Compaction

Introduction
More often a geotechnical engineer encounters a difficult ground site for
construction and the ground site may not be suitable for supporting heavy
structures
Loose granular soil deposits (insitu or fills) indicate a large elastic settlement and
needs to be densified to increase its unit weight and thus shear strength
Soft saturated clay layers undergo large consolidation settlement, depending on the
structural load and depth of clay layers
Expansive soils swell considerably when water is added to them and shrink with the
loss of water. Foundations constructed on such expansive clays are subjected to large
uplifting forces during swelling.

Possible alternative conditions

when a project encounters difficult foundation condition

Relocate and avoid the project site

Design the planned structure or foundation
accordingly
Eg. Pile foundation, Stiff or flexible structure

Replace unsuitable soil

Modify the existing ground i.e., Ground
Improvement

Ground Improvement
Technique?

It is the geotechnical construction method used to

modify and improve poor and marginal soil and rock
conditions to meet project requirements

Objectives
To increase strength and reduce erodability
To reduce distortion under stress
To reduce compressibility
To control shrinking and swelling (improve volume stability)
To control permeability, reduce water pressure and redirect
seepage
To reduce susceptibility of liquefaction
To reduce natural variability of borrowed material or
foundation soil.

Classification of ground improvement

techniques
Mechanical modification
Compaction of surface layers
Deep compaction
Hydraulic modification
Lowering of ground water level
Pre-loading or Pre-compression
Electro kinetic stabilization
Physical and chemical modification
Modification by inclusion and confinement

Mechanical Modification
Increase of soil density by the application of
short term mechanical forces
Compaction of surface layers - by Static,
vibratory, impact rollers and plate vibrators
Deep compaction - by heavy tamping at the
surface or vibration at depth

Compaction
Compaction is the densification of soils by
the application of mechanical energy.
It is the process by which the soil grains get
rearranged more closely, the volume of air
voids get reduced, and the density of soil
increases.

 The objective of compaction is the improvement

of the engineering properties of the soil mass.
Advantages:
Settlements can be reduced or prevented
Soil strength increase and slope stability can be
improved
Bearing capacity of pavement subgrade can be
improved
Reduces the coefficient of permeability
Reduces the liquefaction potential
Undesirable volume changes caused by frost
action, swelling and shrinkage may be
controlled.

Differences between compaction and consolidation

Compaction

Consolidation

Instantaneous phenomenon

Time-dependant
phenomenon

Soil is always unsaturated

Densification is due to a
reduction in volume of air
voids at a given water
content

Soil is completely saturated

Volume reduction is due to
expulsion of pore water from
voids

Specified compaction
techniques are used

Consolidation occurs on
account of a load placed on
the soil

Laboratory tests
The aim of the laboratory tests is to
simulate the field compaction conditions.
R.R. Proctor in early 1930s developed the
principles of compaction.
Proctor established that compaction is a
function of four variables:
Dry density
Water content
Compactive effort and
Soil type

Standard Proctor Test

944 cc or 1/30 cft mould.
Mould filled with three layers.
Each layer is compacted by 25 blows by a hammer of
2.495 kg (5.51 lb), falling through 304.8mm (12).

Modified Proctor Test

944 cc or 1/30 cft mould.
Mould filled with five layers.
Each layer is compacted by 25 blows by a hammer of
4.54 kg (10 lb), falling through 457.2mm (18).

IS Proctor Test
For IS 2720 (1983) Part VII and VIII:
Vol. of mould = 1000 cc
Wt. of hammer = 2.6kg (standard), 4.9kg (modified)
Ht. of drop = 310mm (standard), 450mm (modified)

Proctor Test
Test is repeated at different water contents (or degree of
saturations).
The dry unit weight of each compacted sample is plotted
against the water content (Compaction Curve).

d
1 w

Theoretical curves for different degree of saturations

can be given by:

GS w
d
wGS
1
S

MDD

OMC

Standard and modified Proctor compaction curves

Water content-dry density relationships for eight soils compacted

according to the Standard Proctor mehtod

Properties and Structure of Compacted

Cohesive Soils

The structure and thus the engineering

properties of compacted cohesive soils will
depend greatly on:
the method or type of compaction
Dry of optimum: independent of the type of compaction
Wet of optimum: significant effect on the soil structure

the compactive effort applied

the soil type, and
on the molding water content

Dry of optimum

Wet of optimum

Flocculated

Dispersed or
oriented

Effect of compaction on soil structure

Change in permeability with molding water content

Change in
compressibility with
molding water content

Shrinkage as a function
of water content and
type of compaction
Swelling of compacted clays is
greater for those compacted dry
of optimum.
Opposite is true for shrinkage

Strength as a function of
compactive effort and
molding water content

Dry of optimum have higher

strengths than those compacted
wet of optimum

Comparison of soil properties between dry of optimum

and wet of optimum compaction.

