Databases and Database Management

Systems
(Based on Chapters 1-2 in Fundamentals of
Database Systems by Elmasri and Navathe, Ed. 3)

Topics

Basic Definitions
Example of a Database
Main Characteristics of Database Technology
Additional Benefits of Database Technology
When Not to Use a DBMS
Data Models
- History of data Models
- Network Data Model
- Hierarchical Data Model

Topics

Schemas versus Instances

Three-Schema Architecture
Data Independence
DBMS Languages
DBMS Interfaces
DBMS Component Modules
Database System Utilities
Classification of DBMSs

1. Basic Definitions

Database: A collection of related data.

Data: Known facts that can be recorded and have an

implicit meaning.

Mini-world: Some part of the real world about which

data is stored in a database. For example, student
grades and transcripts at a university.

Database Management System (DBMS): A

software package/ system to facilitate the creation
and maintenance of a computerized database.

Database System: The DBMS software together

with the data itself. Sometimes, the applications are
also included.

Alternate Definition

Database: An integrated collection of more-or-less

permanent data.

Database Management System (DBMS): A

software package/ system to facilitate the creation
and maintenance of a computerized database.

 Concerns of DBMS:
integrity
consistency
redundancy (its bad, but replication is good!)
security

2. Example of a Database
(with a Conceptual Data Model)

Mini-world for the example: Part of a UNIVERSITY

environment.

Some mini-world entities:

- STUDENTs
- COURSEs
- SECTIONs (of COURSEs)
- (academic) DEPARTMENTs
- INSTRUCTORs

Some mini-world relationships:

- SECTIONs are of specific COURSEs
- STUDENTs take SECTIONs
- COURSEs have prerequisite COURSEs
- INSTRUCTORs teach SECTIONs
- COURSEs are offered by DEPARTMENTs
- STUDENTs major in DEPARTMENTs

NOTE: The above could be expressed in the ENTITY

RELATIONSHIP data model.

3. Main Characteristics of Database

Technology

Self-contained nature of a database system: A DBMS

catalog stores the description of the database. The
description is called meta-data). This allows the
DBMS software to work with different databases.

Insulation between programs and data: Called

program-data independence. Allows changing data
storage structures and operations without having to
change the DBMS access programs.

Data Abstraction: A data model is used to hide

storage details and present the users with a
conceptual view of the database.

Support of multiple views of the data: Each user may

see a different view of the database, which describes
only the data of interest to that user.

4. Additional Benefits of Database

Technology

Controlling redundancy in data storage and in

development and maintenence efforts.

Sharing of data among multiple users.

Restricting unauthorized access to data.

Providing multiple interfaces to different classes

of users.

Representing complex relationships among data.

Enforcing integrity constraints on the database.

Providing backup and recovery services.

Potential for enforcing standards.

Flexibility to change data structures.

Reduced application development time.

Availability of up-to-date information.

Economies of scale.

Classes of Database Users

(A) Workers on the scene: Persons whose job

involves daily use of a large database.

Database administrators (DBAs)
Database designers
End users
Casual users
Parametric (nave) users
Sophisticated end users
System analysts and application programmers

(B) Workers behind the scene: Persons whose job

involves design, development, operation and
maintenance of the DBMS software and system
environment.
DBMS designers and implementers
Tool developers
Operators and maintenance personnel

5 When not to use a DBMS

Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS:

High initial investment and possible need for
additional hardware.
Overhead for providing generality, security,
recovery, integrity, and concurrency control.
When a DBMS may be unnecessary:
If the database and applications are simple, well
defined, and not expected to change.
If there are stringent real-time requirements that
may not be met because of DBMS overhead.
If access to data by multiple users is not
required.

 When no DBMS may suffice:

- If the database system is not able to handle the
complexity of data because of modeling limitations
- If the database users need special operations not
supported by the DBMS.

6. Data Models

Data Model: A set of concepts to describe the

structure of a database, and certain constraints that
the database should obey.

Data Model Operations: Operations for specifying

database retrievals and updates by referring to the
concepts of the data model.

Categories of data models:

Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:

Provide concepts that are close to the way many
users perceive data. (Also called entity-based or
object-based data models.)
Physical (low-level, internal) data models: Provide
concepts that describe details of how data is stored in
the computer.
Implementation (record-oriented) data models:
Provide concepts that fall between the above two,
balancing user views with some computer storage
details.

6A. HISTORY OF DATA MODELS

Relational Model: proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd

(IBM), first commercial system in 1981-82. Now in
several commercial products (ORACLE, SYBASE,
INFORMIX, CA-INGRES).
Network Model: the first one to be implemented
by Honeywell in 1964-65 (IDS System). Adopted
heavily due to the support by CODASYL
(CODASYL - DBTG report of 1971). Later
implemented in a large variety of systems - IDMS
(Cullinet - now CA), DMS 1100 (Unisys), IMAGE
(H.P.), VAX -DBMS (Digital).
Hierarchical Data Model : implemented in a joint
effort by IBM and North American Rockwell
around 1965. Resulted in the IMS family of
systems. The most popular model. Other system
based on this model: System 2k (SAS inc.)

