SAMPLE

AND SAMPLING
TERMINOLOGY
 Sample
• A subset, or some part, of a larger
whole.
• Larger whole could be anything –
bucket of water, a bag of sugar, a
group of organizations, a group of
students, a group of customers, a
group of mid-level managers.
Why sample?
1. Saves cost, labor, and time
• To go for sample study is
pragmatic.
• In case population is extremely
small, then go for total study.
Census another word – total
enumeration
2. Quality Management
• Professional fieldworkers – a scarce
commodity.
• Instead of doing on large population
with less qualified staff, do a sample
study with quality fieldworkers.
• Easier to manage small group –
quality control. Training,
supervision, record keeping.
3. Accurate and Reliable Results
• Properly selected samples are accurate.
• Homogeneous population – only a small
sample needed. Likely to be
representative. Blood samples.
• Large pop. More non-sampling errors –
interviewer mistakes, tabulation errors.
Lo quality supervision.
4. No Alternative but Sampling
• For quality control testing may
require the destruction of the items
being tested e. g. Firecrackers,
testing the life a bulb, Testing
missiles.
• This is destructive testing.
5. Determine the Period of Study
• Census study requires long time,
may be a year. Seasonal variation.
For example, Study of
unemployment rate over a year.
Results refer to which part of the
year.
6. Determine the Confidence Level
• Calculate the sampling error – help
in determining the confidence level
in the data.
• Sampling type may facilitate the
use of powerful statistical tests for
analysis.
 Sampling Terminology
• Number of technical terms used
that need explanation.
1. Element
• Unit about which information is
collected and is the basis of
analysis. Can be a person, a group,
a family, an organization, a
community.
 2. Population
• Theoretically specified aggregation of
study elements.
• Translating the abstract concept into
workable concept. College students.
Theoretical explanation.
• Pool of all available elements is
population.
 3. Target Population
• Out of conceptual variations, what exactly is
the focus.
• Complete group of specific population
elements relevant to project.
• Call it Survey population – aggregation of
elements for selecting a sample.
• e.g. study of college students – college
students from Govt. institutions, studying
social sciences, aged 19 years, and with
rural background
4. Sampling
• Process of using a small number
of items. Estimate unknown
characteristics of population.
• Process of selection – Depending
upon the type of sample to be
used.
5. Sampling Frame
• List of population elements. Listing
of all college students meeting the
criteria.
• Also called as working population
– list that can be worked with
operationally. Prepare the list of
relevant college students.
 6. Sampling Unit
• That element or set of elements considered
for selection in some stage of sampling.
• Sampling can be single stage or multistage.
Simple or complex.
• In single stage, sampling units are the same
as elements.
• In multistage, different levels of sampling
units may be employed. Sampling of
Mohallahs, the of households, and then
adults. Primary, secondary, final.
7. Observation Unit
• Unit of data collection from which
information is collected.
• Unit of observation and unit of
analysis can be same or different.
[Interview head of household
(UoO) and collect information
about every member (UoA)]
 8. Parameter
• Summary description of a given
variable in population (Mean income of
families in the city, mean age)
• Survey research involves the
estimation of population parameters.
9. Statistic
• Summary description of a variable
in survey sample. Mean
income/age of the sample.
• Use it for estimation of population
parameters
10. Sampling Error
• Probability samples seldom
provide statistics exactly equal to
parameters.
• Estimation of error to be expected
for a given sample.
Stages in the Define the target population
Selection
of a Sample Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or non-probability

