Effects of Fading

Irreducible Bit Error Rate due to multipath

Irreducible Bit Error Rate due to

multipath

Multiple Access Techniques for

Wireless Communication
FDMA
TDMA
SDMA
PDMA

Introduction

many users at same time

share a finite amount of radio spectrum
high performance
duplexing generally required
frequency domain
time domain

Frequency division duplexing (FDD)

two bands of frequencies for every user

forward band
reverse band
duplexer needed
frequency seperation between forward band
and reverse band is constant
reverse channel

forward channel

frequency seperation

Time division duplexing (TDD)

uses time for forward and reverse link

multiple users share a single radio channel
forward time slot
reverse time slot
no duplexer is required
reverse channel

forward channel

time seperation

Multiple Access Techniques

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)

Time division multiple access (TDMA)
Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Space division multiple access (SDMA)
grouped as:
narrowband systems
wideband systems

Narrowband systems

large number of narrowband channels

usually FDD
Narrowband FDMA
Narrowband TDMA
FDMA/FDD
FDMA/TDD
TDMA/FDD
TDMA/TDD

Logical separation FDMA/FDD

user 1

forward channel
reverse channel
...

user n

forward channel
reverse channel
t

Logical separation FDMA/TDD

user 1
forward channel
reverse channel
...

user n
forward channel
reverse channel
t

Logical separation TDMA/FDD

forward

forward

channel

channel
...

user 1

user n

reverse

reverse

channel

channel

Logical separation TDMA/TDD

user 1

user n

forward reverse

... forward reverse

channel channel

channel channel

Wideband systems

large number of transmitters on one channel

TDMA techniques
CDMA techniques
FDD or TDD multiplexing techniques
TDMA/FDD
TDMA/TDD
CDMA/FDD
CDMA/TDD

Logical separation CDMA/FDD

user 1
forward channel
reverse channel
...

code

user n
forward channel
reverse channel
f

Logical separation CDMA/TDD

user 1
forward channel
reverse channel
...

code

user n
forward channel
reverse channel
t

Multiple Access Techniques in use

Cellular System

Multiple Access
Technique

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

FDMA/FDD

Global System for Mobile (GSM)

TDMA/FDD

US Digital Cellular (USDC)

TDMA/FDD

Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) FDMA/TDD

US Narrowband Spread Spectrum (IS-95)

CDMA/FDD

Frequency division multiple access FDMA

one phone circuit per channel
idle time causes wasting of resources
simultaneously and continuously
transmitting
usually implemented in narrowband systems
for example: in AMPS is a FDMA
bandwidth of 30 kHz implemented

FDMA compared to TDMA

fewer bits for synchronization

fewer bits for framing
higher cell site system costs
higher costs for duplexer used in base
station and subscriber units
FDMA requires RF filtering to minimize
adjacent channel interference

Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

many channels - same antenna
for maximum power efficiency operate near
saturation
near saturation power amplifiers are
nonlinear
nonlinearities causes signal spreading
intermodulation frequencies

Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

IM are undesired harmonics
interference with other channels in the
FDMA system
decreases user C/I - decreases performance
interference outside the mobile radio band:
adjacent-channel interference
RF filters needed - higher costs

Number of channels in a FDMA system

Bt -2 Bguard
N=
Bc

N number of channels
Bt total spectrum allocation
Bguard guard band
Bc channel bandwidth

Example: Advanced Mobile Phone System

AMPS
FDMA/FDD
analog cellular system
12.5 MHz per simplex band - Bt
Bguard = 10 kHz ; Bc = 30 kHz
12.5E6 - 2*(10E3)
N=
30E3

= 416 channels

Time Division Multiple Access

time slots
one user per slot
buffer and burst method
noncontinuous transmission
digital data
digital modulation

Repeating Frame Structure

One TDMA Frame
Preamble

Information Message

Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3

Trail Bits

Sync. Bits

Information Data

The frame is cyclically repeated over time.

