COMMUNICATIONS

Refers to the sending, reception and processing of information by electrical means

Block Diagram of a Communications System

Information Source

Noise

Recipient or Destination

Transmitter

Channel

Receiver

Information Source
selects symbols (letters, numbers, words, sounds, etc) from an alphabet (or ensemble) of possible symbols
Types of Information

radio, telephony, telegraph, broadcasting, radar, radio, telemetry, and radio aids for navigation

Transmitter
a collection of electronic components and circuits designed to convert the information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given
Processes Involved

modulation, multiplexing, encoding, encryption, and pre-emphasis (FM)

Channel
the medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another

Receiver
another collection of electronic components and circuits that accept the transmitted message from the channel and convert it back into a form understandable by humans

Processes Involved

demodulation, demultiplexing, decoding, decryption, and de-emphasis (FM)

Noise
any unwanted form of electrical energy, random and aperiodic in character which tends to mutilate the desired signal

Basic Requirements
1. Accurate Communication 2. Fast Communication

Types of Signal
1. ANALOG telephone, radio broadcast or TV signals 2. DIGITAL comprises of pulses at discrete intervals of time

Transmission Paths
1. Line Communication guided media which include coaxial cable, twisted pair, optical fibers and waveguides 2. Radio Communications unguided media

Basic Concepts

Frequency number of times a particular phenomenon occurs at a given time expressed in hertz (1/1 sec) Hz

Wavelength distance between two points of similar cycles of a periodic wave Bandwidth portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal

Nomenclature of Frequency Bands

NAME Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) Voice Frequencies (VF) FREQUENCIES 30 300 Hz 300 Hz 3 kHz METRIC SUBDIVISION APPLICATIONS Power line transmission Audio

Very Low Frequencies (VLF)

Low Frequencies (LF) Medium Frequencies (MF) High Frequencies (HF) Very High Frequencies (VHF) Ultra High Frequencies (UHF) Super High Frequencies (SHF) Extremely High Frequencies (EHF)

3 30 kHz
30 300 kHz 300 kHz 3 MHz 3 30 MHz 30 300 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz

Myriametric waves
Kilometric waves (long waves) Hectometric waves (medium waves) Decametric waves (short waves) Metric waves Decimetric waves

Government and military comms., submarine comms.

Aeronautical and marine navigation AM radio broadcast Shortwave radio broadcast, amateur radio and CB comms. FM broadcast UHF TV, land mobile services and cellular telephones, microwave comms. Satellite comms., personal communication systems Radar

3 GHz 30 GHz 30 300 GHz

Centimetric waves Millimetric waves

*microwave frequency band: 1 GHz to 300 GHz **frequencies beyond EHF are optical frequencies

Significant Historical Events in Electronic Communications

DATES
1830

EVENTS
American scientist and professor Joseph Henry transmitted the first practical electrical signal . Samuel Finley Breeze Morse invented the Telegraph and patented it in 1844. Alexander Bain invented the facsimile. James Clerk Maxwell postulated the Electromagnetic Radiation Theory. Johann Philipp Reis, a German who produces a device called Telephone that could transmit a musical tone over a wire to a distant point but incapable of reproducing it. James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist established the Theory of Radio or Electromagnetism which held the rapidly oscillating electromagnetic waves exist and travel at through space with the speed of light.

1837

1843 1847 1860

1864

DATES
1875

EVENTS
Thomas Alba Edison invented Quadruplex telegraph, doubling existing line qualities. J. M. Emile Baudot invented the first practical Multiplex Telegraph and another type of telegraphy codes which consisted of pre arranged 5 - unit dot pulse. A. C. Cowper introduced the first Facsimile Machine or writing telegraph using a stylus.
Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson invented the Telephone capable of transmitting voice signals (March 10).

1876

1877
1878 1882

Thomas Edison invented the Phonograph.

Francis Blake invented the Microphone Transmitter using platinum point bearing against a hard carbon surface. Nikola Tesla outlined the basic principles of radio transmission and reception. Heinrich Hertz detected electromagnetic waves with an oscillating circuit and establishes the existence of radio waves.

1887

DATES
1889

EVENTS
Hertz discovered the progressive propagation of electromagnetic action through space using a spark gap wave generator, to measure the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves and their direct relation to light and heat as their vibration, reflection, refraction and polarization. Almon Strowger introduced the dial switching system transmitting the desired telephone number electrically without the assistance of a human telephone operator. Marchese Guglielmo Marconi discovered ground wave radio signals. Guglielmo Marconi established the first radio link between England and France.

18790

1895 1898

1901

Reginald A. Fessenden transmits the worlds first radio broadcast using continuous waves. Marconi transmits telegraphic radio messages from Cornwall, England to Newfoundland, first successful transatlantic transmission of radio signals.
John Ambrose Fleming invented the Vacuum Tube Diode.

1904

DATES
1906

EVENTS
Reginald Fessenden invented Amplitude Modulation (AM). Lee De Forest added a grid to the diode and produced triode. Ernst F. W. Alexanderson invented the Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver (TRF) an HF Alternator to producing AC contributing to better voice broadcasting. Reginald Fessenden developed the Heterodyne Receiver. Edwin H. Armstrong invented the Superheterodyne Receiver. J. L. Baird and C. F. Jenkins demonstrated the transmission of Black and White Silhouettes in motion. Vladymir Zworykin and Philo Farnsworth developed television cameras, the Iconoscope and the Image Detector. The first practical television was invented in 1928. Edwin Armstrong invented the Frequency Modulation, greatly improving the quality of the signals. Alec Reeves invented the Pulse Code Modulation for digital encoding of PCM signals. Arthur C. Clarke proposed the use of satellites for long distance radio transmissions.

1907 1918 1923

1931 1937 1945

DATES
1946 1947

EVENTS
AT&T introduced the first mobile telephone system for the public called the MTS (Mobile Telephone System). John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley introduced the bipolar junction transistors which started a new trend in radio receiver design; December 4. First transcontinental microwave system began operation.

1951

1954
1957

J. R. Pierce showed how satellites could orbit around the earth and effect transmission with earth stations.
Troposcatter Radio Link was established between Florida and Cuba by using antennas and high powered transmitters to force microwaves beyond LOS obstructed by earths curvature bulge. Russia launched Sputnik I, the first active earth satellite, capable of receiving, amplifying and retransmitting information to earth stations. Jack Kilby developed the first Monolithic Integrated Circuit Semiconductor chip with active and passive elements. Robert Noyce invented the Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSIC).

