MEB

Chapter 1: Process
Variable

Units and Dimensions

Dimensions are our basic concepts of measurement such as
length, time, mass, temperature, and so on; units are the means
of expressing the dimensions, such as feet or centimeters for
length, and hours or seconds for time.

In this lectures you will use the two most commonly used systems
of units:
SI, formally called Le Systeme Internationale dUnites, and
informally called SI or more often (redundantly) the SI system of
units.
AE, or American Engineering system of units.

Units and Dimensions

Fundamental (or basic) dimensions/units are those that can be
measured independently and are sufficient to describe essential
physical quantities.

Derived dimensions/units are those that can be developed in

terms of the fundamental dimensions/units. Tables 1.1 and 1.2
list both basic, derived, and alternative units in the SI and AE
systems. Figure 1.1 illustrates the relation between the basic
dimensions and some of the derived dimensions.
One of the best features of the SI system is that (except for
time) units and their multiples and submultiples are related by
standard factors designated by the prefix indicated in Table 1.3.

Table1.1SIUnits

ble 1.2 American Engineering (AE) System Unit

Table1.3SIPrefixes

Conversion
Example1
1a)Convert2kmtomiles.
(b)Convert400in.3/daytocm3/min.
Solution
(a) Onewaytocarryouttheconversionistolookupadirect
conversionfactor,namely1.61km=1mile:

b.

Exercise 1
An example of a semiconductor is
ZnS with a particle diameter of 1.8
nanometers. Convert this value to
(a) dm (decimeters) and
(b) inches.

AE system

In the AE system the conversion of terms involving pound mass and pound
force deserve special attention. Let us start the discussion with Newtons
Law:
F= Cma
Where:
F = force
C = a constant whose numerical value and units depend on those selected for
F, m, and a m = mass
a = acceleration
In the SI system in which the unit of force is defined to be the Newton (N)
when 1 kg is accelerated at 1 m/s2,
a conversion factor C = 1 N/(Kg)(m)/s2 must be introduced to have the force
be 1 N:

AE system
In AE system a conversion factor is required:
Mass of 1 1bm is hypothetically accelerated at g ft/s2, where
g is the acceleration that would be caused by gravity (about
32.2 ft/s2 depending on the location of the mass),
we can make the force be 1 1bf by choosing the proper
numerical value and units for the conversion factor C:

where

Note: Pound (mass) and

pound (force) are not the
same units in the AE system

Example 2

What is the potential energy in (ft)(1bf) of a 100 lb drum hanging

10 ft above the surface of the earth with reference to the surface
of the earth?

Solution
Potential energy = P = m g h
Assume that the -- 100 lb means 100 lb mass; and
g = acceleration of gravity = 32.2 ft/s2

Example 3
In biological systems, production rate of glucose is 0.6 g
mol/(mL)(min). Determine the production rate of glucose
for this system in the units of lb mol/(ft3)(day).
Solution
(Basis of 1min)

Dimensional Consistency (Homogeneity)

Take for example van Der Waals equation

Constant a must have the units of (pressure)

(volume)2] for the expression in the first set of
parentheses to be consistent throughout.
If the units of pressure are atm and those of volume are
cm3, a will have the units of [(atm)(cm)6]. Similarly,
Constant b must have the same units as V, or in this
particular case the units of cm3.

Example 4
Your handbook shows that microchip etching roughly follows
the relation
where d = the depth of the etch in microns (micrometers, m)
t = time of the etch in seconds.
What are the units associated with the numbers 16.2 and
0.021? Convert the relation so that d becomes expressed in
inches and t can be used in minutes.
Solution
Both values of 16.2 must have the associated units of microns
(m).
The exponential must be dimensionless so that 0.021 must
have the associated units of s1.

Example 4
Solution
Both values of 16.2 must have the associated units of
microns (m).
The exponential must be dimensionless so that 0.021
must have the associated units of s1.
= 6.38 X10 -4
in
= 16.2
m

Non- dimensional group

Certain groups of symbols may be put together, either by
theory or based on experiment, that have no net units. Such
collections of variables or parameters are called
dimensionless or nondimensional groups. One example is
the Reynolds number (group) arising in fluid mechanics.

