Chapter 8 Analysis Engineering

Software Engineering: A Practitioners Approach by Roger S. Pressman

Requirement Analysis

Analysis Rules of Thumb

The model should focus on requirements that are visible within the problem or business domain. The level of abstraction should be relatively high. "Dont get bogged down in details" that try to explain how the system will work.
Each element of the analysis model should add to an overall understanding of software requirements and provide insight into the information domain, function, and behavior of the system.

Analysis Rules of Thumb

Delay consideration of infrastructure and other non functional models until design
Minimize coupling throughout the system Be certain that the analysis model provides value to all stakeholders. Each constituency has its own use for the model. Keep the model as simple as it can be.

Analysis Model Approaches

Elements of the analysis model

Data Objects
Data Objects: A data object is a representation of almost any composite infomation that must be understood by software. Composite information: Something that has a number of different properties or attributes. Ex: Dimension = width and height A data object can be an external entity (e.g., anything that produces or consumes information), a thing (eg., a report or a display), an occurrence (eg., a telephone call) or event (eg., an alarm), a role (e.g., salesperson), an organizational unit (eg., accounting department), a place (eg., a warehouse), or a structure (eg., a tile).

Data Objects

Data Attributes
It is properties of a data object (1) name an instance of the data object, (2) describe the instance (3) make reference to another instance in another table The set of attributes that is appropriate for a given data object is determined through an understanding of the problem context. The attributes for car might serve well for an application that would be used by a Department of Motor Vehicles, but these attributes would be useless for an automobile company that needs manufacturing control software.

Relationship
A person owns a car. A person is insured to drive a car.

Cardinality and Modality

Simple relationships in not enough. We must understand how many occurrences of objectx are related to how many occurrences of objectY. This leads to a data modeling concept called cardinality Cardinality is the specification of the number of occurrences of one [object] that can be related to the number of occurrences of another [object] 1:1 relationship, 1:N relationship, N:1 relationship, M:N relationship ER-Diagrams The modality of a relationship is 0 if there is no explicit need for the relationship to occur or the relationship is optional. The modality is 1 if an occurrence of the relationship is mandatory.

Scenario-Based Modeling

SafeHome Application

Writing Usecases

Following functions (an abbreviated list) are performed by the homeowner actor:

Access camera surveillance via the Internet. Select camera to view. Request thumbnails from all cameras. Display camera views in a PC window. Control pan and zoom for a specific camera. Selectively record camera output. Replay camera output.

Writing Usecases

Informally conversation is continued Consider the function "access camera surveillance - display camera views (ACS DCV)."

Writing Usecases

Actor: Home Owner

lf Im at a remote location, I can use any PC with appropriate browser software to log on to the SafeHome Products Web site. I enter my user ID and two levels of passwords and, once i'm validated, I have access to all functionality for my installed SafeHome system. To access a specific camera view, I select "surveillance" from the major function buttons displayed. I then select "pick a camera," and the floor plan of the house is displayed. I then select the camera that I'm interested in. Alternatively, I can look at thumbnail snap-shots from all cameras simultaneously by selecting "all cameras" as my viewing choice. Once I choose a camera, I select "view," and a one-frame-persecond view appears in a viewing window that is identified by the camera ID. If I want to switch cameras, I select "pick a camera," and the original viewing window disappears. and the floor plan of the house is displayed again. I then select the camera that Im interested in. A new viewing window appears.

Revisiting function we would write:

Use-Case: Access camera surveillancedisplay camera views (ACSDCV) Actor: homeowner I . The homeowner logs on to the SafeHome Products Web site. 2. The homeowner enters his or her user ID. 3. The homeowner enters two passwords (each at least eight characters in length). 4. The system displays all major function buttons. 5 The homeowner selects the "surveillance" from the major function buttons. 6. The homeowner selects "pick a camera." 7. The system displays the floor plan of the house. 8. The homeowner selects a camera icon from the floor plan. 9. The homeowner selects the "view" button. I0. The system displays a viewing window that is identified by the camera ID. 11. The system displays video output within the viewing window at one frame per second.

These are primary flow of events

Writing Usecases

Each step in the primary scenario is evaluated by asking the following questions

Can the actor take some other action at this point? Is it possible that the actor will encounter some error condition at this point? if so, what might it be? Is it possible that the actor will encounter some other behavior at this point (e.g., behavior that is invoked by some event outside the actor's control)? if so, what might it be?

Writing Usecases

For secondary scenario consider,

6. The homeowner selects "pick a camera 7. The system displays the floor plan of the house.

Can the actor take some other action at this point?

the actor may choose to view thumbnail snapshots of all cameras simultaneously.

