Unit 5: Heat Treatment Processes: Fundamentals
Unit 5: Heat Treatment Processes: Fundamentals
Unit 5: Heat Treatment Processes: Fundamentals
Unit 5
Unit 5:
Heat Treatment Processes
Heat Treatment
Unit 5
Annealing:
Annealing involves heating the material to a predetermined temperature
and hold the material at the temperature and cool the material to the room
temperature slowly. The process involves:
1) Heating of the material at the
elevated
or
predetermined
temperature
2) Holding the material (Soaking) at
the temperature for longer time.
3) Very slowly cooling the material
to the room temperature.
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Heat Treatment
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Annealing:
The various purpose of these heat treatments is to:
1) Relieve Internal stresses developed during solidification,
machining, forging, rolling or welding,
2)
3)
Enhance Machinability,
Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
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Martensite
T Martensite
Bainite
Fine Pearlite
Coarse Pearlite
Spheroidite
Ductility
Strength
General Trends
Heat Treatment
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Iron-carbon alloy
with Eutectoid
(0.8 % C)
composition.
A: Austenite
P: Pearlite
B: Bainite
M: Martensite
Unit 5
Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
Example 1:
Iron-carbon
alloy with
eutectoid composition.
final microstructure (%
bainite,
martensite,
pearlite etc) for the alloy
that is subjected to the
following
time
temperature treatments:
Alloy
begins at 760C
and has been held long
enough to achieve a
complete
and
homogeneous austenitic
structure.
Treatment (a)
Rapidly cool to 350 C
Bainite
, 100%
Unit 5
Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
Example 2:
Iron-carbon
alloy with
eutectoid composition.
final microstructure (%
bainite,
martensite,
pearlite etc) for the alloy
that is subjected to the
following
time
temperature treatments:
begins at 760C
and has been held long
enough to achieve a
complete
and
homogeneous austenitic
structure.
Austenit
e, 100%
Alloy
Treatment (b)
Rapidly cool to 250 C
Martensite,
100%
Unit 5
Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
Example 3:
Iron-carbon alloy with eutectoid
composition.
Specify the nature of the final
microstructure
(%
bainite,
martensite, pearlite etc) for the
alloy that is subjected to the
following
timetemperature
treatments:
Austenit
e, 100%
Almost 50%
Pearlite, 50%
Austenite
Bainite,
50%
Treatment (c)
Rapidly cool to 650C
Hold for 20 seconds
Rapidly cool to 400C
Hold for 103 seconds
Quench to room temperature
Final:
50%
Bainite,
50%
Pearlite
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Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
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These internal stresses under certain conditions can have adverse effects:
example: Steels with residual stresses under corrosive environment fail with stress
corrosion cracking.
These stresses also enhance the tendency
of steels towards warpage and dimensional
instability.
Fatigue strength is reduced considerably
when residual tensile stresses are present
in steel.
The problems associated with internal
stresses are more difficult in brittle
materials than in ductile materials.
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Stress Corrosion Cracking
Heat Treatment
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Stress Corrosion Cracking
Heat Treatment
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Annealing: Normalizing
Normalizing is similar to full annealing, except steel is generally cooled
in still air.
The normalizing consists of
heating steel to about 40-55 oC
above critical temperature
(Ac3 or Accm), and holding for
proper item and then cooling
in still air or slightly agitated
air to room temperature.
In some special cases,
cooling rates can be controlled
by either changing air
temperature or air volume.
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Heat Treatment
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Annealing: Normalizing
After normalizing, the resultant micro-structure should be pearlitic.
Since the temperature involved
in this process is more than that
for annealing , the homogeneity
of austenite increases and it
results in better dispersion of
ferrite and Cementite in the final
structure.
Results in better dispersion of
ferrite and Cementite in the final
structure.
The grain size is finer in normalized structure than in annealed structure.
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Heat Treatment
Unit 5
Annealing: Normalizing
Normalized steels are generally stronger and harder than fully annealed
steels.
Steels are soft in annealed
condition and tend to stick during
machining. By normalizing, an
optimum combination of strength
and softness is achieved, which
results in satisfactory level of
Machinability in steels.
Normalizing is the effective
way to eliminate the carbide
network.