Trail Bits

Slot N

Guard Bits

Features of TDMA

a single carrier frequency for several users

transmission in bursts
low battery consumption
handoff process much simpler
FDD : switch instead of duplexer
very high transmission rate
high synchronization overhead
guard slots necessary

Number of channels in a TDMA system

m*(Btot - 2*Bguard)
N=
Bc

N number of channels
m number of TDMA users per radio channel
Btot total spectrum allocation
Bguard Guard Band
Bc channel bandwidth

Example: Global System for Mobile (GSM)

TDMA/FDD
forward link at Btot = 25 MHz
radio channels of Bc = 200 kHz
if m = 8 speech channels supported, and
if no guard band is assumed :

8*25E
N=
6200E3

= 1000 simultaneous users

Efficiency of TDMA
percentage of transmitted data that contain
information
frame efficiency f
usually end user efficiency < f ,
because of source and channel coding
How get f ?

Efficiency of TDMA
bOH = Nr*br + Nt*bp + Nt*bg + Nr*bg

bOH number of overhead bits

Nr number of reference bursts per frame
br reference bits per reference burst
Nt number of traffic bursts per frame
bp overhead bits per preamble in each slot
bg equivalent bits in each guard time
intervall

Efficiency of TDMA
bT = Tf * R
bT total number of bits per frame
Tf frame duration
R channel bit rate

Efficiency of TDMA
f = (1-bOH/bT)*100%

f frame efficiency
bOH number of overhead bits per frame
bT total number of bits per frame

9.4 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

Conceptual view

A narrowband
signal

wideband
noise-like signal

Pseudo-noise (PN) sequence

Immune to multi-path interference

Robust multiple access capability in a
multiple users environment
Types of spread spectrum multiple access
Frequency hopping
direct sequence (also called CDMA)
35

FH
carrier frequencies of the individual users are
varied in a pseudo random fashion within a
wideband channel
Digital data is broken into uniform sized
bursts which are transmitted on different
carrier frequencies.
The instantaneous bandwidth of any one
transmission burst is much smaller than the
total spread bandwidth.
37

 Pseudorandom change of the carrier

frequencies of the user randomizes the
occupancy of a specific channel at any
given time, thereby allowing for multiple
access over a wide range of frequencies.
in the receiver, a locally generated PN code
is used to synch the receiver instantaneous
frequency with that of the transmitter
38

 At any given point in time, a frequency hopped

signal only occupies a signal, relatively narrow
channel since narrowband FM or FSK is used.
A frequency hopped system provides a level of
security, especially when a large number of
channels are used, since an unintended (or an
intercepting) receiver that does not know the
pseudorandom sequence of frequency slots
must retune rapidly to search for the signal it
wishes to intercept.
39

CDMA
The narrowband message signal is multiplied by a
very large bandwidth signal called the spreading
signal.
The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code
sequence that has a chip rate which is order of
magnitudes greater than the data rate of the
message.
Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword
which is approximately orthogonal to all other
codewords.
40

 receiver performs a time correlation

operation to detect only the specific
desired codeword
For detection of the message signal, the
receiver needs to know the codeword
used by the XMIT.
Each user operates independently with
no knowledge of the other users.
41

 In CDMA, the power of multipath users at a receiver

determines the noise floor after decorrelation.
If the power of each user within a cell is not
controlled such that the near-far problem occurs.
To combat the near-far problem, power control is
used in most CDMA implementations.
This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber
overpowering the base station receiver and drowning out
the signals of far away subscribers.
42

 Power control is provided by each base

station in a cellular system and assures that
each mobile within the base station
coverage area provides the same signal
level to the base station receiver. This
solves the problem of a near by subscriber
over powering the base station

 Power control is implemented at the base

station by rapidly sampling the radio signal
strength indicator levels of each mobile and
then sending a power change command
over the forward radio link.

 Features of CDMA:
Many users share the same frequency. Either
TDD or FDD may be used.
Has a soft capacity limit. Increasing the number
of users in a CDMA system raises the noise
floor in a linear manner.
45

 Thus, there is no absolute limit on the

number of users in CDMA. Rather, the
system performance gradually degrades for
all users as the number of users is increased.
Inherent frequency diversity will mitigate the
effects of both multipath fading and small-scale
fading.

46

9.4.3 hybrid spread spectrum techniques

Hybrid FDMA/CDMA
The required bandwidth not be contiguous.
Different users can be allocated different
subspectrum bandwidths depending on their
requirements.

Hybrid direct sequence/Frequency Hopped

Consists of a direct sequence modulated signal
whose center frequency is made to hop
periodically in a pseudorandom fashion.
Avoids the near-far problem
But, not adaptable to the soft handoff.