Is it possible that the actor will encounter some error condition at this point?

A floor plan with camera icons may have never been configured.

Use-case Diagram

Use-case diagram for surveillance function

Developing Activity Diagram

The UML activity diagram supplements the usecase by providing a graphical representation of the flow of interaction within a specific scenario. An activity diagram
Uses rounded rectangles to imply a specific system function Arrows to represent flow through the system, decision diamonds to depict a branching decision Solid horizontal lines to indicate that parallel activities are occurring.

Activity diagram for Access camera surveillancedisplay camera views function

Developing Activity Diagram

The UML swimlane diagram is a useful variation of the activity diagram and allows the modeler to represent the flow of activities described by the usecase and at the same time indicate which actor (if there are multiple actors involved in a specific function) or analysis class has responsibility for the action described by an activity rectangle..

Swimlane diagram

Flow-Oriented Modeling

Flow Oriented Modeling

The Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) takes an input-process-output view of a system. Data objects are represented by labeled arrows and transformations are represented by circles (also called bubbles). The DFD is presented in a hierarchical fashion.

Guidelines

Depict the system as single bubble in level 0. Carefully note primary input and output. Refine by isolating candidate processes and their associated data objects and data stores. Label all elements with meaningful names. Maintain information conformity between levels. Refine one bubble at a time.

Data Flow Diagram

Context-level DFD for SafeHome security function

Grammatical Parse

Verbs are SafeHome processes; that is, they may ultimately be represented as bubbles in a subsequent DFD. Nouns are either external entities (boxes), data or control objects (arrows), or data stores (double lines).

Grammatical Parse

The SafeHome security function enables the homeowner to configure the security system when it is installed, monitors all sensors connected to the security system, and interacts with the homeowner through the Internet, a PC, or a control panel. During installation, the SafeHome PC is used to program and configure the system. Each sensor is assigned a number and type, a master password is programmed for arming and disarming the system, and telephone number(s) are input for dialing when a sensor event occurs.

When a sensor event is recognized, the software invokes an audible alarm attached to the system. After a delay time that is specified by the homeowner during system configuration activities, the software dials a telephone number of a monitoring service, provides information about the location, reporting the nature of the event that has been detected. The telephone number will be redialed every 20 seconds until a telephone connection is obtained.
The homeowner receives security information via a control panel, the PC, or a browser, collectively called an interface. The interface displays prompting messages and system status information on the control panel, the PC, or the browser window. Homeowner interaction takes the following form

Level 2 DFD that refines the monitor sensors process

Control Flow Diagram

State diagram for SafeHome security function

Class Based Modeling

Identifying Analysis Classes

Developing the class-based elements of an analysis model-classes and objects, attributes, operations, packages, CRC models, and collaboration diagrams. The madly hard problem is discovering what are the right objects [classes] in the first place Classes are determined by underlining each noun or noun clause and entering it into a simple table. Synonyms should be noted

Identifying Analysis Classes

Analysis classes manifest themselves in one of the following ways
External entities (e.g., other systems, devices, people) that produce or consume information to be used by a computer-based system. Things (e.g., reports, displays, letters, signals) that are part of the information domain for the problem. Occurrences or events (e.g., a property transfer or the completion of a series of robot movements) that occur within the context of system operation. Roles (e.g., manager, engineer, salesperson) played by people who interact with the system. Organizational units (e.g., division, group, team) that are relevant to an application. Places (e.g., manufacturing floor or loading dock) that establish the context of the problem and the overall function of the system

Identifying Analysis Classes

Example: InvertImage and ImageInversion are opertations Image

Grammatical Parse

The SafeHome security function enables the homeowner to configure the security system when it is installed, monitors all sensors connected to the security system, and interacts with the homeowner through the Internet, a PC, or a control panel. During installation, the SafeHome PC is used to program and configure the system. Each sensor is assigned a number and type, a master password is programmed for arming and disarming the system, and telephone number(s) are input for dialing when a sensor event occurs. When a sensor event is recognized, the software invokes an audible alarm attached to the system. After a delay time that is specified by the homeowner during system configuration activities, the software dials a telephone number of a monitoring service, provides information about the location, reporting the nature of the event that has been detected. The telephone number will be redialed every 20 seconds until a telephone connection is obtained.

Identifying Analysis Classes

Identifying Analysis Classes

six selection characteristics that should be used as an analyst considers each potential class for inclusion in the analysis model
Retained information: The potential class will be useful during analysis only if information about it must be remembered so that the system can function. Needed services: The potential class must have a set of identifiable operations that can change the value of its attributes in some way. Multiple attributes: During requirement analysis, the focus should be on "major" information; a class with a single attribute may, in fact, be useful during design, but is probably better represented as an attribute of another class during the analysis activity.

