Norms of Morality

Prof. Fernandino J. Pancho

Definition
Norms of morality
is the criteria of judgment about the sorts of person
we ought to be and the sorts of action we ought to
perform.

the quality of things manifesting their conformity or
non-coformity with the norm or criteria. (that which
conforms is good or moral, that which do not conform is evil or
immoral)

The subjective norm of morality Conscience
The objective norm of morality Law (natural)

Both natural law and conscience are rooted on Eternal
Law, the ultimate norm, thus, there is only one norm.
Conscience
The subjective/proximate norm of
morality.
It is proximate because it is what directly confronts an
action as good or bad.

Function: to examine/investigate, to
judge, to pass punishment on our moral
actions.
It approves & commends; reproaches &
condemns; forbids & commands; accuses &
absolves.

Synderesis it is the quality by which
man naturally perceives the truth of the
self-evident principles of the moral order.



Conscience - definition
Derived from the Latin words con plus
scientia which means with knowledge of
what is right or wrong or trial of oneslf both
in accusation and in defense.

It is the inner or little voice of God in man
crying out mans moral obligations and telling
him what to do and what to avoid in the moral
order.

It is an act of the practical judgment of reason
deciding upon an individual action as good and
to be performed or as evil and to be avoided.
Conscience - Kinds
Antecedent judgment is passed before an
action is performed.
Consequent judgment is passed after an
action is performed.
Right/True judges what is really good as
good and waht is really evil as
evil according to the
true principles of morality.
Erroneous/False judges what is really bad
as good and vice versa according
to a false interpretation of the
moral principles.

Conscience - Kinds
Certain conscience a subjective
assurance of the lawfulness or
unlawfulness of certain
actions to be done or to be
omitted.

Doubtful conscience a vacillating
conscience, which is unable to form
a definite judgment on a
certain action.
A doubtful conscience must first be allowed to
settle its doubts before an action is performed.

Conscience - Kinds
Lax conscience is one which refuses to be
bothered about the disticntion of
good and evil.
It tends to follow the easy way and to find excuses for omissions
and mistakes.
These are people who act on the impulse of bahala na on
matters of morals.

Scrupulous conscience is a rigorous
conscience, extremely afraid of
commiting evil.
A scrupulous conscience is meticoulous and wants
incontrovertible proofs before it acts . It is frequently the result of
a stuborn character.
For some, it merely means a serious concern about moral
perfection.
Formation of Conscience
One has the obligation to cultivate a true
and certain conscience.

1. By studying and searching for truths in the
laws and in the sciences. Overcoming
ignorance and error in moral matters.
2. Cultivating good habits. Overcoming
doubts.
3. By militating against evil,condemning and
fighting against it.
4. One must learn how to use properly
his/her freedom.

Causes of Erroneous
Conscience
1. A mistake along the process of practical
reasoning especially with regard to remote
conclusions of the moral principles.
2. Ignorance of law
3. Ignorance of the fact and other
circumstances modifying human action
4. Ignorance invoving future consequences,
especially those dependent on the free will
of others.
Law - definition
It is an ordinance of reason directed
towards the common good and
promulgated by the one who has the care
of the community or in authority.
Elements:
1. Ordinance/mandate because it contains a
decisive command to perform or to avoid the
performance of something.

2. Reasonable a law should not be dictated by a
despotic desire or momentary whim of an
authority. It must not be capricious, arbitrary,
discriminatory and whimsical.
Elements:
3. For the common good means that that law
should benefit all citizens and not the exclusive
benefit of some favored groups.
- it is the sum total of benefits derived by individuals
from the government and from the nation as a whole.
- it is the universal happiness all men seek (St.
Thomas).

4. Promulgated means the law must be officially
published for the porpuse of informing the people.
(published in official gazzette or newspaper of
general circulation)

5. Enacted by a competent authority a person
who is elected or appointed to make laws. (Congress)
Law - Kinds
1. Eternal Law
it is the Divine reason or the will of God
commanding that the natural order of
things be preserved and forbidding that it
be disturbed (St. Augustine)
- it is the exemplar of Divine wisdom as
directing all actions and movements.
(St. Thomas)

Properties/Features: Unchangeable & Universal
Law - Kinds
2. Natural law
- it is mans participation in the eternal law of God.
- it is an extension of the divine order of things as
apprehended by human reason.
- are not written decrees; figuratively speaking, they
are written in the hearts of men. They are
impressed in human nature by the author of nature.
- it refers to the nature of all created things which is the
principle of movements and action: chemical,
biological, psychological, or rational.
- it is recognized by all men regardless of creed, race, culture,
historical circumstances.
- All agreed that there is an inner force that compels man
towards good and away from evil.

