Analytical Chemistry

Errors in Chemical Analysis
Impossible to eliminate errors.

How reliable are our data?
Data of unknown quality are useless!
Carry out replicate measurements

Analyse accurately known standards
Perform statistical tests on data
Mean
Defined as follows:
x =
xi
i=1
Where xi = individual values of x and N = number of replicate

measurements
Median
The middle result when data are arranged in order of size (for even
numbers the mean of middle two). Median can be preferred when
there is an outlier - one reading very different from rest. Median
less affected by outlier than is mean.
Precision
Relates to reproducibility of results..
How similar are values obtained in exactly the same way?
Useful for measuring this:
Deviation from the mean:
d i xi x
Accuracy
Measurement of agreement between experimental mean and
true value (which may not be known!).
Measures of accuracy:
Absolute error: E = xi - xt (where xt = true or accepted value)
Relative error:
x x
t 100%
E i
r
x
t
(latter is more useful in practice)
Illustrating the difference between accuracy and precision
Low accuracy, low precision
Low accuracy, high precision
High accuracy, low precision
High accuracy, high precision
Types of Error in Experimental

Data
Three types:
(1) Random (indeterminate) Error
Data scattered approx. symmetrically about a mean value.
Affects precision - dealt with statistically (see later).
(2) Systematic (determinate) Error
Several possible sources - later. Readings all too high
or too low. Affects accuracy.
(3) Gross Errors
Usually obvious - give outlier readings.
Detectable by carrying out sufficient replicate
measurements.
Sources of Systematic Error

1. Instrument Error
Need frequent calibration - both for apparatus such as
volumetric flasks, burettes etc., but also for electronic
devices such as spectrometers.
2. Method Error
Due to inadequacies in physical or chemical behaviour
of reagents or reactions (e.g. slow or incomplete reactions)
Example from earlier overhead - nicotinic acid does not
react completely under normal Kjeldahl conditions for
nitrogen determination.
3. Personal Error
e.g. insensitivity to colour changes; tendency to estimate
scale readings to improve precision; preconceived idea of
true value.
Systematic errors can be

constant (e.g. error in burette reading less important for larger values of reading) or
proportional (e.g. presence of given proportion of
interfering impurity in sample; equally significant
for all values of measurement)
Minimise instrument errors by careful recalibration and good
maintenance of equipment.
Minimise personal errors by care and self-discipline
Method errors - most difficult. True value may not be known.
Three approaches to minimise:
analysis of certified standards
use 2 or more independent methods
analysis of blanks
Sample Standard Deviation, s

The equation for must be modified for small samples of data, i.e. small N
N
2
(
x
x
)
i
i 1
N 1
Two differences cf. to equation for :

1.
Use sample mean instead of population mean.
2.
Use degrees of freedom, N - 1, instead of N.

Reason is that in working out the mean, the sum of the
differences from the mean must be zero. If N - 1 values are
known, the last value is defined. Thus only N - 1 degrees
of freedom. For large values of N, used in calculating
, N and N - 1 are effectively equal.
Alternative Expression for s

(suitable for calculators)
N
( xi ) 2
i 1
( xi 2 )
i 1
N 1
Note: NEVER round off figures before the end of the calculation
Two alternative methods for measuring the precision of a set of results:
VARIANCE:
This is the square of the standard deviation:

N
s2
2
2
(
x
x
)
i
i 1
N 1
COEFFICIENT OF VARIANCE (CV)

(or RELATIVE STANDARD DEVIATION):
Divide the standard deviation by the mean value and express as a percentage:
s
CV ( ) 100%
x
Reproducibility of a method for determining

the % of selenium in foods. 9 measurements
were made on a single batch of brown rice.
Standard Deviation of a Sample

Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Selenium content (g/g) (xI)

0.07
0.07
0.08
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.08
xi
0.69
Mean = xi/N= 0.077g/g