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Heat Treatment
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Annealing: Normalizing
Normalized treatment is frequently applied to steel in order to achieve
any one or more of the objectives, namely:
To refine the grain structure,
To obtain uniform structure,
To decrease residual stresses,
To improve Machinability.
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Heat Treatment
Unit 5
Hardening:
Hardening and Hardness are two very different things. One is a process
of heat treatment and other is a extrinsic property of a material.
Hardening is a heat treatment
process in which steel is rapidly cooled
from austenitising temperature. As a
result of hardening, the hardness and
wear resistance of steel are improved.
Hardening treatment generally
consists of heating to hardening
temperature,
holding
at
that
temperature, followed by rapid cooling
such as quenching in oil or water or salt
baths.
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Heat Treatment
Unit 5
Hardening:
The high hardness developed by this process is due to the phase
transformation accompanying rapid cooling. Rapid cooling results in the
transformation of austenite at considerably low temperature into nonequilibrium products.
The hardening temperature depends on chemical composition. For plain
carbon steels, it depends on the carbon content alone. Hypoeutectoid steels
are heated to about 30 50 oC above the upper critical temperature, whereas
eutectoid and hyper eutectoid steels are heated to about 30 50 oC above
lower critical temperature.
Ferrite and pearlite transform to austenite at hardening temperature for
hypoectectoid steel. This austenite transforms to martensite on rapid
quenching from hardening temperature. The presence of martensite
accounts for high hardness of quenched steel.
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Heat Treatment
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Hardening:
Hardening is applied to cutting tools and machine parts where high hardness and
wear resistance are important.
The Process Variables:
Hardening Temperature: The steel should be heat treated to optimum austenitising
temperature. A lower temperature results lower hardness due to incomplete
transformation t austenite. If this temperature is too high will also results lower
hardness due to a coarse grained structure.
Soaking Time: Soaking time at hardening temperature should be long enough to
transform homogenous austenite structure. Soaking time increases with increase in
section thickness and the amount of alloying element.
Delay in quenching: After soaking, the steel is immediately quenched. Delay in
quenching may reduce hardness due to partial transformation of austenite.
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Type of quenching medium also has a profound effect, which will be discussed briefly.
Heat Treatment
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Hardening:
The main purpose of hardening tool steel is to develop high hardness.
This enables tool steel to cut other metals. High hardness developed by
this process also improves wear resistance. Gears, shafts and bearings.
Tensile strength and yield strength are improved considerably y hardening
structural steels.
Because of rapid cooling, high
internal stresses are developed in
the hardened steel. Hence these
steels are generally brittle.
Hardening in general is followed
by another treatment known as
tempering which reduces internal
stresses and makes the hardened
steel relatively stable,
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Heat Treatment
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Tempering:
Hardened steels are so brittle that even a small impact will cause
fracture. Toughness of such a steel can be improved by tempering.
However there is small reduction in strength and hardness.
Tempering is a sub-critical heat
treatment process used to improve
the toughness of hardened steel.
Tempering consists of reheating
of hardened steel to a temperature
below Lower critical temperature
and is held for a period of time, and
then slowly cooled in air to room
temperature.
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Heat Treatment
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Tempering:
At tempering temperature, carbon atoms diffuses out and form fine
cementite and softer ferrite structure left behind. Thus the structure of
tempered steel consists of ferrite and fine cementite.
Thus tempering allows to precipitate
carbon as very fine carbide and allow the
microstructure to return to BCC
The temperatures are related to the
function of the parts. Cutting tools are
tempered between 230 300 oC. If greater
ductility and toughness are desired as in case
of shafts and high strength bolts, the steel is
tempered in the range of 300 600 oC.
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Heat Treatment
Unit 5
Tempering:
Tempering temperatures are usually identified by the colour. Tempering
temperatures for tools and shafts along with temper colors.
Depending on temperatures, tempering processes can be classified as:
1) Low- temperature tempering
(150 250 oC),
2) Medium temperature
tempering (350 450 oC),
3) High temperature tempering
(500 650 oC).
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Heat Treatment
Unit 5
Tempering:
Tempering temperatures are usually identified by the colour. Tempering
temperatures for tools and shafts along with temper colors.