Properties/Features: Universal, Obligatory, Recognizable by reason,
Immutable
Law - Kinds
3. Human Positive Law
- are the laws which proceed from a
properly constituted authority such as the
state or the church.
-this serve to supplement the provisions of the
natural law in view of the special needs
of the community.
-Laws of the State contained in the
Constitution and code of Civil
Law.
-Laws of the Church compiled in the
Canon Law.
Human Positive Law -
Properties
1. A human law should be in accord with the divine
law.
2. A human law should be in accord with the natural
law.
3. A human law must promote the common good.
4. A human law must have a universal character.

Every human law has just so much of the nature of
the law as it is derived from the law of nature.
But if, at any point, it departs from the law of
nature, it is no longer a law but a perversion of
law (St. Thomas). Thus, an unjust law, have no
moral binding force, and should not be obeyed.
Defective Norms of Morality
Hedonism
Utilitarianism
Moral Rationalism
Moral Positivism
Moral Evolutionism
Moral Sensism
Communism
Hedonism
It is an ethical theory which holds that
the supreme end of man consists in
the acquisition of pleasure.
Sensible pleasures are the highest good of life.
Morality is grounded on the pleasure
or satisfaction that an act brings or
entails.
The good action is the pleasant action.
The bad action is that which produces pain or
unhappiness.
Utilitarianism
Is a theory very mush akin to Hedonism.
This norm of morality holds that actions are right in
proportion as they tend to promote happiness,
wrong as they tend to produce unhappiness.
It makes utility the norm of morality.

The goodness or badness of an action would
depend on the effects or consequences of the
action.
An act is good if and when it gives good results, if it
works, it makes you successful, if it makes you
attain your purpose, bad if it does not.
Types of Utilitarianism
Individual/egoistic utilitarianism holds
that the norm of morality resides in the
usefulness of an action for the production of
the temporal happiness of the individual.
An act is good when it redounds to the
temporal welfare and happiness of the
individual, and bad if it hinders or hampers this
happiness.

Social/altruistic utilitarianism holds that
an act is good when it is conducive to the
social good or well-being

Commentary (Hedonism & Utilitarianism)
Merits
It explains very well the emotional basis
and aspects of human action.
It explains well the reason behind the
doing of action by most people
There is always some satisfaction accompanying the
doing of every good act.
There is no doubt that most people are motivated in
their action by their desire for satisfaction or happiness
or well-being.
Commentary (Hedonism & Utilitarianism)
Defects

Both propose an earthly goal for man, that is, the
temporal welfare here on earth.
The ultimate and supreme purpose of man cannot be
found in this life.

Both make or tend to make morality relative
What is pleasant or useful to one may be painful and
harmful to another. Relative morality leads to moral
chaos and destruction.

Commentary (Hedonism & Utilitarianism)
Defects
Both theories make morality extrinsic because they
make it depend on the effect or on a concomitant
factor of an act.
Morality is intrinsic, that is, based on the very essence of things
and on the nature of the act itself.

Satisfaction/pleasure may indicate and accompany the
doing of a good act; but the act is good not because it
brings satisfaction, but rather, it brings satisfaction
because it is good.
The pleasure follows from the goodness and not the goodness
from the satisfaction
The satisfaction/pleasure is merely an effect, and an indication
but not the cause or the reason of the goodness of an action.
Moral Rationalism Immanuel
Kant
Is the theory which maintains that all knowledge
and all truths are derived from human reason.
Human reason, therefore, is the source of all truths, all
laws, and all principles.
Human reason is the source of all moral laws and all
moral obligations.
Reason commands, and the commands of reason are
absolute and unconditional, absolutely binding on all
men of all times (Categorical Imperative).
Therefore, good must be done simply because we want.
Virtue must be practiced for virtues sake; goodness, for
goodness sake.
Why we must do good?
We must do good because we must, it is our duty to obey
unconditionally without questioning (Principle of
Deontology).
Moral Rationalism
The command of reason is categorical and all are
obliged to obey, it is our moral duty to obey
unconditionally.
Duty is the very root, test and the mainspring of all
morally good acts.
All that is moral is motivated by pure sense of duty, by pure
reverence for the law.
Thus, morality is grounded on duty or moral obligation.
True morality, must be autonomous in character
(Autonomy of Reason).
According to which theory: it is reason that commands and
at the same time it is reason that obeys.
Thus, reason will be the law-maker, the law-giver and law-
obeyer at the same time.
Commentary (Moral Rationalism)
Merits
It emphasized the absolute and immutable
nature of morality
It saves morality from the destructiveness and
insanity of moral relativity and skepticism.