D = pipe diameter (cm)

= fluid density (g/cm3 )
(cm)(s)).

= fluid velocity (cm/s)

=viscosity, (centipoise - g/

As such that all the units cancel out so that the numerical
value of 1 is the result of the cancellation of the units.

Chapter 1 Exercises
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Convert the following from AE to SI units:

4 lbm/ft to kg/m
1.00 lbm/(ft3)(s) to kg/(m3)(s)
1.57 102 g/(cm)(s) to lbm/(ft)(s)
1.1 gal to ft3 and 1.1 gal to m3.

2. Electronic communication via radio travels at

approximately the speed of light (186,000 miles/second).
The edge of the solar system is roughly at Pluto, which is
3.6 109 miles from Earth at its closest approach. How
many hours does it take for a radio signal from Earth to
reach Pluto?
3. Determine the kinetic energy of one pound of fluid
moving in a pipe at the speed of 3 feet per second.

Chapter 1 Exercises (cont..)

4. An orifice meter is used to measure the rate of flow of a
fluid in pipes. The flow rate is related to the pressure
drop by the following equation
Where
u = fluid velocity p = pressure drop 1force per unit
area2
= density of the flowing fluid c = constant
What are the units of c in the SI system of units?
5. The thermal conductivity k of a liquid metal is predicted
via the empirical equation

where k is in J/(s)(m)(K) and A and B are constants. What

are the units of A and B?

Moles, Density and

Concentration
The atomic weight of an element is the
mass of an atom based on the scale that
assigns a mass of exactly 12 to the carbon
isotope 12C.
A compound is composed of more than
one atom, and the molecular weight of the
compound is nothing more than the sum of
the weights of atoms of which it is
composed.

Example 1
If a bucket holds 2.00 lb of NaOH (MW=40), how many
a. Pound moles of NaOH does it contain?
b. Gram moles of NaOH does it contain?

Solution

Density

Density is the ratio of mass per unit volume, as for example, kg/m 3 or lb/ft3.
Density has both a numerical value and units.

A homogeneous mixture of two or more components, whether solid, liquid,

or gaseous, is called a solution. For some solutions, the density of the
solution is

Forexample,giventhatthedensityofnpropylalcoholis0.804g/cm3,whatwouldbethevolume
of90.0gofthealcohol?Thecalculationis

Specific Volume

Specific volume is the inverse of density, such as cm 3/g or ft3/lb.

Specific gravity is commonly thought of as a dimensionless ratio.

The reference substance for liquids and solids normally is water.

The density of water is 1.000 g/cm3, 1000 kg/m 3, or 62.43 lb/ft3 at 4C.
The specific gravity of gases frequently is referred to air, but may be
referred to other gases.
The specific gravity of petroleum products is often reported in terms of a
hydrometer scale called API.
The equation for
the API scale
The volume and therefore the density
of petroleum products vary with temperature,
and the petroleum industry has established
60 F as the standard temperature for volume
and API gravity.

Example 2

In the production of a drug having a molecular weight of 192, the exit stream from
the reactor flows at a rate of 10.5 L/min. The drug concentration is 41.2% (in
water), and the specific gravity of the solution is 1.024. Calculate the concentration
of the drug (in kg/L) in the exit stream, and the flow rate of the drug in kg mol/min.

Solution

Flow Rate

For continuous processes the flow rate of a process stream is

the rate at which material is transported through a pipe. The
mass flow rate (m) of a process stream is the mass (m)
transported through a line per unit time (t).

The volumetric flow rate (F) of a process stream is the volume

(V) transported through a line per unit time.

The molar flow (n) rate of a process stream is the number of

moles (n) of a substance transported through a line per unit
time.

Mole Fraction and Mass (Weight) Fraction

Mole fraction is simply the number of moles of a particular compound in a

mixture or solution divided by the total number of moles in the mixture or solution.

This definition holds for gases, liquids, and solids.

Similarly, the mass (weight) fraction is nothing more than the mass (weight) of
the compound divided by the

Total mass (weight) of all of the compounds in the mixture or solution.

