CAST IRON

a widely used
material

What it is ?

Cast iron is one of the oldest ferrous metals used in construction

and outdoor ornament. It is primarily composed of iron (Fe),
carbon (C) and silicon (Si), but may also contain traces of sulphur
(S), manganese (Mn) and phosphorus (P). It has a relatively high
carbon content of 2% to 5%. It is hard, brittle, nonmalleable
(i.e. it cannot be bent, stretched or hammered into shape) and more
fusible than steel. Its structure is crystalline and relatively
brittle and weak in tension. Cast-iron members fracture under
excessive tensile loading with little prior distortion. Cast iron
is, however, very good in compression. The composition of cast
iron and the method of manufacture are critical in determining its
characteristics.

How it is made
Cast iron is made when pig iron is re-melted in
small
cupola furnaces (similar to the blast furnace in design and
operation) and poured into molds to make castings. Cast Iron
is generally defined as an alloy of Iron with greater than 2%
Carbon, and usually with more than 0.1% Silicon.

A brief History

Cast iron has its earliest origins in China between 700 and
800 B.C.
The use of this newly discovered form of iron varied from
simple tools to a complex chain suspension bridge erected
approximately 56 A.D.
Cast iron was not produced in mass quantity until
fourteenth centaury A.D.
In 1325 A.D. water driven bellows were introduced which
allowed for a greater draft to be fed to the pit, thus
increasing temperatures.
The next significant development in cast iron was the first
use of coke in 1730 by an English founder named Darby.
This leads to invention of James Watts first steam engine
in 1794

In 1810, Swedish chemist Bergelius, and German physicist

Stromeyer discovered that by adding Silicon to the
furnace, along with scrap and pig iron, consistently
stronger cast iron is produced.
In 1885 Turner added ferrosilicon to white iron to produce
stronger gray iron castings.
In the later 20th century the major use of cast irons
consisted of pipes, thermal containment units, and certain
machine or building entities which were necessary to
absorb continuous vibrations.

Tyes of Cast Iron

White iron
Gray Iron
Ductile Iron
Malleable Iron

White Iron: large amount of carbide phases in the form of

flakes, surrounded by a matrix of either Pearlite or
Martensite. The result of metastable solidification. Has a
white crystalline fracture surface because fracture occurs
along the iron carbide plates. Considerable strength,
insignificant ductility.
Gray Iron: Graphite flakes surrounded by a matrix of
either Pearlite or Ferrite. Exhibits gray fracture surface
due to fracture occurring along Graphite plates. The
product of a stable solidification. Considerable strength,
insignificant ductility.
Ductile (Nodular) Iron: Graphite nodules surrounded by a
matrix of either Ferrite, Bainite, or Austenite. Exhibits
substantial ductility in its as cast form.
Malleable Iron: cast as White Iron, then malleabilized, or
heat treated, to impart ductility. Consists of tempered
Graphite in an Ferrite or Pearlite matrix.

Microstructures

White Cast Iron

White Cast Iron

Ductile (Nodular) Iron

Malleable Iron

Sub Classifications

Chilled Iron: White Iron that has been produced by

quenching through the solidification temperature range.

Mottled Iron: Solidifying at a rate with extremes between

those for chilled and gray irons, thus exhibiting microstructural and metallurgical characteristics of both.

Compacted Graphite Cast Iron: consists of a

microstructure similar to that of Gray Iron, except that the
Graphite cells are coarser and more rounded. Namely, it
consists of a microstructure having both characteristics of
Gray and Ductile Irons.

High-Alloy Graphitic Irons: produced with microstructures

consisting of both flake and nodule structures. Mainly
utilized for applications requiring a combination of high
strength and corrosion resistance.

General characteristics of white

cast iron

White Cast Irons contain Chromium to prevent formation

of Graphite upon solidification and to ensure stability of
the carbide phase. Usually, Nickel, Molybdenum, and/or
Copper are alloyed to prevent to the formation of Pearlite
when a matrix of Martensite is desired.
Fall into three major groups:
Nickel Chromium White Irons: containing 3-5%Ni, 14%Cr. Identified by the name Ni-Hard 1-4
The chromium-molybdenum irons (high chromium
irons): 11-23%Cr, 3%Mo, and sometimes additionally
alloyed w/ Ni or Cu.
25-28%Cr White Irons: contain other alloying
additions of Molybdenum and/or Nickel up to 1.5%

General Characteristics of Gray

Cast Irons

Gray Cast Irons contain silicon, in addition to

carbon, as a primary alloy. Amounts of
manganese are also added to yield the desired
microstructure. Generally the graphite exists in
the form of flakes, which are surrounded by an
a-ferrite or Pearlite matrix. Most Gray Irons are
hypoeutectic, meaning they have carbon
equivalence (C.E.) of less than 4.3.

Gray cast irons are comparatively weak and

brittle in tension due to its microstructure; the
graphite flakes have tips which serve as points
of stress concentration. Strength and ductility
are much higher under compression loads.

Mechanical Properties of Gray

Cast Iron

Graphite morphology and matrix characteristics affect the

physical and mechanical properties of gray cast iron.
Large graphite flakes produce good dampening capacity,
dimensional stability, resistance to thermal shock and
ease of machining. While on the other hand, small flakes
result in higher tensile strength, high modulus of
elasticity, resistance to crazing and smooth machined
surfaces.