1958 1959

DATES
1962

EVENTS
AT&T launched Telstar I, the first satellite to received and transmit simultaneously. A year later, Telstar II was launched and used for telephone, TV fax and data transmission .

1965

COMSAT and INTELSAT launched the first communications satellite code name Early Bird at approximately 34000 km above sea level.

1967

K. C. Kao and G. A. Bockam of Standard Telecommunications Laboratories in England proposed the use of cladded fiber cables as new transmission medium.

1977

First commercial use of optical fiber cables

1983 1991

Cellular telephone networks introduced. Tim Berners Lee developed World Wide Web (WWW).

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

1. He is recognized as the Father of Electromagnetism a. Joseph Henry b. Andre Marie Ampere c. Hans Christian Oersted d. Michael Faraday 2. An American scientist who discovered electromagnetic self induction. He was a pioneer of modern forecasting techniques. a. Joseph Henry b. Andre Marie Ampere c. Hans Christian Oersted d. Michael Faraday

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

3. He discovered Photoelectricity through a photosensitive element, Selenium that could carry current in direct proportion to the amount of light that struck it. a. Jonas Jacob Berzelius b. Charles Babbage c. James Maxwell d. Michael Faraday 4. The Father of Electrodynamics who exposed the phenomenon of electromagnetism following the discovery of magnet needle by Oersted. a. Joseph Henry b. Andre Marie Ampere c. James Maxwell d. Michael Faraday

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

5. The range of frequencies represented in a signal. a. Beam width b. Crisp c. Guard band d. Bandwidth 6. It refers to the sending, receiving and processing of information by electronic means a. Communications b. Telemetry c. Telephony d. Broadcasting

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

7. The big breakthrough in electronics communications came with the invention of the ____________ in 1844. a. Transistor b. Phonograph c. Telegraph d. Telephone 8. Term for transmission of printed picture by radio (ECE Board April 1998). a. Facsimile b. ACSSB c. Xerography d. Television

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

9. A Scottish physicist who established the Theory of Radio or Electromagnetism which held that rapidly oscillating electromagnetic waves exist and travel at through space with the speed of light. a. James Maxwell b. Andre Marie Ampere c. Hans Christian Oersted d. Michael Faraday 10. The first words transmitted over the telephone a. Mr. Watson, come here, I want you b. What God has wrought c. This is the day d. None of these

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

11. Most of the communications receiver is in form of ____________ type. a. Superheterodyne b. TRF c. Single ended d. High level 12. He was the one who developed the wireless telegraph. a. Edison b. Armstrong c. Marconi d. Bell

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

13. He invented the first practical Multiplex Telegraph and another type of telegraphy codes which consisted of pre arranged 5 unit dot pulse patterns. This multiplexer allowed signals of up to 6 different telegraph machines to be transmitted over a single wire pair. a. JM Emile Baudot b. AC Cowper c. Thomas Edison d. Thomas Doolittle 14. Introduced the first Facsimile Machine or writing telegraph using stylus. a. JM Emile Baudot b. AC Cowper c. Thomas Edison d. Alexander Graham Bell

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

15. Invented the Microphone transmitter using platinum point bearing against a hard carbon surface a. Francis Blake b. Thomas Watson c. Thomas Doolittle d. Henry Hunnings 16. What type of field does Faraday shield stop? a. Common b. Array c. Electrostatic d. Magnetostatic

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

17. Which of the following is not normally tested in a transmitter? a. Power b. Modulation c. Frequency d. Amplitude 18. What other term is essentially synonymous with beating? a. Heterodyning b. Scrambling c. Filtering d. Suppressing

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

19. Term in Communication that is referred to send in all directions. a. Announce b. Broadcast c. Transmit d. Media 20. Invented the telephone transmitter using granular carbon and thin platinum diaphragm and a gold plated electrode a. Nikola Tesla b. Henry Hunnings c. Thomas Watson d. AC Cowper

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

21. He introduced the Dial Switching System, transmitting the desired telephone number electrically without the assistance of a human telephone operator a. Thomas Edison b. Almon Strowger c. JJ Thomson d. Lee De Forest 22. An Italian physicist who invented the first wireless telegraph, initially transmitting messages over a distance of 1 mile but later improved it to 8000 miles in 1902. He also made the first successful transatlantic radio transmission. a. Francis Blake b. Ernst Alexanderson c. KF Braun d. Guglielmo Marconi

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

23. The Father of Quantum Theory. He introduced the revolutionary idea that the energy emitted by an oscillator could take only on discrete values or quanta a. Guglielmo Marconi b. John Fleming c. Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck d. Christian Hulsmeyer 24. Who developed the CRT capable of tracing curves on phosphor screen? a. John Fleming b. Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck c. KF Braun d. Christian Hulsmeyer

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

25. He invented the superheterodyne receiver a. Edwin Armstrong b. Alec Reeves c. Veldemar Poulsen d. Boris Rosing 26. He developed a simple radio echo device to prevent ship collisions. He was considered as the forerunner of RADAR a. Veldemar Poulsen b. Christian Hulsmeyer c. Boris Rosing d. Reginald Fessenden

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

27. Who invented the Pulse Code Modulator for digital encoding of PCM signals a. Alec Reeves b. Edwin Armstrong c. Boris Rosing d. Reginald Fessenden 28. He was the one who developed the mathematical solution to a complex repetitive waveform a. Carson b. P. H. Smith c. J. Fourier d. Y. Uda

Self Test

Principles of Communications Choose the letter which answer each question.