Field Compaction Equipment

and Procedures

Comparision of field and laboratory compaction.

1. Laboratory static compaction, 2000 psi
2. Modified Proctor
3. Standard Proctor
4. Laboratory Static compaction, 200 psi
5. Field compaction, rubber-tired load, 6 coverages
6. Field compaction, sheepfoot roller, 6 passes
Note: static compaction from top and bottom of soil sample.

Equipment
Smooth-wheel roller (drum)

100%
wheel

coverage

under

the

Contact pressure up to 380 kPa

Can be used on all soil types
except for rocky soils.
Compactive effort: static weight
The most common use of large
smooth wheel rollers is for
proof-rolling subgrades and
compacting asphalt pavement.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

27

Equipment (Cont.)
Pneumatic (or rubber-tired) roller

80% coverage under the wheel

Contact pressure up to 700 kPa
Can be used for both granular
and fine-grained soils.
Compactive effort: static weight
and kneading.
Can be used for highway fills or
earth dam construction.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

28

Equipment (Cont.)
Sheepsfoot rollers

Has many round or rectangular

shaped protrusions or feet
attached to a steel drum
8% ~ 12 % coverage
Contact pressure is from 1400
to 7000 kPa
It is best suited for clayed soils.
Compactive effort: static weight
and kneading.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

29

Equipment (Cont.)
Tamping foot roller

About 40% coverage

Contact pressure is from 1400
to 8400 kPa
It is best for compacting finegrained soils (silt and clay).
Compactive effort: static weight
and kneading.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

30

Equipment (Cont.)
Mesh (or grid pattern) roller

50% coverage
Contact pressure is from 1400
to 6200 kPa
It
is
ideally
suited
for
compacting rocky soils, gravels,
and sands. With high towing
speed, the material is vibrated,
crushed, and impacted.
Compactive effort: static weight
and vibration.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

31

Equipment (Cont.)
Vibrating drum on smooth-wheel roller

Vertical vibrator attached to

smooth wheel rollers.
The best explanation of why
roller
vibration
causes
densification of granular soils is
that particle rearrangement
occurs
due
to
cyclic
deformation
of
the
soil
produced by the oscillations of
the roller.
Compactive effort: static weight
and vibration.

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Suitable for granular soils

32

Compaction results on 30 cm layers of silty sand, with and without vibration,

using a 7700 kg towed vibratory roller (Holtz and Kovacs 1981)

Variables-Vibratory Compaction
There are many variables which control the vibratory
compaction or densification of soils.
Characteristics of the compactor:
(1) Mass, size
(2) Operating frequency and frequency range

Characteristics of the soil:

(1) Initial density
(2) Grain size and shape
(3) Water content

Construction procedures:
(1) Number of passes of the roller
(2) Lift thickness
(3) Frequency of operation vibrator
(4) Towing speed
Holtz
34and Kovacs, 1981

Frequency
The
frequency
at
which a maximum
density is achieved is
called the optimum
frequency.

35

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Roller Travel Speed

For a given number of
passes, a higher density is
obtained if the vibrator is
towed more slowly.

Effect of roller travel speed

on amount of compaction
with 7700 kg towed
vibratory roller

36

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Roller Passes
When compacting
past five or so
coverages, there
is not a great
increase
in
density

240 cm think layer

of northern Indiana
dune sand
5670
kg
roller
operating
at
a
frequency of 27.5
Hz.
37

Holtz and Kovacs,

1981

Determine the Lift Height

38

Holtz and Kovacs,

1981

Dynamic Compaction
Dynamic compaction was first used in
Germany in the mid-1930s.
The depth of influence D, in meters, of
soil undergoing compaction is
conservatively given by
D (Wh)1/2
W = mass of falling weight in metric tons.
h = drop height in meters

39

From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Vibroflotation
Vibroflotation is a technique
for in situ densification of
thick layers of loose granular
soil
deposits.
It
was
developed in Germany in the
1930s.

40

From Das,
1998

Vibroflotation-Procedures

From Das,
1998

Stage1: The jet at the bottom of the Vibroflot is turned on and lowered into the ground
Stage2: The water jet creates a quick condition in the soil. It allows the vibrating unit to
sink into the ground
Stage 3: Granular material is poured from the top of the hole. The water from the lower
jet is transferred to he jet at the top of the vibrating unit. This water carries the granular
material down the hole
Stage 4: The vibrating unit is gradually raised in about 0.3-m lifts and held vibrating for
41desired unit
about 30 seconds at each lift. This process compacts the soil to the
weight.