sampling method will be chosen

Plan procedure
for selecting sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork
 NONPROBABILITY
AND
PROBABILITYSAMPLING
Major Alternatives to Sampling
• Probability
• Non-probability
Probability
• Every element in the population
has a known nonzero
probability of selection.
• Used when representativeness
is crucial for wider
gerenalizability.
• Can measure sampling error.
 Non-Probability
• Probability of any element being
chosen is unknown. Arbitrary –
personal judgment.
• Time and other factors more crucial
than generalizability.
• Cannot measure sampling error.
• Projecting data beyond sample is
statistically inappropriate.
 Types of
Non-Probability
Sampling
Convenience Sampling
• Also called haphazard or
accidental or grab sampling.
• Obtaining units who are most
conveniently available.
• Person-on-the street interviewed
by TV people. Personal judgment.
• May not be representative. Least
reliable.
• Used during exploratory phase
Purposive Sampling
• Researcher lays down the criteria
for the subjects.
• Also called as judgmental or expert
opinion sample. Selection
depends upon the judgment of
selector.
Quota Sampling
• Procedure that ensures certain
characteristics of a population
sample will be represented.
• Fix the quota. Use convenience
sampling. Fieldworker bias in
selection.
• Can be considered as
proportionate stratified sampling –
but on convenience basis
• Speed of data collection, lower
cost, and convenience.
• Ensures the inclusion of a subset
when it is under-represented.
Snowball Sampling
• Also called: network, chain referral, or
reputational sampling.
• Analogy of snowball.
• Begins with one/few, spreads out on
the basis of links.
• Useful where respondents are difficult
to identify.
Sequential Sampling
• Similar to purposive sampling.
• In purposive – get every possible
case.
• In sequential – continuous
evaluation of data. Stop when no
new information is coming.
Theoretical Sampling
• Researcher selects cases based on
his own insight.
• Used in observational studies
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Requires more work than nonrandom sampling.
• Researcher must identify sampling elements.
• Necessary to contact the sampled respondent. Call
back several times.
• Likely to yield representative sample.
• Can determine the relationship between sample and
population – Calculate the sampling error i.e.
deviation between sample result and population
parameter due to random process.
 Simple Random Sample
• Assumption – homogeneous population.
• Develop an accurate sampling frame.
• Locate the exact element/s to be selected
i.e. decide the sample size.
• Number all the elements in the sampling
frame.
• Use the list/table of random numbers.
Table of Random Digits

37751 04998 66038 63480 98442 22245 83538 62351

50915 64152 82981 15796 27102 71635 34470 13608

99142 35021 01032 57907 80545 54112 15150 36856

70720 10033 25191 62358 03784 74377 88150 25567

18460 64947 32958 08752 96366 89092 23597 74308

65763 41133 60950 35372 06782 81451 78764 52645

83769 52570 60950 35372 06782 81451 84990 26400

• Take a random starting point.
• Characteristics of most random
samples are close to the
characteristics of population.
• Calculate the sampling error.
Systematic Random Sample
• Short cut for simple random
sampling.
• Number each element in the
sampling frame.
• Instead of using the table of
random numbers, researcher
develops a system for the
selection of elements.
• Calculate the sampling interval.
Basis of random selection
• Sample size/Population size X 100
i.e. sample as % of Pop.
• Begin with a random start.
• Draw sample by choosing every Nth
case.
• If elements are organized in some
pattern in the sampling frame then
problem. Possible periodicity in
population.
Stratified Random Sampling
• In case population is heterogeneous,
then stratify. Each stratum in itself
becomes homogeneous.
• Researcher’s decision about
homogeneity of the population.
• Draw the sample from each stratum by
using simple random sampling
procedure.
 Reasons for stratification
• To increase a sample’s statistical
efficiency. Each stratum gets represented.
Reduces random sampling error. Makes
the sample representative.
• Provides adequate data for analyzing the
various subpopulations.
• Enables to use different research
procedures in different strata.
 Stratification Process
• Stratification based on the primary variable
(Y). What characteristics of pop affect Y?
• Should increase homogeneity within
stratum and heterogeneity between strata.
• Make sampling frame for each stratum.
• Serially number the elements.
• Use table of random numbers and select
the sample from each stratum.
Proportionate vs.
Disproportionate
• Proportionate: If the number of
sampling units drawn from each
stratum is in proportion to the relative
population size of the stratum.
• Disproportionate: to ensure an
adequate No. of sampling units in every
stratum. Dictated by analytical
considerations
Cluster Sampling
• Purpose: sample economically and
retaining probability sampling.
• Heterogeneity within clusters but
homogeneity between clusters.
• Random selection of clusters.
• Random selection of elements
within the selected clusters.
Cluster sampling addresses
two problems
• Researchers lack good sampling
frame for dispersed population
• Reaching each sampled element is
costly.
 Multistage Sampling
• Researcher draws several samples in stages. For
example:
• Cluster sampling is usually multistage 
stage1– random sampling of big clusters
stage 2– random sampling of small
clusters within the big ones
stage 3– random sampling of elements
within the selected small clusters
City blocks – households – individuals
Double Sampling
• When further information is needed
from a subset of the group from
which some information has already
been collected for the same study.
• Want to examine the matter in more
detail.
• Sub-sample of the primary sample
Appropriate Sample Design
• Depends upon a number of criteria like:
• 1. Degree of accuracy.
• 2. Resources.
• 3. Advance knowledge of population.
• 4. National vs. local project. Geographic
proximity of population.
• 5. Need for statistical analysis. Projecting
beyond the sample or the sample only.
Thank You