29. The volume of transaction proceed in a specific unit of time a. Response time b. Throughout c. Availability d. Reliability 30. ____________ is a device that measures the internal open circuit voltage of an equivalent noise generator having an impedance of 600 ohms and delivering noise power to a 600 ohms load. a. Phosphometer b. Barometer c. Reflectometer d. Voltmeter

MODULATION
mixing of low frequency signals modulating signal) with high frequency signals (carrier signal)

process by which some characteristic of a high frequency sine wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the signal

imposition of information on a given signal

modification of one signal by another signal

Types of Modulation
a. According to carrier used
1. Continuous Wave carrier is a sinusoid 1. Pulse carrier is a train of pulses (discrete)

Types of Modulation
a. According to the method used
1. Analog modulated parameter is made proportional to the modulating signal 2. Digital change the form of a given signal

Reasons for Modulation

1. To reduce the antenna lengths
2. To reduce noise / interference 3. For frequency assignments 4. For multiplexing 5. To overcome equipment limitations

Analog Modulation
1. Amplitude Modulation

2. Angle Modulation a. Frequency Modulation

b. Phase Modulation

Digital Modulation
1. Pulse Code Modulation

2. Delta Modulation

Consider any sinusoid (t)= V sin (t + )

= instantaneous amplitude V = peak amplitude = 2f; angular frequency t = instantaneous time = phase angle in radians
amplitude

phase
t = 1/f

NOTE
Any type of modulation should be reversible (get back to the original signal) by process of demodulation.

Basic Emission Classification

First Symbol Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
Emission of unmodulated carrier Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude -> Double sideband -> Single sideband, full carrier -> Single sideband, reduced or variable level carrier -> Single sideband, suppressed carrier -> Independent sideband A H R J B N

-> Vestigial sideband

Emission in which the main carrier is angled modulated -> Frequency Modulation -> Phase Modulation

F G

First Symbol Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier

Emission in which the main carrier is angled and amplitude modulated simultaneously
Emission of pulses -> Sequence of unmodulated pulses -> Sequence of pulses ->> Modulated in amplitude K P

->> Modulated in width/duration

->> Modulated in position/phase ->> The carrier is angle modulated during the period of the pulse ->> Combination of the foregoing or is produced by other means Cases not covered above or combination of two or more of the following modes: amplitude, angle, angle and phase

L
M Q V W

Cases otherwise not covered

Second Symbol Nature of the Signals Modulating the Main Carrier

No modulating signal Digitally keyed carrier Digitally keyed tone Analog Multichannel digital Multichannel analog Combination Cases not otherwise covered 0 1 2 3 7 8 9 X

Third Symbol Type of Information to be Transmitted

No information transmitted Telegraphy for aural reception
Telegraphy for automatic reception Facsimile Data transmission, telemetry, telecommand Telephony (including sound broadcasting) Television (video ) Combination of the above Cases otherwise not covered

N A
B C D E F W X

Fourth Symbol Details of Signals

Two condition code with elements of differing numbers and/or durations
Two condition code with elements of the same number and duration without error correction Two condition code with elements of the same number and duration with error correction Four condition code in which each condition represents a signal element Multicondition code in which each condition represents a signal element Multicondition code in which each condition or combination of conditions represents a character

Fourth Symbol Details of Signals

Sound of broadcasting quality (monophonic)
Sound of broadcasting quality (stereophonic or quadraphonic)

G
H

Sound of commercial quality Sound of commercial quality with the use of frequency inversion or band splitting Sound of commercial quality with separate frequency modulated signals to control the levels of demodulated signal Monochrome

J K

Color
Combination of the above Cases not otherwise covered

N
W X

Fifth Symbol Nature of Multiplexing

None
Code division multiplex Frequency division multiplex

N
C F

Time division multiplex

Combination of frequency division multiplex and time division multiplex

T
W

Other types of multiplexing

AMPLITUDE MODULATION
A system of modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage.

Information or modulating signal (m)

AM modulator
Carrier ( c )

Output (AM)

Carrier voltage is made proportional to the instantaneous modulating signal

General Equation of the AM wave

let the carrier voltage be given by

c(t) = Vc sin c t
and the modulating voltage be given by

m(t) = Vm sin m t
then the amplitude resulting from modulation is A = Vc + m (t) = Vc + Vm sin m t Since and Vm = Vc ma, then

Therefore A = Vc + Vc ma sin m t A = Vc (1 + ma sin m t ) The voltage of the resulting AM wave envelope at any instant is

AM(t) = A sin c t

General Form
AM(t) = Vc (1 + ma sin m t) sin c t

Standard Form
AM(t) = Vc sin c t + cos (c - m) t + cos (c + m) t

carrier

lower sideband LSB

upper sideband USB

where Vc = carrier signal peak voltage c = 2 fc = carrier signal angular frequency m = 2 fm = modulating signal angular frequency t = instantaneous time ma = modulation index

Frequency Domain of Standard AM

graph of relative amplitude of signal against frequency

Time Domain of Standard AM

AM(t) LSB

carrier USB

fc - fm

fc

fc + fm

Envelope
the curve produced by joining the tips of the individual RF cycles of the AM waveform

envelope

AM Modulation Index (ma)

Modulation index (modulation factor, modulation coefficient, degree of modulation, depth of modulation)

where ; 0 < ma < 1

Percent Modulation (Ma) modulation index expressed as a percentage Ma = ma x 100%

Degrees of Modulation

1. Ma < 100% undermodulation

2. Ma = 100% modulation

3. Ma > 100% overmodulation

Example
A modulated wave has a peak value of 2 volts. The carrier wave equation for the voltage is 1.2 sin(20t + 15). Determine whether the signal is overmodulated or not.

Given Vm = 2 V Vc = 1.2 V Solution

ma = 1.67 (overmodulated)

Power Content of an AM Signal PT = PC + PUSB + PLSB

PT = PC NOTE PUSB = PLSB where PUSB = PLSB = PSBT =

NOTE
PC is constant value before and after modulation. PT is the total power after modulation and is dependent on the modulation index. The higher the modulation index, the higher the output power.

Example
A transmitter supplies 8 kW to the antenna when unmodulated. Determine the total power radiated when modulated to 30%. Given Pc = 8 kW ma = 0.3 Solution

PT = 8.36 kW

Current and Voltage Relationships

where
IC = unmodulated carrier IT = total or modulated current VC = unmodulated carrier voltage V T = total or modulated voltage ma = modulation index

Example
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only the carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Find the percentage modulation.

Given
IC = 8 A IT = 8.93 A

Solution

ma = 0.701

Ma = 70.1%

Simultaneous Modulation modulation by several carrier

where
V T = total modulated voltage IT = total modulated current maT = effective total modulation index

Example
A 360 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by 2 audio waves with modulation percentage of 55 and 65, respectively. What is the total sideband power radiated?