Defects
On Autonomy of Reason
Reason is the absolute law-maker, law-giver, law-abider.
(Autonomy of Reason)
Morality comes not from reason itself but from a higher
and other source than human reason. (Heteronomy of
Reason)
Commentary (Moral Rationalism)
Defects
Based on Heteronomy of Reason
Human reason only sees things, but it does not make
things.
Human reason tells us the law, but it does not make the
law.
Moral law is not from human reason, it is not our own
making, but it is impose on us from a higher source.

If the law were made by human reason, then everything
that we would like to do could be approved by reason,
but the fact is that we have many things we like to do by
which we know are against the dictates of our
conscience.
Nothing can be superior and inferior at the same time.
Commentary (Moral
Rationalism)
Defects
Duty as a norm of morality
Duty cannot be sole motive in the performance
of an act.
There are other motives that are more worthy and
more noble, such as love, pity, mercy, etc.

On Universalization of Reason
There are many acts which cannot be
universalized.
Ex. Dying a heros death by martyrdom
Moral Evolutionism
This is the theory of all those who holds that
morality is never fixed or absolute, but is
continually changing and evolving gradually
into a perfect morality.

Friedrich Nietzsche - believed that morality
the distinction between right and wrong
did not exist in the beginning or originally
unknown.
Good is that which anybody desired.
Moral Evolutionism
Friedrich Nietzsche
He was convinced that traditional values represented a
slave morality, a morality created by weak and resentful
individuals who encouraged such behavior as gentleness and
kindness because the behavior served their interests.
These are the laws/values derived and based on the teachings of
Christianity which stands for meekness, humility, suffering pity, mercy,
poverty, forgiveness and love.
These values glorify and favor the weak and produces weaklings
But, according to Nietzsche, we must produce the strong
The law of nature is the survival of the fittest.
The strong is destined by nature to live and rule.
The weak has no right from nature to live. The weak who form the
majority must be eliminated in order to give way to the aristocracy of the
strong.



Moral Evolutionism
Thus, Nietzsche, developed an idea of the
Superman/Overman.

The Superman/Overman was an individual who
overcame the slave morality of traditional values, and
lived according to his own values/morality.

This superman is secure, independent, and highly
individualistic. The overman feels deeply, but his
passions are rationally controlled. Concentrating on
the real world, rather than on the rewards of the next
world promised by religion, the overman affirms life,
including the suffering and pain that accompany
human existence.

Moral Evolutionism
He advanced this idea by saying that God is
dead, or the traditional morality was no longer
relevant in peoples lives.

For him, the end of all morality and society to
produce the strong, the superman.

Thus, might, strength and power form the basis of
true morality.

Good, is that one which makes one strong, powerful, and
most of all super human, and bad is that which is
productive of the weak.

The result the chaotic, horrific, barbaric
and devastating World War II (German
Invasion).

Who thinks that they are the Aryan race (White
supremacy) superior to any other and destined to
rule and conquer the world.

They devoured weaker nations and justified all
the massacres, tortures, and bloodshed of
concentration camps in their occupied countires
on the theory that thay are the strong and,
therefore, can do no wrong.

Commentary (Moral
Evolutionism)
Moral Positivism
This theory holds that the basis/source of all moral laws is the
laws of the State.
Good is that which is in accordance with the laws of the
State; bad is that which is forbidden by the State.

The proponent of this theory is Thomas Hobbes
Nature was in a state of universal war. Mankind was in a
state of war before the formation of the State.
Man is a wolf unto his fellowmen (Homo homini lupus)
Thus, there was no law, no morality, no distinction between
right and wrong.
To end this state of war and anarchy, men came together to
form the State.
Thus, laws, rights and duties were then established.
Morality then has it source, its origin from the laws of the State.