Mathematically, these ideas can be expressed as

Mole percent and mass (weight) percent are the respective fractions times
100.

Example 3
An industrial-strength drain cleaner contains 5 kg of water and 5 kg of NaOH. What
are the mass (weight) fractions and mole fractions of each component in the drain
cleaner container?

Solution
The kilogram moles are calculated as follows

Adding these quantities together gives the total kilogram moles

NaOH

0.353 kg mol

Analyses of Multi Components Solutions and Mixtures

The composition of gases will always be presumed to be given in mole

percent or fraction unless specifically stated otherwise.
The composition of liquids and solids will be given by mass (weight) percent
or fraction unless otherwise specifically stated.
For Example Table below lists the detailed composition of dry air
(composition of air 21% O2 and 79% N2

Concentration
Concentration generally refers to the quantity of some substance per unit
volume.
a. Mass per unit volume (lb of solute/ft3 of solution, g of solute/L, lb of
solute/barrel, kg of
solute/m3).
b. Moles per unit volume (lb mol of solute/ft3 of solution, g mol of solute/L, g
mol of
solute/cm3).
c.
Parts per million (ppm); parts per billion (ppb), a method of expressing the
concentration
of extremely dilute solutions; ppm is equivalent to a mass
(weight) fraction for solids and liquids because the total amount of material is
of a much higher order of magnitude than the amount of solute; it is a mole
fraction for gases.
d. Parts per million by volume (ppmv) and parts per billion by volume (ppbv)
e. Other methods of expressing concentration with which you may be familiar
are molarity
(g mol/L), molality (mole solute/kg solvent), and normality (equivalents/L).

Example 4

The current OSHA 8-hour limit for HCN (MW = 27.03) in air is 10.0 ppm. A
lethal dose of HCN in air is (from the Merck Index) 300 mg/kg of air at room
temperature.
a. How many mg HCN/kg air is 10.0 ppm?
b. What fraction of the lethal dose is 10.0 ppm?
Solution

Example 5
To avoid the possibility of explosion in a vessel containing gas
having the composition of 40% N2, 45% O2, and 15% CH4, the
recommendation is to dilute the gas mixture by adding an equal
amount of pure N2. What is the final mole fraction of each gas?
Solution

Choosing a Basis
A basis is a reference chosen by you for the calculations you plan to make
in any particular problem, and a
proper choice of basis frequently makes the problem much easier to solve.
The basis may be a period of time such as hours, or a given mass of
material, such as 5 kg of CO2, or some other convenient quantity.
For liquids and solids in which a mass (weight) analysis applies, a
convenient basis is often 1 or 100 lb or kg; similarly, 1 or 100 moles is often
a good choice for a gas.

Example 6
Gas mixture 10.0% H2, 40.0% CH4, 30.0% CO, and 20.0% CO2,
what is the average molecular weight of the gas?
Solution

Example 7
A medium-grade bituminous coal analyzes as follows:The residuum is C and H, and the mole ratio in the residuum is
H/C = 9. Calculate the weight (mass) fraction composition of the coal with the ash and the moisture omitted (ash
and moisture free).

Solution
Take as a basis 100 kg of coal because then percent = kilograms.
Basis: 100 kg of coal
The sum of the S + N + O + ash + water is 2 + 1 + 6 + 11 + 3 = 23 kg
We need to determine the individual kg of C and of H in the 77 kg total residuum.
To determine the kilograms of C and H, you have to select a new basis.

Example 7 -Solution
Take as a basis 100 kg of coal because then percent = kilograms.
Basis: 100 kg of coal
The sum of the S + N + O + ash + water is 2 + 1 + 6 + 11 + 3 = 23
kg
We need to determine the individual kg of C and of H in the 77 kg total
residuum.
To determine the kilograms of C and H, you have to select a new basis.

Example 7 -Solution

H: (77kg) (0.43) = 33.15 kg C: (77kg) (0.57) = 43.85 kg

Finally, we can prepare a table summarizing the results on the basis of 1 kg of the
coal ash-free and water-free.