Given
PC = 360 W Ma1 = 55% Ma2 = 65%

Solution

PSBT = 130.5 W

Bandwidth Formula for AM

BW = 2 x fm (single carrier modulation) (simultaneous modulation)

BW = 2 x fmhighest

Effiency

Percentage Power Saving

NOTE
Efficiency and power saving depends on the type of transmission but the total transmitted power is computed on the basis of double sideband full carrier.

Example
How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a 100 kHz bandwidth if the highest modulating frequency is 5 kHz?

Given BW = 100 kHz fmhighest = 5 kHz Solution BW = 2 x fmhighest BW = 2 x 5 kHz BW = 10 kHz 10 stations

Types of AM Transmission
1. A3E Standard AM (DSBFC) - Double Sideband Full Carrier - used for broadcasting

Frequency Domain

2. A3J DSBSC - Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

3. H3E SSBFC - Single Sideband Full Carrier - could be used as a compatible AM broadcasting system with A3E receivers 4. J3E SSBSC - Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier - The carrier is suppressed by at least 45 dB in the transmitter

Types of AM Transmission 5. R3E SSBRC - Single Sideband Reduced Carrier - An attenuated carrier is reinserted into the SSB signal to facilitate receiving tuning and demodulation. 6. B8E Independent Sideband Emission - Two independent sidebands, with a carrier that is most commonly attenuated or suppressed. - Used for HF point to point radiotelephony in which more than one channel is required. 7. C3F Vestigial Sideband - A system in which a vestige, i.e., a trace, of the unwanted sideband is transmitted usually with a full carrier. - Used for video transmissions in all the worlds various TV systems to conserve bandwidth. 8. Lincompex (for PCM) - Linked Compressor and Expander - Basically a system in which all audio frequencies above 2.7 kHz are filtered out to allow the presence of a control tone of 2.9 kHz of 120 Hz.

Frequency Domain

NOTE
a) Information is present only in the sidebands. b) During 100% modulation, 2/3 of the total power is wasted in the carrier. The carrier power percentage is 33.33% of the transmitted AM. c) Information on the LSB is the same as the information on the USB.

Single Sideband Modulation

single sideband suppressed carrier (J3E) a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier has been cancelled out with the balanced modulator and one of the sidebands has been removed by using one of the three different methods.

Example
An AM transmitter is rated 100 W at 100% modulation. How much is required for the carrier? What is the power required for the audio signal?

Given PT = 100 W Ma = 100% Solution PSBT = PT PC

PSBT = 33.33 W

PC = 66.67 W

1. Filter Method
the simplest system the unwanted sideband is removed, actually heavily attenuated by a filter the filter maybe LC, crystal, ceramic or mechanical, depending on the carrier frequency and other requirements
Crystal oscillator SSB out to linear amplifier

Buffer

Balanced modulator

Sideband suppression filter

Balanced mixer

AF in

Audio amplifier

Filter for other sideband

Crystal oscillator or synthesizer

2. Phase Shift Method

avoids filters and some of their inherent disadvantages makes use of two balanced modulators and two phase shifting networks

Balanced modulator M1
AF in

Audio amplifier

Carrier 90 phase shifter

Carrier source AF 90 phase shifter Balanced modulator M2

SSB out to linear amplifier Adder

3. Third or Weaver Method

developed by Weaver has the advantages of the phase- shift method, such as its ability to generate SSB at any frequency and use low audio frequencies, without the associated disadvantage of an AF phase shift network required to operate over a large range of audio frequencies.
Balanced modulator M1

Low pass filter

Balanced modulator M2

2cos c t
90 phase shifter

2cos c t
90 phase shifter

sin c t

2sin c t
A AF carrier generator RF carrier generator

2sin c t
Adder

D
SSB out

AF in

Balanced modulator M3

Low pass filter

Balanced modulator M4

Product Detector a means of single sideband detection mixing of high frequency component and an incoming modulated signal on a multiplier circuit followed by a low pass filter Advantages of SSB 1. power saving 2. less bandwidth 3. less noise 4. less fading

Independent Sideband (ISB) Systems multiplex techniques used for high density point to point communications simultaneously convey a totally different transmission, to the extent that the upper sideband could be used for telephony while the lower sideband carries telegraphy. It consist of two SSB channels added together to form two sidebands around reduced carrier.

Standard AM Transmitter
Transmitter Requirements
1. frequency accuracy and stability 2. frequency agility 3. special purity (absence of spurious signals) 4. power output rating 5. efficiency 6. modulation fidelity

AM Transmitter Functional Block Diagram

Antenna

High level Modulation

Low level modulation

RF crystal oscillator

Class A RF buffer amplifier

Class C RF power amplifier

Class C RF output amplifier

Class B RF linear power amplifier

AF AF in processing and filtering

AF pre amplifier

AF Class B power amplifier

Modulator (AF Class B output amplier)

Crystal Oscillator It provides a stable carrier frequency at low power. Buffer Amplifier A low gain, high input impedance amplifier that isolates the crystal oscillator to improve its ability. Class C RF Power Amplifier (Driver)

Provide enough gain to sufficiently drive the modulated amplifier.

Class C RF Output Amplifier Termed as the modulated amplifier or the RF output amplifier. This is the output stage for high level systems. Linear Power Amplifier

Amplifier which provides linear power amplification of the amplitude modulated output signal from the Class C modulated power amplifier (used for low level modulation ).

AF Processing and Filtering AF is processed / filtered so as to occupy the correct bandwidth and compressed somewhat to reduce the ratio of maximum to minimum amplitude. AF Preamplifier Boost the AF signal in order to provide enough gain sufficiently to drive the modulator. Modulator Output is mixed with the carrier to generate the AM signal.