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Heat Treatment
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Hardenability:
The responsibility of a steel to a given hardening treatment is indicated by
the property known as Hardenability.
It is an index of the depth to which
the martensite can be formed in a
given steel as a result of a given
hardening treatment.
The term Hardenability is used to
measure the depth of hardness
achieved i.e. martensite introduced
into the steel section by quenching
the steel from austenite state.
Greater the depth of hardness below the surface, higher will be the
Hardenability of steel.
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Heat Treatment
Unit 5
Hardenability:
Hardenability of steel depends on composition of steel, method of
quenching and section of steel.
The addition of alloying elements
in steel decreases the critical cooling
rate. Thus the Hardenability of alloy
steels is more than that of the carbon
steels.
While in the oil quenching, the
cooling rates are lower than water
quenching and thus the hardness
values are lower in case of oil
quenched steels.
The larger section shows lower Hardenability because of their increase
mass results in a lower overall rate of cooling.
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Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
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Quenching:
Quenching is a process of rapid cooling of materials from high
temperature to room temperature or even lower. In steels quenching
results in transformation of austenite to martensite (a non-equilibrium
constituent).
During cooling, heat must be extracted at
a very fast rate from the steel piece. This is
possible only when a steel piece is allowed
to come in contact with some medium which
can absorb heat from the steel piece with in a
short period.
Under ideal conditions, all the heat
absorbed by the medium should be rejected
to the surroundings immediately.
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Heat Treatment
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Quenching:
The removal of heat during quenching is complex in the sense that heat
is removed in three stages.
1) Vapor Blanket,
2)
Nucleate Boiling,
3) Convection.
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Heat Treatment
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Quenching:
Vapor Blanket (stage 1)
As soon as the work-piece comes into contact with a liquid coolant
(quenchant), the surrounding quenchant layer is instantaneously heated up
to the boiling point of the quenchant and gets vaporized due to the high
temperature of the work- piece.
This acts as an insulator, preventing
the quenching oil from contacting the
metal surface. As a consequence, the rate
of cooling during this stage is slow.
At this stage the work piece is cooled
only by conduction and radiation
through the vapor film.
Only the surface is cooled
considerably prior to the formation of
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vapor envelop.
Heat Treatment
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Quenching:
Nucleate Boiling (stage 2)
This second stage is also called as transport cooling stage or liquid
boiling stage. The temperature of the work-piece comes down, through
very slowly and the vapor blanket is no longer stable and collapses.
Metal surface comes into contact with the liquid/
quenchant. Violent boiling quickly removes heat
from the quenched component while forming
bubbles and being pushed away, resulting in the
cooler fluid coming into contact with the work
piece.
This happens till the temperature of the work piece
comes down to the boiling point of the liquid.
Maximum cooling rate is achieved during this
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stage.
Heat Treatment
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Quenching:
Convection (stage 3)
The third stage is called as the liquid cooling stage or the convection stage.
I starts when the temperature of the
surface becomes equal to the boiling
point of the quenchant.
Cooling at this stage takes place via
conduction and convection processes.
The rate of cooling is the slowest at
this stage.
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Fine Pearlite
- Larger T:
colonies are
smaller
Heat Treatment
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Surface Hardening:
In many situations hard and wear resistance surface is required with the
tough core. Because of tough core the components can withstand impact
load. The typical applications requiring these conditions include gear
teeth, cams shafts, bearings, crank pins, clutch plate, tools and dies.
The combination of the these properties can be achieved by the
following methods:
1. Hardening and tempering the surface layers (surface hardening)
(i) Flame Hardening
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The flame hardening methods are suitable for the steels with carbon
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contents ranging from 0.40 to 0.95% and low alloy steels.
Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
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2 CO C + CO2
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Heat Treatment
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Liquid Carburising
Gas Carburising
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Heat Treatment
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2 NH3 2N + 3H2
The atomic nitrogen diffuses into steel surface, and combines with the
alloying elements (Cr, Mo, W, V etc) to form hard nitrides. The depth to
which nitrides are formed in the steel depends on the temperature and the
time allowed for the reaction. After the nitriding the job is allowed to cool
slowly. Since there is no quenching involved, chances of cracking and
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distortion of the component are less.
Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
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LPU
MEC208
End of UNIT - 5