Identifying Analysis Classes

six selection characteristics that should be used as an analyst considers each potential class for inclusion in the analysis model
Common attributes. A set of attributes can be defined for the potential class, and these attributes apply to all instances of the class. Common operations. A set of operations can be defined for the potential class, and these operations apply to all instances of the class Essential requirements: External entities that appear in the problem space and produce or consume information essential to the operation of any solution for the system will almost always be defined as classes in the requirements model.

Identifying Analysis Classes

Specifying Attributes

Study a use-case and select those "things" that reasonably "belong to the class. What data items (composite and/or elementary) fully define this class in the context of the problem at hand? System class

sensor information, alarm response information, activation/deactivation information, identification information, and so forth.

Defining Operations

Categories

Operations that manipulate data in some Operations that perform a computation Operations that inquire about the state of an object Operations that monitor an object for the occurrence of a controlling event.

The grammatical parse is again studied and verbs are isolated.

Defining Operations

Class-ResponsibilityColluborctor (CRC) Modeling A CRC model is really a collection of standard index cards that
represent classes. The cards are divided into three sections. Along the top of the card you write the name of the class. In the body of the card you list the class responsibilities on the left and the collaborators on the right.

CRC index card for FloorPlan Class

Class-ResponsibilityColluborctor (CRC) Modeling

The taxonomy of class types

Entity (model or business) classes are extracted directly from the statement of the problem (eg., FloorPlan and Sensor). Persist through out the duration of application Boundary classes are used to create the interface (eg., interactive screen or printed reports) that the user sees and interacts with as the software is used. Controller classes manage a "unit of work" from start to finish. That is, controller classes can be designed to manage
1. 2. 3. 4. the creation or update of entity objects the instantiation of boundary objects as they obtain information from entity objects complex communication between sets of objects validation of data communicated between objects or between the user and the application.

Guideline to Identify Collaborations

System intelligence should be distributed across classes to best address the needs of the problem. Each responsibility should be stated as generally as possible. Information and the behaviour related to it should reside within the same class. Information about one thing should be localized with a single class, not distributed across multiple classes. Responsibilities should be shared among related classes, when appropriate.

Collaborations

Classes fulfil their responsibilities in one of two ways

use own operations collaborate with other classes. Collaborations represent requests from a client to a server in fulfiillment of a client responsibility. A collaboration is the embodiment of the contract between the client and the server We say that an object collaborates with another object if, to fullill a responsibility, it needs to send the other object any messages. A single collaboration flows in one direction-representing a request from the client to the server. From the client's point of view, each of its collaborations are associated with a particular responsibility implemented by the

Collaborations
Three different generic relationships between classes
All classes that are part of an aggregate class are connected to the aggregate class via an is-part-of relationship. When one class must acquire information from another class, the has-knowledge-of relationship is established. The depends-upon relationship implies that two classes have a dependency that is not achieved by hasknowledge-of or is-part-of

Composite Aggregate Class

Associations and Dependencies

In many instances, two analysis classes are related to one another in some fashion, much like two data objects may be related to one another. In UML these relationships are called associations.

Associations and Dependencies

In many instances, a client-server relationship exists between two analysis classes.

In such cases, a client-class depends on the serverclass in some way and a dependency relationship is established.

In UML stereotypes are represented in double angle brackets (eg., <<stereotype>>).

Associations and Dependencies

Analysis Packages

An important part of analysis modeling is categorization. That is, various elements of the analysis model (e.g., use-cases, analysis classes) are categorized in a manner that packages them as a grouping-called an analysis package-that is given a representative name.

Behavioral Modeling

Behavioral Modeling

The behavioral model indicates how software will respond to extemal events or stimuli. To create the model, the analyst must perfom the following steps:

Evaluate all use-cases to fully understand the sequence of interaction within the system. Identify events that drive the interaction sequence and understand how these events relate to specific classes. Create a sequence for each use-case. Build a state diagram for the system. Review the behavioral model to verify accuracy and consistency.

Identifying Events

A use-case is examined for points of information exchange. The homeowner uses the keypad to key in a four-digit password. The password is compared with the valid password stored in the system. If the password in incorrect, the control panel will beep once and reset itself for additional input. If the password is correct, the control panel awaits further action.

State Diagram

State diagram for the ControlPanel class

Sequence Diagram

Sequence diagram (partial) for the SafeHome security function