Sample Board Problems

1. Modulation is used to a. increase the carrier power b. reduce the bandwidth used c. allow the use of practical antennas d. shorten the transmission channel 2. Modulation is done at a. the transmitter b. the receiver c. the channel d. the antenna

Sample Board Problems

3. In an AM wave, useful power is carried by a. the sidebands b. the carrier c. both d. either 4. Which of these could not be used to remove the unwanted sideband in SSB? a. Filter Method b. Phase Shift Method c. Third Method d. Balanced Modulator

Sample Board Problems

5. In amplitude modulation, the ____________ of the carrier is varied according to the strength of the signal. a. amplitude b. phase c. frequency d. period 6. The output of a balanced modulator is a. USB and LSB b. LSB c. USB d. carrier

Sample Board Problems

7. A 900 kHz carrier is amplitude modulated with 4000 Hz audio tone. The lower and upper sideband frequencies are a. 450 and 1800 kHz b. 800 and 1000 kHz c.896 and 904 kHz d. 4000 and 8000 kHz 8. The HF band covers the frequency range a. 3 30 MHz b. 30 300 MHz c. 30 300 kHz d. 300 kHz 3 MHz

Sample Board Problems

9. In amplitude modulation, if the peak signal is 0.5 volt and the carrier peak is 1 volt, the depth of modulation is a. 25% b. 50% c. 75% d. 78.5% 10. In a communications system, noise is most likely to affect the signal at the a. transmitter b. channel c. information source d. destination

Sample Board Problems

11. Another term for Amplitude Modulation a. DSBSC b. SSBSC c. DSBFC d. SSBFC 12. The bandwidth of an AM transmitter if the carrier frequency is 1000 kHz and the modulation frequency varies from 1 kHz to 10 kHz is a. 2000 kHz b. 2 kHz c. 20 kHz d. 20.1 kHz

Sample Board Problems

13. If the modulation index of an AM wave is increased from 0 to 1, the transmitter power will be a. unchanged b. increased by 50% c. increased by 100% d. decreased by 50% 14. When the modulation index of an AM amplifier is 1, the amplitude of the carrier is ____________ the amplitude of the modulating signal. a. greater than b. equal to c. less than d. double

Sample Board Problems

15. Overmodulation results in ____________. a. weakening of the signal b. excessive carrier power c. distortion d. either a or b 16. If the modulation index of an AM amplifier is 0.80, the % modulation is equal to a. 20% b. 80% c. 0.80 d. 0.20

Sample Board Problems

17.

Both frequency modulation. a. phase b. amplitude c. digital d. angle

and

phase

modulation

utilize

____________

18. The maximum percentage modulation without distortion in an amplitude modulation system is a. 20% b. 50% c. 110% d. 100%

Sample Board Problems

19. A form of AM in which the carrier is transmitted at full power, but only one of the sidebands is transmitted. a. SSBFC b. SSBSC c. DSBFC d. DSBSC 20. Emission with only one sideband transmission a. A3E b. J3E c. 11BE d. H3E

FREQUENCY MODULATION
type of angle modulation wherein the frequency of the carrier is varied relative to the amplitude of modulating frequency (signal) General Equation of the FM Wave FM (t) = Vc sin (c t + mf sin m t )

where
Vc = carrier signal peak voltage c = 2fc = carrier signal angular frequency m = 2fm = modulating signal angular frequency t = instantaneous time mf = modulation index

Frequency Domain of Standard FM

FM(t)
fc

fc - nfm

fc + nfm

Time Domain of Standard FM

Frequency Deviation ()
the amount of change in carrier frequency produced by modulating signal the maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal

= fmax - fc = fc - fmin
where

= fmax + fc CS
= fc - fmin

fc = carrier frequency fmax = maximum frequency change of the carrier fmin = minimum frequency change of the carrier

CS (Carrier Swing)

NOTE
The intelligence amplitude determines the a mount of carrier frequency deviation. The intelligence frequency determines the rate of carrier frequency deviation. Em = k Em k=

Example
Find the carrier and modulating frequencies , the modulation index and the maximum deviation of the FM wave represented by the voltage equation FM(t) = 12 sin (6 x 108 + 5 sin 1250t). What power will this FM wave dissipate in a 10 resistor?

Given
FM(t) = 12 sin (6 x 108 + 5 sin 1250t)

Solution c = 6 x 108

m = 1250

fc = 95. 49 MHz mf = 5

fc = 198.94 Hz

Solution = mf fm = (5 x 198.94)
= 994.72 Hz

P = 7.2 W

Carrier Swing the total variation in frequency of the carrier Modulation Index

NOTE
The modulation index determines the number of significant sidebands in an FM signal. The modulation index for FM is directly proportional to the modulating voltage and at the same time inversely proportional to the modulating signal frequency.

Example
A modulation frequency range from 30 to 15000 Hz is permitted in an FM system, together with a maximum deviation of 50 kHz. What will be the minimum and maximum possible values of modulation index in the system.

Given

fm = 30 15000 Hz max = 50 kHz Solution

mf max = 1666.67

mf min = 3.33

Deviation Ratio The ratio of the maximum permissible frequency deviation to the maximum permissible modulating frequency.

Percentage of Modulation

Wideband FM vs. Narrowband FM Descriptions Applications Wideband FM FM broadcast and entertainment Narrowband FM Mobile communications

Modulation index (mf ) Maximum deviation (max) Modulating frequency (fm)

5 2500
75 kHz

1
5 kHz

30 Hz 15 kHz

3 kHz (max)

Example
For an FM signal in the 88 108 MHz broadcast band with a frequency deviation of 15 kHz, determine the percent modulation.

Given

fm = 88 108 Mhz max = 15 kHz

Solution

mf = 20%

Frequency Spectrum of the FM Wave FM = J0 (mf ) sin c t + J1 (mf ) [ sin (c + m)t sin (c - m)t ]

amplitude of the carrier signal

sidebands with frequencies

NOTE
For a single fm , you can produce an infinite number of sidebands, in pairs, but most of them would be of negligible amounts.

Transmitted Power In FM, PT is constant. NOTE

In FM, the total transmitted power always remains constant, but with increased depth of modulation the required bandwidth is increased.

Bandwidth Formulas for FM a. Theoretical BW for FM BW = 2 x fm x no. of highest needed sideband b. Approximate BW BW = 2(fm + ) c. NBFM BW 2fm d. WBFM BW 2
John Carsons Formula

Example
What is the bandwidth of a narrowband FM signal generated by a 2 kHz audio signal and a 110 MHz FM carrier?

Modulation Index (Mf ) 1 2

Sidebands or J coefficients 3 4

3 4 5
Given

6 7 8

fm = 2 kHz fc = 110 MHz

Solution B = 2 x fm x no. of highest needed sideband B = 2 x 3 kHz x 7 B = 42 kHz

NOTE
negligible negligible

The theoretical bandwidth needed in FM is infinite.