Equipment-Summary

42

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Smooth Wheel Roller

Rubber-tired roller

Vibrating drum on smooth-wheel roller

Grid roller

Types of scrapers

Field Compaction
Control and Specifications

Control Parameters
Dry density and water content correlate well with the
engineering properties, and thus they are convenient
construction control parameters.
Since the objective of compaction is to stabilize soils and
improve their engineering behavior, it is important to keep
in mind the desired engineering properties of the fill, not
just its dry density and water content. This point is often
lost in the earthwork construction control.

51

From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Design-Construct Procedures
Laboratory tests are conducted on samples of the
proposed borrow materials to define the properties
required for design.
After the earth structure is designed, the compaction
specifications are written. Field compaction control tests
are specified, and the results of these become the
standard for controlling the project.

52

From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Specifications
(1) End-product specifications
()This specification is used for most highways and building
foundation, as long as the contractor is able to obtain the
specified relative compaction , how he obtains it doesnt
matter, nor does the equipment he uses.
()Care the results only !
(2) Method specifications
()The type and weight of roller, the number of passes of
that roller, as well as the lift thickness are specified. A
maximum allowable size of material may also be specified.
()It is typically used for large compaction project.
53

From Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Relative Compaction (R.C.)

Relative compaction or percent compaction

R.C.

d filed

d max laboratory

100%

Correlation between relative compaction (R.C.) and

the relative density Dr

R.C. 80 0.2D r

Typical required R.C. = 90% ~ 95%

It is a statistical
result based on 47
soil samples.
As Dr = 0, R.C. is
80
54

Determine the Water Content (in Field)

100% saturation

Line of
optimums

(1) Relative compaction

(2) Water content (dry side or wet
side)

d max
Dry density, d

Control

90% R.C.

Increase
compactio
n energy
a

wopt
Water content w %

Note:
the
engineering
properties may be different
between the compacted
sample at the dry side and
at the wet 55
side.
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Destructive
Methods
Methods
(a) Sand cone
(b) Balloon
(c) Oil (or water)
method
Calculations

(a)

(b)

Know Ms and Vt
Get d field and w (water
(c)
content)
Compare d field with d max-lab
and calculate relative
compaction R.C.

56

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Sand pouring cylinder used in sand replacement

method

Calibrating container for sand replacement method

Destructive Methods (Cont.)

Sometimes, the laboratory maximum density may not be
known exactly. It is not uncommon, especially in highway
construction, for a series of laboratory compaction tests to
be conducted on representative samples of the borrow
materials for the highway. If the soils at the site are highly
varied, there will be no laboratory results to be compared
with. It is time consuming and expensive to conduct a new
compaction curve. The alternative is to implement a field
check point, or 1 point Proctor test.

59

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Destructive Methods (Cont.)

Line of
optimum
s

Check Point Method

100% saturation

Known compaction
curves A, B, C
Field check point X
(it should be on the
dry side of
optimum)

Dry density, d

1 point Proctor test

A
d max

Y(no)
B

X
M
C
wopt

60

Water content w

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Destructive Methods (Cont.)

The measuring error is mainly from the determination
of the volume of the excavated material.
For example,
For the sand cone method, the vibration from nearby working
equipment will increase the density of the sand in the hole,
which will gives a larger hole volume and a lower field density.
d field M s / Vt
If the compacted fill is gravel or contains large gravel particles.
Any kind of unevenness in the walls of the hole causes a
significant error in the balloon method.
If the soil is coarse sand or gravel, none of the liquid methods
works well, unless the hole is very large and a polyethylene
sheet is used to contain the water or oil.
61

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Nondestructive Methods
Nuclear density meter

(a)

(a) Direct transmission

(b) Backscatter
(c) Air gap
Principles

Density
The Gamma radiation is scattered by
the soil particles and the amount of
scatter is proportional to the total
density of the material. The Gamma
radiation is typically provided by the
radium or a radioactive isotope of
cesium.
Water content
The water content can be determined
based on the neutron scatter by

(b)

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

(c)
62

Nondestructive Methods (Cont.)

Calibration
Calibration against compacted materials of known density
is necessary, and for instruments operating on the surface
the presence of an uncontrolled air gap can significantly
affect the measurements.

63

References
Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981).
An Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering, Prentice Hall.