic TMs
The equivalent DTM constructed for an NTM in the last theorem may take exponentially more time than the DTM. It is unknown whether or not this exponential slowdown is necessary! More investigation will be done in Chapter 10.
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8.5 Restricted TMs

Restricted TMs to be studied:
the tape is infinite only to the right, and the blank cannot be used as a replacement symbol; the tapes are only used as stacks (stack machines); the stacks are used as counters only (counter machines).
The above restrictions make no decrease of the original TMs power, but are useful for theorem proving. Undecidability of the TM also applies to these restricted TMs.
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8.5 Restricted TMs
8.5.1 TMs with Semi-infinite Tapes

Theorem 8.12 Every language accepted by a TM M2 is also accepted by a TM M1 with the following restrictions:
M1s head never moves left of its initial position (so the tape is semi-infinite essential); M1 never writes a blank. (i.e., M1 and M2 are equivalent) Proof. See the textbook.
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8.5 Restricted TMs

8.5.2 Multistack Machines
Multistack machines, which are restricted versions of TMs, may be regarded as extensions of pushdown automata (PDAs). Actually, a PDA with two stacks has the same computation power as the TM. A k-stack machine is a deterministic PDA with k stacks. See Fig.8.20 for a figure of a multistack TM. Theorem 8.13 If a language is accepted by a TM, then it is accepted by a two-stack machine. Proof. See the textbook.
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8.5 Restricted TMs

8.5.3 Counter Machines
There are two ways to think of a counter machine. Way 1: as a multistack machine with each stack replaced by a counter regarded to be on a tape of a TM.
A counter holds any nonnegative integer. The machine can only distinguish zero and nonzero counters. A move conducts the following operations: changing the state; add or subtract 1 from a counter which cannot becomes negative.
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8.5 Restricted TMs

8.5.3 Counter Machines
Way 2: as a restricted multistack machine with each stack replaced by a counter implemented on a stack of a PDA.
There are only two stack symbols Z0 and X.
Z0 is the initial stack symbol, like that of a PDA.

Can replace Z0 only by XiZ0 for some i 0. Can replace X only by Xi for some i 0.
For an example of a counter machine of the 2nd type, do the exercise (part a) of this chapter.
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8.5 Restricted TMs

8.5.4 The Power of Counter Machines
Every language accepted by a one-counter machine is a CFL (see the textbook). Every language accepted by a counter machine (of any number of counters) is recursive enumerable (see theorems below). Theorem 8.14 Every recursive enumerable language is accepted by a threecounter machine. Proof. See the textbook.
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8.5 Restricted TMs

8.5.4 The Power of Counter Machines
Theorem 8.15 Every recursive enumerable language is accepted by a two-counter machine. Proof. See the textbook.
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8.6 Turing Machines and Computers

In this section, it is shown informally that:
a computer can simulate a TM; and that a TM can simulate a computer.
That means:
the real computer we use every day is nearly an implementation of the maximal computational model under the assumptions that the memory space (including registers, RAM, hard disks, ) is infinite in size. the address space is infinite (not only that defined by 32 bits used in most computers today).
For more details, see the textbook yourselves.

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Chapter 8 Introduction to Turing Machines

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

main() { print(hello, world\n);

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

Hello-world (2) transform H1 to H2 in the following way tester

yes Figure 8.4 hello, world

Use P both as input and program!

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

Let P for H2 in Fig. 8.5 (last figure) be H2 itself, as follows:

Hello-world H2 tester H2 (H2 Takes H2 as input to itself)

yes Figure 8.6 hello, world

8.1.2 Hypothetical Hello, World Tester

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

H2 of contradiction for tester the principle proof.

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

H does not exist (otherwise, H1 must exist)

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

if and only if Old problem New problem no

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

does program Q, given input y, ever call function foo?

(continued in the next page)

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

8.1 Problems That Computers Cannot Solve

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

Equivalence of maximal computational model:

8.2 The Turing Machine

Unprovable Church-Turing hypothesis (or thesis):

day computers can compute).

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

d: a transition function d(q, X) = (p, Y, D) where

X: a tape symbol being scanned;

8.2 The Turing Machine

Formal definition (contd):

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2.3 Instantaneous Descriptions for TM

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2.3 Instantaneous Descriptions for TM

8.2 The Turing Machine

8.2.4 Transition Diagrams for TMs

8.2 The Turing Machine