Temperature

Temperature is a measure of the energy (mostly kinetic) of the molecules in

a system. This definition tells us about the amount of energy.
Other scientists prefer to say that temperature is a property of the state of
thermal equilibrium of the system with respect to other systems because
temperature tells us about the capability of a system to transfer energy (as
heat).
Four types of temperature:
Two based on a relative scale, degrees Fahrenheit (F) and Celsius (C), and
two based on an absolute scale, degree Rankine (R) and Kelvin (K).

Example 7
The heat capacity of sulfuric acid has the units J/(g mol)(C), and is given by the
relation Heat capacity = 139.1 + 1.56 * 10-1 T where T is expressed in C.
Modify the formula so that the resulting expression has the associated units of
Btu/(lb mol) (R) and T is in R.
Solution
TF = 1.8 TC + 32 TC = (TF 32)/1.8
TR = TF + 460 TF = TR
460
TC = [TR 460 32]/1.8

Pressure and its Units

Pressure is defined as the normal (perpendicular) force per unit area (Figure
5.1). The pressure at the bottom of the static (nonmoving) column of mercury
exerted on the sealing plate is

Where p = pressure at the bottom of the column of the fluid,

F = force,
A = area,
= density of fluid
g = acceleration of gravity,
h = height of the fluid column, and
p0 = pressure at the top of the column of fluid
Figure 5.1 Pressure is the normal force per
unit area. Arrows show the force exerted on
the respective areas

Example 8
Suppose that the cylinder of fluid in Figure is a column of mercury that has an area
of
1 cm2 and is 50 cm high. The density of the Hg is 13.55 g/cm3.
Solution
Thus, the force exerted by the mercury alone on the 1 cm2section of the bottom
plate
by the column of mercury is:

The pressure on the section of the plate covered by the mercury is the force per unit
area of the mercury plus the pressure of the atmosphere

If we had started with units in the AE system, the pressure would be computed as
[the density of mercury is 845.5 lbm/ft3]

Example 8- Solution

If we had started with units in the AE system, the pressure would be computed as
[the density of mercury is 845.5 lbm/ft3]

Measurement of Pressure

Pressure, like temperature, can be expressed using either an absolute or a

relative scale.

The relationship between relative and absolute pressure is given by the following
expression:
Gauge Pressure + Barometer Pressure = Absolute Pressure

Measurement of Pressure

The standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure (in a standard gravitational field)
equivalent to 1 atm or 760 mm Hg at 0C or other equivalent.
The standard atmosphere is equal to

1.00 atmospheres (atm)

33.91 feet of water (ft H2O)

14.7 pounds (force) per square inch absolute (psia) 29.92 inches of mercury (in.
Hg)

760.0 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg)

1.013 * 105 pascal (Pa) or newtons per square meter (N/m2); or 101.3 kPa

Pressure - Example
What is the equivalent pressure to 60 Gpa
(gigapascal) in

(a)
atmospheres
(b) psia
(c) inches of Hg

(d) mm of
Hg

Differential Pressure
Measurements
When the columns of fluids are at equilibrium (see
Figure 5.3), the relationship among 1, 2, 3, and the
heights of the various columns of fluid is as follows:

Note
If fluids 1 and 3 are gases, and fluid 2
is mercury, the density of the gas is
so much less than that of mercury that
you can ignore the term involving the gas in Equation (5.3) for
practical applications.
Can you show for the case in which 1 = 3 = that the
manometer expression reduces to the differential manometer
equation:

P1 P2 = (2 ) g d2

Example 10

In measuring the flow of fluid in a pipeline as shown in

Figure E5.4, a differential manometer was used to
determine the pressure difference across the orifice plate.
The flow rate was to be calibrated with the observed
pressure drop (difference). Calculate the pressure drop p1
- p2 in pascals for the manometer reading in Figure E5.4.

Example 11
Air is flowing through a duct under a draft of 4.0 cm H2O. The
barometer indicates that the atmospheric pressure is 730 mm
Hg. What is the absolute pressure of the air in inches of
mercury?
Solution
In this problem you can ignore the gas density above the
manometer fluid and the air above the open end of the
manometer.
See Figure E5.5

End of Chapter 1