Advantages of FM over AM 1.The amplitude of the FM carrier remains constant. 2. Increase in the S/N ratio (less noise) 3. It is possible to reduce noise still further by increasing deviation and fitting with amplitude limiters. 4. Less adjacent channel interference because there are guard bands between FM stations provided by the FCC and CCIR. 5. It is possible to operate several independent transmitters on the same frequency with considerably less interference.

Disadvantages of FM 1. A much wider channel is required by FM, 7 to 15 times as large as that needed by AM. 2. FM transmitting and receiving equipment tends to be more complex, particularly for modulation and demodulation, therefore more expensive. 3. Since reception is limited to line of sight, the area of reception for FM is much smaller than AM.

Capture Effect The inherent ability of FM to minimize the effect of undesired signals (noise), also applies to the reception of a strongest signal or stations and minimizing other signals operating on the same frequency.

Block Diagram of an FM Transmitter

RF oscillator

Exciter (the means of providing an FM RF signal )

Power amplifier

Audio amplifier

Pre-emphasis network

Pre -emphasis The boosting of the higher modulating frequencies at the transmitter, in accordance with the pre arranged curve to improve noise immunity at FM and prevent the higher frequency component of the transmitted intelligence being degraded.

De -emphasis

Reducing the amplitude of the higher modulating frequencies at the receiver to the same amount as it was before the pre emphasis circuit.
NOTE
The pre emphasis and de emphasis networks have a time constant of 75 s (150 s for Europe , 25 s for Dolby) and a cut off frequency of 2122 Hz.

NOTE
If two modulating signals have the same initial amplitude and one of them is pre emphasized to twice this amplitude, whereas the other is unaffected, being at a much lower frequency , then the receiver will naturally have to de emphasize the first signal by a factor of 2 to ensure that both signals have the same amplitude in the output of the receiver.

Forms of Interference in FM
1. Image Frequency effect of two stations being received simultaneously 2. Co channel Interference true to mobile receivers; when travelling from one transmitter toward another. This minimizes by capture effect.

3. Adjacent Channel Interference created between tuning two adjacent stations due the imperfection of filter circuits like channel 2 and 3.

Stereophonic FM Multiplex System (1961)

modulation system in which two channel system with left channel and a right channel transmitted simultaneously and independently NOTE
Stereophonic uses 38 kHz subcarrier from a pilot carrier of 19 kHz to produce sum and difference of the two channels. Also, a 67 kHz subsidiary communications authorization (SCA) is added for optional transmission in FM Optional SCA broadcasting.
transmission

sum channel (L + R)

sub carrier

difference channel (L - R)

0
audio

15

19 23

38
DSBSC AM

53

59.5

67
FM

74.5

Generation of FM Signals
A. Direct Method

Varying the frequency of the carrier oscillator directly

1. Reactance Modulator
Reactance of the capacitive or inductive components of the tank circuit vary in direct relationship to the audio signal which causes the oscillator frequency to vary thereby directly producing AM.

 The equivalent capacitance depends on the device transconductance. The capacitance can be originally adjusted to any value, within reason, by varying the components R and C

Ceq = gm RC
Since

The expression gmRC has the correct dimensions of capacitance; R, measured in ohms, and gm measured in siemens (S). Therefore

Example
Determine the value of the capacitive reactance obtainable from a reactance FET whose gm is 12 millisiemens (12 mS). Assume that the gate to source resistance is 1/9 of the reactance of the gate to drain capacitor and that frequency is 5 MHz.

Given
gm = 12 mS R = 1/9 Xc

Xc = 9R

Solution

Xc eq = 750

2. Varactor Diode Modulator Uses a varactor (voltage variable capacitor) diode that when reversed biased exhibits a junction capacitance that varies inversely with the amount of reverse voltage.

B. Indirect Method

Armstrong Method The modulating signal is modulated using balanced modulator then fed to a summing device together with a crystal that is shifted 90. Wideband FM then obtain by successive frequency multiplication of the output.

high fc and mf Crystal oscillator

carrier only
FM wave(very low fc and mf )

medium fc and low mf

low fc and mf

high fc and mf

Buffer

Combining network sidebands only

1st group of multipliers

Mixer

2nd group of multipliers

Class C power amplifiers

90 Phase shifter

Balanced Modulator equalized audio Audio

Crystal oscillator

carrier at equalizer 90

Phase Modulation
modulation wherein the phase of the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal

General Equation of the PM Wave

PM(t) = Vc sin(c t + mp sin m t)

where
mp = kpVm mp = modulation index kp = proportionality constant Under identical conditions: mp = mf but when fm is changed mp k mf changed

Example
The equation of an angle modulated wave is (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 2000t). Calculate the maximum deviation. Rewrite this equation if the modulating frequency is halved, but all else remains constant, assuming that the wave is: a. frequency modulated b. phase modulated

Given
PM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 2000t)

Solution

fm = 318.31 Hz

= 6.37 kHz

Solution
a. frequency modulated

FM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 40 sin 1000t)

b. phase modulated

PM (t) = 15 sin (3x108t + 20 sin 1000t)

Frequency Modulation vs. Phase Modulation

Comparisons deviation () Phase Modulation Frequency Modulation

p is proportional to f is proportional to Vm, independent on Vm fm mp is proportional to Vm mf is proportional to Vm and inversely proportional to fm mf will increase as fm is reduced, vice versa

modulation index

when fm is changed

mp will remain constant

Sample Board Problems

1. Which of the is not an advantage of FM over AM. a. better noise immunity b. lower bandwidth required c. transmitted power is useful d. less modulating power 2. In an FM Stereo Multiplex transmission , the a. sum signal modulates the 19 kHz subcarrier b. difference signal modulates the 67 kHz subcarrier c. difference signal modulates the 38 kHz subcarrier d. difference signal modulates the 19 kHz subcarrier

Sample Board Problems

3. When modulating frequency is doubled, the modulation index is halved, and the modulating voltage remains constant, the modulation system is a. AM b. PAM c. FM d. PM 4. Pre emphasis and de emphasis are used in the FM stereo multiplex system to a. SWR b. power ratio c. S/N d. CMMR

Sample Board Problems

5. The commercial FM radio broadcast band is a. 535 1605 kHz b. 27 29 kHz c. 88 108 MHz d. 300 3000 MHz 6. For an FM broadcast station, the maximum deviation produced by audio modulation is 45 kHz. The percent modulation is ____________. a. 10 b. 45 c. 60 d. 100