Mechanical Properties can also be controlled through heat

treatment of the gray cast iron. For example, as quenched
gray cast iron is brittle. If tempering is accomplished after
quenching, the strength and toughness can be improved,
but hardness decreases. The tensile strength after
tempering can be from 35-45% greater than the as-cast
strength and the toughness can approach the as-cast
level.

Composition

The chemical analysis of gray iron can be broken into three main
categories;

The main elements: These are Carbon, Silicon, and Iron. Gray cast
irons typically contain 3.0-3.5% carbon, with silicon levels varying from
1.8-2.4%.

The minor elements: Phosphorus and the two related elements,

manganese and sulfur. Phosphorus is found in all gray irons, although
rarely added intentionally, it does increase the fluidity of iron to some
extent. High levels promotes shrinkage porosity, while very low levels
can increase metal penetration into a mold. Thus, most castings are
produced with 0.02-0.10% P. Sulfur plays a significant role in nucleation
of graphite in gray iron, with optimum benefit at 0.05-0.12% sulfur levels.
It is also important to note that sulfur levels need to be balanced with
manganese to promote formation of manganese sulfides.

The trace elements: Many other elements are utilized in limited

amounts to affect the nature and properties of gray iron. Although some
are not intentional, they do have a measurable affect on the gray cast
iron. Some promote Pearlite, such as tin, while others compact graphite
and increase strength, such as nitrogen.

General Characteristics of
Ductile Irons

As a liquid, Ductile Iron has a high fluidity, excellent

castability, but high surface tension. Thus, sands and
molding equipment must provide molds of high density
and good heat transfer.
Solidification of Ductile Cast Iron usually occurs with
no appreciable shrinkage or expansion due to the
expansion of the graphite nodules counteracting the
shrinkage of the Iron matrix. Thus, risers (reservoirs in
mold that feed molten metal into the cavity to
compensate for a decrease in volume) are rarely used.
Require less compensation for shrinkage. (Designers
compensate for shrinkage by casting molds that are
larger than necessary.)
Most Ductile Irons used as cast. Heat treating (except
for austempering) decreases fatigue properties.
Example: Holding at the subcritical temperature
(705C) for 4 hours improves fatigue resistance.
While heating above 790C followed by either an air or
oil quench, or ferritizing by heating to 900C and slow
cooling reduces fatigue strength and fatigue resistance
in most warm environments.
Austempered Ductile Iron has been considered for
most applications in recent years due to its
combination of desirable properties. A matrix of
Bainitic Ferrite and stabilized Austenite with Graphite
nodules embedded. Applications include: Gears, wear
resistant parts, High-fatigue strength applications,
High-impact strength applications, automotive
crankshafts, Chain sprockets, Refrigeration compressor
crankshafts, Universal joints, Chain links, and Dolly
wheels.

Mechanical Properties

Effects of microstructure on properties:

Graphite nodules cause the Iron to be both strong and ductile (more so
than gray Cast Iron). Approaches the characteristics of Steel (Tensile
strengths between 400 and 480 MPa Ductility between 15 and 20%. The
smaller and more numerous the nodules the higher the tensile properties
of the material. If some minor alterations are made to the microstructure
compacted graphite Iron may be achieved, namely, between 5 and 20%
of the graphite is of the shpeoridial form, the rest being of a compacted
blunt, vermicular form. This material has better thermal transfer
characteristics and fewer tendencies for porosity.
The % nodularity, a measure of the amount of graphite in the nodular
form, corresponds with the characteristics of this material. %nodularity
is measured by resonant frequency or ultrasonic velocity measurements.

Mechanical Properties

ASTM system for designating various

Ductile Iron grades incorporates numbers
indicating Tensile Strength in ksi, yield
strength in ksi, and elongation in percent.
For example A 536 grade 80-60-03 = (80
ksi|552 MPa) min tensile strength, (60ksi|
414MPa) min yield strength, 3 %
elongation.

Ductile Iron Applications

Used for a variety of applications, specifically those requiring

strength and toughness along with good machinability and low
cost. Casting, rather than mechanical fabrication (such as
welding), allows the user to optimize the properties of the material,
combine several castings into a desired configuration, and realize
the economic advantages inherent in casting.
Microstructure is consistent; machinability is low due to casting
forming the desired shape; porosity is predictable and remains in
the thermal center.
Ductile Iron can be austempered to high tensile strength, fatigue
strength, toughness, and wear resistance. Lower density
Ductile Iron seems to work in applications where theories
suggest it should not.
Ductile Iron shipments exceeded 4 million in 95.
Cast Iron pipe make up to 44% of those shipments.
29% used for automobiles and light trucks (economic
advantages and high reliability)
Other important applications are: Papermaking machinery; Farm
equipment; Construction machinery and equipment; Power
transmission components (gears); Oilfield equipment.

Typical uses

Cast iron is used in a wide variety of structural and decorative

applications, because it is relatively inexpensive, durable and
easily cast into a variety of shapes. Most of the typical uses
include:

historic markers and plaques

hardware: hinges, latches
columns, balusters
stairs
structural connectors in buildings and monuments
decorative features
fences
tools and utensils
ordnance
stoves and firebacks
piping.