Object-oriented Data Model(s) : several models

have been proposed for implementing in a
database system. One set comprises models of
persistent O-O Programming Languages such as
C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or VERSANT), and
Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE). Additionally,
systems like O2, ORION (at MCC - then ITASCA),
IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
Object-Relational Models : Most Recent Trend.
Exemplified in ILLUSTRA and UNiSQL systems.

6B. HIERARCHICAL MODEL

ADVANTAGES:

Hierarchical Model is simple to construct and

operate on
Corresponds to a number of natural hierarchically
organized domains - e.g., assemblies in
manufacturing, personnel organization in
companies
Language is simple; uses constructs like GET,
GET UNIQUE, GET NEXT, GET NEXT WITHIN
PARENT etc.

DISADVANTAGES:

Navigational and procedural nature of processing

Database is visualized as a linear arrangement of
records
. Little scope for "query optimization"

6C. NETWORK MODEL

ADVANTAGES:

Network Model is able to model complex

relationships and represents semantics of
add/delete on the relationships.

Can handle most situations for modeling using

record types and relationship types.

Language is navigational; uses constructs like

FIND, FIND member, FIND owner, FIND NEXT
within set, GET etc. Programmers can do optimal
navigation through the database.

DISADVANTAGES:

Navigational and procedural nature of processing

Database contains a complex array of pointers

that thread through a set of records.

Little scope for automated "query optimization"

7. Schemas versus Instances

Database Schema: The description of a database.

Includes descriptions of the database structure and
the constraints that should hold on the database.

Schema Diagram: A diagrammatic display of (some

aspects of) a database schema.

Database Instance: The actual data stored in a

database at a particular moment in time . Also called
database state (or occurrence).

The database schema changes very infrequently .

The database state changes every time the
database is updated . Schema is also called
intension, whereas state is called extension.

8. Three-Schema Architecture

 Proposed to support DBMS characteristics

of:
- Program-data independence.
- Support of multiple views of the data.

Defines DBMS schemas at three levels :

Internal schema at the internal level to describe
data storage structures and access paths. Typically
uses a physical data model.
Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to
describe the structure and constraints for the whole
database. Uses a conceptual or an implementation
data model.
External schemas at the external level to
describe the various user views. Usually uses the
same data model as the conceptual level.

Mappings among schema levels are also

needed. Programs refer to an external
schema, and are mapped by the DBMS to
the internal schema forexecution.

9 Data Independence

Logical Data Independence: The capacity to

change the conceptual schema without having to
change the external schemas and their application
programs.
Physical Data Independence: The capacity to
change the internal schema without having to change
the conceptual schema.

When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the

mappings between this schema and higher-level
schemas need to be changed in a DBMS that fully
supports data independence. The higher-level schemas
themselves are unchanged. Hence, the application
programs need not be changed since they refer to the
external schemas.

10. DBMS Languages

Data Definition Language (DDL): Used by

the DBA and database designers to specify
the conceptual schema of a database. In
many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define
internal and external schemas (views). In
some DBMSs, separate storage definition
language (SDL) and view definition
language (VDL) are used to define internal
and external schemas.

 Data Manipulation Language (DML): Used

to specify database retrievals and updates.

- DML commands (data sublanguage) can
be embedded in a general-purpose
programming language (host language),
such as Java, C++, C, COBOL, PL/1 or
PASCAL.
- Alternatively, stand-alone DML
commands can be applied directly (query
language).

11. DBMS Interfaces

Stand-alone query language interfaces.

Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in
programming languages:
- Pre-compiler Approach
- Procedure (Subroutine) Call Approach
User-friendly interfaces:
- Menu-based
- Graphics-based (Point and Click, Drag and Drop
etc.)
- Forms-based
- Natural language
- Combinations of the above
- Speech as Input (?) and Output
- Web Browser as an interface

Parametric interfaces using function keys.

Report generation languages.
Interfaces for the DBA:
- Creating accounts, granting authorizations
- Setting system parameters

- Changing schemas or access path

13. Database System Utilities

 To perform certain functions such as:

-

Loading data stored in files into a database.

Backing up the database periodically on
tape.
Reorganizing database file structures.
Report generation utilities.
Performance monitoring utilities.
Other functions, such as sorting , user
monitoring , data compression , etc.

 Data dictionary / repository:

Used to store schema descriptions and other
information such as design decisions, application
program descriptions, user information, usage
standards, etc.
Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS
software and users/DBA.
Passive data dictionary is accessed by
users/DBA only.

14. Classification of DBMSs

Based on the data model used:

Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational

Other classifications:
Single-user (typically used with microcomputers) vs. multi-user (most DBMSs).
Centralized (uses a single computer with one
database) vs. distributed (uses multiple
computers, multiple databases)

Distributed Database Systems have now come to be known as client

server based database systems because they do not support a totally
distributed environment, but rather a set of database servers
supporting a set of clients.