Sample Board Problems

7. The modulation index of an FM signal is one half the original index if the modulating frequency is a. doubled b. halved c. increased d. decreased 8. An FM signal with a modulation index, mf is passed through a frequency tripler. The wave in the output of the tripler will have a modulation index of a. mf /3 b. mf c. 3mf d. 9mf

Sample Board Problems

9. Which of the following is an indirect method of generating FM? a. Reactance FET Modulator b. Varactor Diode Modulator c. Armstrong Modulator d. Reactance BJT Modulator 10. What is the deviation ratio for the station in the commercial FM broadcast band? a. 5.5 b. 5 c. 4 d. 6

Sample Board Problems

11. What is the frequency deviation necessary for 80% modulation in the FM broadcast? a. 75 kHz b. 75 MHz c. 60 kHz d. 60 MHz 12. In frequency modulation, noise components which affect the amplitude can be eliminated using a. an oscillator b. an integrator c. an FM limiter circuit d. differentiator

Sample Board Problems

13. In FM, if a carrier is modulated by a single frequency, the number of SBs produced is a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. greater than 3 14. The maximum frequency deviation of a standard FM radio broadcast station is a. 25 kHz b. 40 kHz c. 75 kHz d. 200 kHz

Sample Board Problems

15. The modulation index of an FM signal having a carrier swing of 100 kHz when the modulating signal has a frequency of 2 kHz is a. 75 kHz b. 25 kHz c. 50 kHz d. 0.50 kHz 16. In FM stereophonic transmission standards, the suppressed subcarrier frequency is a. 19 kHz b. 67 kHz c. 38 kHz d. 69 kHz

Sample Board Problems

17. Maximum FM broadcast deviation is 75 kHz and maximum modulating frequency is 15 kHz. The maximum bandwidth requirement is a. 180 kHz b. 160kHz c. 140 kHz d. 90 kHz 18. An FM signal with a deviation is passed through a mixer, and has its frequency reduced fivefold. The deviation in the output of the mixer is a. 5 b. indeterminate c. /5 d.

Sample Board Problems

19. The permissible range in maximum modulating index for commercial FM that has 30 Hz to 15 kHz modulating frequencies is a. 5 and 2500 b. 50 and 250 c. 50 and 2500 d. 5 and 50 20. The carrier swing necessary to provide 80% modulation in the FM broadcast band is a. 150 kHz b. 120 kHz c. 75 kHz d. 60 kHz

Demodulation
the process by which the modulating signal is recovered from the modulated carrier found in receivers

Functions of a Receiver
1. selects the desired signal 2. amplifies 3. demodulates / detects 4. displays

Standard AM Receivers
1. Tuned Radio Frequency 2. Superheterodyne Receiver

Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

a simple logical receiver simplicity and high sensitivity aligned at broadcast frequencies 535 1640 Hz
Power amplifier

1st RF amplifier

2nd RF amplifier

AM detector

AF amplifier

ganged

RF Amplifier
It amplifies weak signal from the antenna. It has a variable resistor that controls the RF gain and sensitivity.

Detector
It provides rectification and detection for modulated signals.

AF Amplifier
Volume controlled amplifier that raises the power level of the audio (AF) signal to a value sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the receiver.

NOTE
RF stage provides greater gain, prevention of re radiation of the local oscillator, improved rejection of adjacent unwanted signals and better coupling of antenna with the receiver.

Problems in TRF Receivers

1. instability 2. insufficient adjacent frequency rejection 3. bandwidth radiations

AM Superheterodyne Receiver
RF amplifier

fo

Mixer

fIF fsi

1st IF amplifier

2nd IF amplifier

AM detector

AF amplifier

fs
Crystal oscillator

ganged

RF Amplifier Amplifies the weak RF signal received from the antenna. Selectivity of the receiver depends on this section.

NOTE
The RF section provides discrimination or selectivity against image and intermediate frequency signals, provide an efficient coupling between the antenna and the first stage of the RF amplifier.

Local Oscillator A crystal oscillator whose frequency beats with the incoming signal to produce the correct intermediate frequency. Mixer (First Detector) Combines the incoming RF signal and the signal from the oscillator, and produces two original frequencies, their sum and differences, and harmonics. It produces desired intermediate frequency (IF). 1st IF Amplifier Tuned to 455 kHz (IF of AM), amplifies it and rejects the remaining output frequencies

2nd IF Amplifier Further amplification and selectivity of the IF signal. Most of the gain (sensitivity) of the receiver are achieved on the IF amplifiers.

AM Detector (2nd Detector) It demodulates the IF signal and recovers or extracts the original audio signal.

AF Amplifier It raises the power level of the audio signal; to a value sufficient to drive the loudspeaker of the receiver.

FM Superheterodyne Receiver

RF amplifier and preselector

Mixer

IF amplifier (10.7 MHz)

Limiter

Detector

De-emphasis network

Audio amplifier

Local oscillator

Demodulation
The process of shifting the spectrum back to the original baseband frequency range and reconstructing the original form. Also known as detection.

Sensitivity
Ability to amplify weak signals

Selectivity
Ability to reject unwanted signals(adjacent)

Image Rejection Ratio ()

Provided by tuned circuits to block fsi The ratio of the gain at desired frequency (fs) to the gain of image frequency signal (fsi)
where
Q = quality factor provided by tuned circuits to block fsi fs = signal frequency fo = oscillator frequency fIF = intermediate frequency fsi = image frequency signal

NOTE fsi = fs + 2fIF fsi = fo + fIF

; the higher the fIF, the better the image rejection

Example
In a broadcast superheterodyne receiver having loaded Q of 100 in the antenna coupling circuit. If fIF is 455 kHz. Calculate the image frequency and its rejection ratio of 1000 kHz.