47

48

49

 Time division CDMA

Different spreading codes are assigned to different
cells.
only one user per cell is allotted a particular time
slot.
it avoids the near-far effect since only one user
transmits at a time within a cell.
50

 Time division frequency hopping

Subscriber can hop to a new frequency at the start of a
new TDMA frame, thus avoiding severe multipath
fading or co-channel interference.
Has been adopted for the GSM standard, where the
hopping sequence is predefined and the subscriber is
allowed to hop only on certain frequencies which are
assigned to a cell.
The use of TDFH can increase the capacity of GSM by
several fold.
51

Space Division Multiple Access

Controls radiated energy for each user in space

using spot beam antennas
base station tracks user when moving
cover areas with same frequency:
TDMA or CDMA systems
cover areas with different frequency:
FDMA systems

Space Division Multiple Access

primitive applications are
Sectorized antennas

in future adaptive
antennas simultaneously
steer energy in the
direction of many users at
once

Reverse link problems

general problem
different propagation path from user to base
dynamic control of transmitting power from
each user to the base station required
limits by battery consumption of subscriber
units
possible solution is a filter for each user

Solution by SDMA systems

adaptive antennas promise to mitigate reverse
link problems
limiting case of infinitesimal beamwidth
limiting case of infinitely fast track ability
thereby unique channel that is free from
interference
all user communicate at same time using the
same channel

Disadvantage of SDMA
perfect adaptive antenna system:
infinitely large antenna needed
compromise needed

SDMA and PDMA in satellites

INTELSAT IVA
SDMA dual-beam
receive antenna
simultaneously access
from two different
regions of the earth

SDMA and PDMA in satellites

COMSTAR 1
PDMA
separate antennas
simultaneously
access from same
region

SDMA and PDMA in satellites

INTELSAT V
PDMA and SDMA
two hemispheric
coverages by SDMA
two smaller beam zones
by PDMA
orthogonal polarization

Packet Radio

Packet Radio Protocols

Carrier Sense Multiple Access(CSMA)
Protocol
Reservation Protocols

Packet Radio
In packet radio (PR) access techniques, many subscribers attempt
to access a single channel in an uncoordinated( or minimally
coordinated) manner. Collisions from the simultaneous
transmissions of multiple transmitters are detected at the base
station receiver, in which case an ACK or NACK signal is
broadcast by the base station to alert the desired user of received
transmission.
The subscribers use a contention technique to transmit on a
common channel. ALOHA protocols are the best examples of
contention techniques.
The performance of contention techniques can be evaluated by
the throughput(T), and the average delay(D).

Packet Radio Protocol

Vulnerable period: the time interval during which the packets are
susceptible to collisions with transmissions form other users.

Packet Radio Protocol (Contd)

Assumption:
All packets sent by all users have a constant
packet length and fixed, channel data rate.
All other users may generate new packets at
random time intervals.
Packet transmissions occur with a Poisson
distribution having a mean arrival rate of
packets per second.

 The traffic occupancy or throughput R:

R=
Is the mean arrival rate in packets per
second
Is theis the packet duration in seconds

Packet Radio Protocol (Contd)

T=R*Pr (no collision)
T: the normalized throughput.
Pr[no collision]: the probability of a user
making a successful packet transmission

Capacity of Cellular Systems

channel capacity: maximum number of users
in a fixed frequency band
radio capacity : value for spectrum efficiency
reverse channel interference
forward channel interference
How determine the radio capacity?

Co-Channel Reuse Ratio Q

Q=D/R
Q co-channel reuse ratio
D distance between two co-channel cells
R cell radius

Forward channel interference

cluster size of 4
D0 distance
serving station
to user
DK distance
co-channel base
station to user

Carrier-to-interference ratio C/I

M closest co-channels cells cause first order
interference

C
I

-n0

D0
= M
-nk
D
K
k=1

n0 path loss exponent in the desired cell

nk path loss exponent to the interfering
base station

Carrier-to-interference ratio C/I

Assumption:
just the 6 closest stations interfere
all these stations have the same distance D
all have similar path loss exponents to n 0
-n

C
D0
=
-n
I
6*D

Worst Case Performance

maximum interference at D0 = R
(C/I)min for acceptable signal quality
following equation must hold:
-n

1/6 * (R/D)

>
=

(C/I)min

Co-Channel reuse ratio Q

Q = D/R =

1/n
(6*(C/I)min)

D distance of the 6 closest interfering

base
stations
R cell radius
(C/I)min minimum carrier-to-interference
ratio
n path loss exponent