Commentary (Moral
Positivism)
Defects
It makes morality relative.
There are State Laws which are legal but not
moral (Abortion, Death Penalty, Same Sex
Marriage).
It reverses the natural order of things.
Before there was any State there was already
human nature with all its natural and inviolable
rights and the law (natural law) governing it.
Example:
Murder is always bad, even before there was any
State law prohibiting it. Murder is forbidden by law
and is wrong because it is clearly a violation against
human nature.

Moral Sensism
Is an ethical theory which holds that
man is endowed with a special moral
sense (other than reason) by virtue of
which man distinguishes between right
and wrong.
The basis/source of morality is mans
senses; what a persons feel about the
human act.
Good if I feel it is good; bad if I feel it is
bad.
This view expressed when we say he has
no sense of morality, no moral taste.
Commentary (Moral Sensism)
Defects
It makes morality relative.
Morality is not based on feelings/senses.
Morality is not based on the mood of the
person.
A human act is good or bad based on the norms of
morality which is conscience and natural law.
Communism
Its moral philosophy is the logical
consequence of metaphysics or view
of reality known as dialectic
materialism.
According to this theory, matter is the only
reality.
This sole entity or matter, is in constant flux or
motion and this accounts for all the events,
motion and change in the universe; so that all
phenomena of nature, all history, are nothing
else but the manifestation of this dialectic
process inherent in the nature of all things
(matter).
Communism
It is founded on the theory of change,
evolution and revolution.
Everything is progressing towards the goal of
perfection; man, society and history naturally
and necessarily tend towards the attainment of
the ultimate objective: the perfect state here
on earth, the Classless Society.
All these are involved in the inexorable laws of
dialectic materialism.
The goal of man is his earthly happiness in a
classless society.


Communism
Morality is changing since all things
changes.
Good is that which brings about and hasten to
bring about the realization of a classless
society; bad that which hinders or delays its
coming.
The end of man, which is the classless society,
is the norm of morality.
The end determines the morality of an act, the
means does not matter. Thus, the end
justifies the means.
Revolution, conflict, bloodshed, wars, espionage, etc.,
are good if they bring about the desired end: Classless
Society
Communism
Primacy of Economics
Economics is the sole basis of all
civilization, all progress, all history, all
society.
It conditions and determines ones religion and
even ones mode of thinking and living.
Morality is likewise determined by economics,
in such a way that different economic
conditions give rise to different moralities.
Economics is the beginning and the ends of
all ethics/morality.
Commentary - Communism
Merit
Communism explains well the importance
and necessity of economics in life.
Man is an economic being.
He has an stomach to feed, he has to earn a living to
support himself and his family, etc.
Defects
It is vitiated with the fallacy of
exclusiveness and misproportion.

Commentary - Communism
While it is true that man can not live with bread,
it is likewise true that he does nor live by bread
alone.

While he is an economic being, he is not an
economic being exclusively, nor principally.

While we cannot disregard economics in life,
we cannot make it the sole and the most
important thing in life.

It may be the basis or a sine qua non condition
of earthly life, but it is not the end of all human
beings, though it is a necessary means to it.


Commentary - Communism
Comparison between Morality of communism and
Christian Morality:
1. Communism is based on the primacy of matter.
Christian morality is based on the primacy of the
spirit.
2. Communism proposes an earthly goal for man
(temporal life).
Christian morality is primarily for the other world
(eternal life).
3. Communism denies the basic postulates of Christian
morality (the existence of God, freedom of the will,
immortality of the soul. It substitute matter for God; life
in a classless society for immortality, and the laws of
the dialectic for freedom.


Commentary - Communism
Comparison between Morality of communism and Christian
Morality:
4. Communism adheres to the position that the end justifies
the means.
Christian morality believe that the end does not justify
the means.
5. Communism subscribes to the evolutionistic view of
morality.
Christian morality maintains that morality is absolute,
immutable and eternal.
6. Communism uses force, conflict, revolution for the
attainment of its goal: the classless society here on earth.
Christian morality teaches love, patience, right living
and prayer for the attainment of its ultimate end:
eternal happiness in heaven, with God.
Thank you! God
bless!