Standard deviation:
xi2
0.0049
0.0049
0.0064
0.0049
0.0049
0.0064
0.0064
0.0081
0.0064
xi2=
0.0533
(xi)2/N = 0.4761/9 = 0.0529
0.0533 0.0529
0.00707106 0.007
9 1
Coefficient of variance = 9.2% Concentration = 0.077 0.007 g/g
Define some terms:
CONFIDENCE LIMITS
interval around the mean that probably contains .
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
the magnitude of the confidence limits
CONFIDENCE LEVEL
fixes the level of probability that the mean is within the confidence limits
DetectionofGrossErrors
Asetofresultsmaycontainanoutlyingresult
outoflinewiththeothers.
Shoulditberetainedorrejected?
Thereisnouniversalcriterionfordecidingthis.
OnerulethatcangiveguidanceistheQtest.
Considerasetofresults
TheparameterQexpisdefinedasfollows:
Qexp x q xn /w
wherexq = questionableresult
xn = nearestneighbour
w = spreadofentireset
QexpisthencomparedtoasetofvaluesQcrit:
Qcrit (reject if Qexpt > Qcrit)
No. of observations
90%
95%
99% confidencelevel
3
0.941
0.970
0.994
4
0.765
0.829
0.926
5
0.642
0.710
0.821
6
0.560
0.625
0.740
7
0.507
0.568
0.680
8
0.468
0.526
0.634
9
0.437
0.493
0.598
10
0.412
0.466
0.568
RejectionofoutlierrecommendedifQexp>Qcritforthedesiredconfidencelevel.
Note:1.
Thehighertheconfidencelevel,thelesslikelyis
rejectiontoberecommended.
2.Rejectionofoutlierscanhaveamarkedeffectonmean
andstandarddeviation,esp.whenthereareonlyafew
datapoints.Alwaystrytoobtainmoredata.
3.Ifoutliersaretoberetained,itisoftenbettertoreport
themedianvalueratherthanthemean.
Q Test for Rejection

of Outliers
The following values were obtained for

the concentration of nitrite ions in a sample
of river water: 0.403, 0.410, 0.401, 0.380 mg/l.
Should the last reading be rejected?
Qexp 0.380 0.401 ( 0.410 0.380) 0.7

But Qcrit = 0.829 (at 95% level) for 4 values
Therefore, Qexp < Qcrit, and we cannot reject the suspect value.
Suppose 3 further measurements taken, giving total values of:
0.403, 0.410, 0.401, 0.380, 0.400, 0.413, 0.411 mg/l. Should
0.380 still be retained?
Qexp 0.380 0.400 ( 0.413 0.380) 0.606

But Qcrit = 0.568 (at 95% level) for 7 values
Therefore, Qexp > Qcrit, and rejection of 0.380 is recommended.

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Errors in Chemical Analysis

Impossible to eliminate errors.

Carry out replicate measurements

Where xi = individual values of x and N = number of replicate

(latter is more useful in practice)

Illustrating the difference between accuracy and precision

Low accuracy, low precision

Low accuracy, high precision

High accuracy, low precision

High accuracy, high precision

Types of Error in Experimental

Sources of Systematic Error

Systematic errors can be

Sample Standard Deviation, s

Two differences cf. to equation for :

Use sample mean instead of population mean.

Use degrees of freedom, N - 1, instead of N.

Alternative Expression for s

Two alternative methods for measuring the precision of a set of results:

This is the square of the standard deviation:

COEFFICIENT OF VARIANCE (CV)

Reproducibility of a method for determining

Standard Deviation of a Sample

Selenium content (g/g) (xI)

Mean = xi/N= 0.077g/g

(xi)2/N = 0.4761/9 = 0.0529

Coefficient of variance = 9.2% Concentration = 0.077 0.007 g/g

Define some terms:

interval around the mean that probably contains .

Q Test for Rejection

The following values were obtained for

Qexp 0.380 0.401 ( 0.410 0.380) 0.7

Qexp 0.380 0.400 ( 0.413 0.380) 0.606

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