Radio Capacity m
m=

Bt
Bc * N

radio channels/cell

Bt total allocated spectrum for the system

Bc channel bandwidth
N number of cells in a complete frequency
reuse cluster

Radio Capacity m
N is related to the co-channel factor Q by:
1/2

Q = (3*N)

m=

Bt
Bc * (Q/3)

Bt
2/n
6
C
Bc *( n/2 *( I )min )
3

Radio Capacity m for n = 4

m=

Bc *

Bt
2/3 * (C/I)min

m number of radio channels per cell

(C/I)min lower in digital systems compared to
analog systems
lower (C/I)min imply more capacity
exact values in real world conditions measured

Compare different Systems

each digital wireless standard has different
(C/I)min
to compare them an equivalent (C/I) needed
keep total spectrum allocation Bt and
number of rario channels per cell m
constant to get (C/I)eq :

Compare different Systems

Bc
C
C
(
(
) =(
) *
)
I eq
I min
Bc
Bc bandwidth of a particular system
(C/I)min tolerable value for the same system
Bc channel bandwidth for a different
system
(C/I)eq minimum C/I value for the different
system

C/I in digital cellular systems

C
I

Eb*Rb
I

Ec*Rc
I

Rb channel bit rate

Eb energy per bit
Rc rate of the channel code
Ec energy per code symbol

C/I in digital cellular systems

combine last two equations:
(C/I)
(Ec*Rc)/I
Bc
=
=(
)
(C/I)eq
(Ec*Rc)/I
Bc
The sign marks compared system
parameters

C/I in digital cellular systems

Relationship between Rc and Bc is always
linear (Rc/Rc = Bc/Bc )
assume that level I is the same for two
different systems ( I = I ) :
Ec = ( Bc )
Ec
Bc

Compare C/I between FDMA and TDMA

Assume that multichannel FDMA system
occupies same spectrum as a TDMA system
FDMA : C = Eb * Rb ; I = I0 * Bc
TDMA : C = Eb * Rb ; I = I0 * Bc
Eb Energy per bit
I0 interference power per Hertz
Rb channel bit rate
Bc channel bandwidth

Example
A FDMA system has 3 channels , each with a
bandwidth of 10kHz and a transmission rate
of 10 kbps.
A TDMA system has 3 time slots, a channel
bandwidth of 30kHz and a transmission rate
of 30 kbps.
Whats the received carrier-to-interference
ratio for a user ?

Example
In TDMA system C/I be measured in
333.3 ms per second - one time slot
C = Eb*Rb = 1/3*(Eb*10E4 bits) = 3*Rb*Eb=3*C
I = I0*Bc = I0*30kHz = 3*I

In this example FDMA and TDMA have the

same radio capacity (C/I leads to m)

Example
Peak power of TDMA is 10logk higher then
in FDMA ( k time slots)
in practice TDMA have a 3-6 times better
capacity

Capacity of SDMA systems

one beam each user

base station tracks each user as it moves
adaptive antennas most powerful form
beam pattern G() has maximum gain in the
direction of desired user
beam is formed by N-element adaptive
array antenna

Capacity of SDMA systems

G() steered in the horizontal -plane
through 360
G() has no variation in the elevation plane
to account which are near to and far from the
base station
following picture shows a 60 degree
beamwidth with a 6 dB sideslope level

Capacity of SDMA systems

Capacity of SDMA systems

reverse link received signal power, from
desired mobiles, is Pr;0
interfering users i = 1,,k-1 have received
power Pr;I
average total interference power I seen by a
single desired user:

Capacity of SDMA
K-1

I = E { G(i) Pr;I}
i=1

i direction of the i-th user in the

horizontal plane
E expectation operator

Capacity of SDMA systems

in case of perfect power control (received power from each user is the
same) :

Pr;I = Pc
Average interference power seen by user 0:
K-1

I = Pc E { G(i) }
i=1

Capacity of SDMA systems

users independently and identically
distributed throughout the cell:
I = Pc *(k -1) * 1/D
D directivity of the antenna - given by
max(G())
D typ. 3dB 10dB

Capacity of SDMA systems

Average bit error rate Pb for user 0:
3
D
N
Pb = Q (
)
K-1

D directivity of the antenna

Q(x) standard Q-function
N spreading factor
K number of users in a cell

Capacity of SDMA systems