Given
Q = 100 fIF = 455 kHz fs = 1000 kHz

Solution
fs = fs + 2fIF = 1000 kHz + 2(455 kHz)

fsi = 1910 kHz

= 138.65

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

1. Modulation means ____________. a. Varying of some parameters of a carrier such as its amplitude to transmit information b. Transmit pulses in DC form of a copper wire c. Varying information d. Utilization of a single transmission channel 2. The modulation system used for telegraphy is ____________. a. Single tone modulation b. Two tone modulation c. Frequency shift keying d. Pulse code modulation

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

3. A process that occurs in the transmitter. a. Demodulation b. Modulation c. Mixing d. Beating 4. A process that occurs in the receiver a. Beating b. Modulation c. Mixing d. Demodulation

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

5. What is the amount of carrier swing necessary to produce an 80% modulation for the audio portion of the TV band? a. 40 kHz b. 50 kHz c. 20 kHz d. 25 kHz 6. The letter number designation B8E is a form of modulation is also known as ____________? a. Pilot carrier system b. Independent sideband emission c. LINCOMPEX d. Vestigial sideband transmission

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

7. Which symbol indicates that only one sideband is transmitted? a. A3E b. B8E c. C3F d. H3E 8. Refers to an emission designation for facsimile a. J3E and F4E b. A3J and A4E c. A3E and F3C d. R3E and A3E

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

9. Which of the following refers to a double sideband full carrier? a. A3E b. A3J c. F3 d. R3A 10. What is emission of F3F? a. Facsimile b. Modulated CW c. RTTY d. Television

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

11. In a filter system of J3E, how many circuits must be balanced? a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3 12. Independent sideband emission a. H3E b. R3E c. J3E d. B8E

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

13. Type of emission produced when an amplitude modulated transmitter is modulated by a television signal. a. F3F b. A3C c. F3C d. A3F 14. The output of a balanced modulator is a. AM b. FM c. SSB d. DSB

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

15. What is the emission designation for FM telephony? a. F3E b. G3E c. J3E d. H3E 16. What is the maximum power of output of an A3E emission? a. 4 W b. 10 W c. 3 kW d. 10 kW

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

17. If the modulation index of an AM wave is doubled, the antenna current is doubled, the AM system being used is ____________. a. A5C b. A3J c. A3H d. A3 18. What is the power saving in J3E system at 100% modulation? a. 33% b. 100% c. 83.3% d. 66.67%

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

19. What is the letter number designation for an FM facsimile? a. F3E b. F3C c. A3E d. C3C 20. Which symbol indicates that only one sideband is transmitted? a. A3E b. B8E c. C3F d. H3E

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

21.Vestigial sideband emission a. C3F b. R3E c. J3E d. B8E 22. The third symbol radio emission which represent telephone transmission including sound broadcasting. a. W b. F c. C d. E

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

23. What is the shape of a trapezoidal pattern at 100% modulation? a. Circle b. Square c. Triangle d. Rectangle 24. ____________ is the maximum sideband suppression using filter system? a. 50 dB b. 60 dB c. 40 dB d. 30 dB

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

25. Which test instruments displays the carrier and the sidebands amplitude with frequency to frequency? a. Oscilloscope b. Spectrum Analyzer c. Frequency Analyzer d. Amplitude Analyzer 26. In what type of transmitters is balanced modulators used? a. SSB b. A3E c. F3E d. FM

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

27. What is emission C3F? a. Facsimile b. Modulated CW c. RTTY d. Television 28. Which one of the following emission transmits the lower sideband and half of the upper sideband? a. A5C b. J3E c. A3J d. A3H

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

29. Single sideband reduced carrier emission type. a. H3E b. R3E c. J3E d. B8E 30. Phase modulation type. a. F3E b. F3C c. F3F d. G3E

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

31. A type of emission is produced when an amplitude modulated transmitter is modulated by a facsimile signal. a. A3F b. F3F c. A3C d. F3C 32. Double sideband full carrier emission type. a. A3J b. H3E c. R3A d. A3E

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

33. What type of emission is frequency modulation? a. F3E b. G3E c. A3E d. B3E 34. Standard way of designating AM a. A3E b. B3E c. AHE d. C3F

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

35. If the input to a detector stage is an amplitude modulated (A3E) IF signal then the output from the stage is a. A lower frequency carrier b. The audio voice information c. A Morse code signal d. The upper of lower signal sidebands 36. What is the major advantage of FM over AM? a. High frequency b. No interference c. Simple circuits d. Less noise

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

37. What percent of the radiated power is in the sidebands with 50% sinusoidal modulation (AM)? a. 11% b. 16.67% c. 33% d. 20% 38. The carrier in an AM transmitter is the a. Transmitters output signal when the modulation is zero b. Transmitters output signal when the modulation is present c. Output signal from the crystal oscillator d. RMS value of the AM signal

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

39. Two AM transmitting antennas are close together. As a result the two modulated signals are mixed on the final RF stage of both transmitters. What is the resultant effect on the other station? a. Harmonic interference b. Intermodulation interference c. Spurious interference d. Cross modulation interference 40. The purpose why an RF amplifier is operated under linear class B conditions (as opposed to class C ) is to a. Generate even only harmonics b. Generate even only odd harmonics c. Increase the efficiency d. Amplify an AM signal

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

41. The type of emission that suffer most from selective fading a. CW and SSB b. SSB and TV c. FM and double sideband FM d. AATV and CW 42. A receive selectivity of 10 kHz in the IF circuitry is optimum for what type of signals? a. AB voice b. Facsimile c. FM d. Double sideband AM

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

43. The negative half of the AM wave is supplied by a/an ____________ in a diode modulator. a. Tuned circuit b. Transformer c. Capacitor d. Inductor 44. If the percentage modulation of an AM amplifier is 88% and the modulating signal is 1 volt, the carrier has an amplitude of ____________. a. 1.14 volts b. 0.88 volts c. 1.88 volts d. 0.12 volts

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

45. Mixer is also known as ____________. a. Modulator b. Suppressor c. Converter d. Beater 46. 100% modulation in AM means a corresponding in total power by ___________. a. 25% b. 75% c. 100% d. 50%

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

47. Three audio waves with 100, 200 and 300 volts amplitude respectively, simultaneously modulate a 450 volts carrier. What is the total percent of the modulation of the AM wave? a. 69% b. 115.5% c. 50% d. 83% 48. For ____________ percent modulation in AM, the modulation envelope has a peak value double the unmodulated carrier level. a. 50 b. 66.67 c. 100 d. 83.3

Self Test

Modulation Choose the letter which answer each question.

49. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 6.2 A when unmodulated and rises to 6.7 A when modulated. What is the percent modulation? a. 57.9% b. 67.5% c. 51% d. 42.8% 50. One of the following can produce AM a. Having the carrier value a resistance b. Having the modulating signal vary a capacitance c. Vary the carrier frequency d. Vary the gain of an amplifier