Chapter 2

Cell Structure and

Cell Organisation

2.1 Cell Structure &

Function

Lets recall Form 1s Science.

Animal Cell
Plant Cell

All begin from CELL

a house is made up of bricks.
all living organisms are made up of
individual cells.

Cell Organelles
Organelles perform
specific functions
which enable the
cell to function as a
unit of life.
Eg: Nucleus (the
largest cell
organelle),
vacuoles,
mitochondrion,
chloroplast,
Ribosome,
lysosomes, Golgi
apparatus,
endoplasmic
reticulum.

Cellular components of animal

cell

Cellular components of plant

cell

Plasma membrane
Surface which enclose the content of a cell
Made up of protein and phospholipids
Forms a boundary which separate the
content of a cell from the outer
environment.
Semi-permeable and acts as a selective
barrier.
Regulates the movement of substances into
and out of the cytoplasm

Cell wall
Rigid outer layer that surrounds the plasma
membrane of plant cells.
Composed of cellulose, a rough and fibrous
carbohydrate.
Permeable to all fluids
Gives shape to a plant cell that provides
mechanical support for plant cells
Protects the plant cells from rupturing due
to excessive intake of water.

Cytoplasm
Region between the nucleus and the plasma
membrane
Consists jelly-like matrix
Contains organic and inorganic substances
and acts as a medium for biochemical
reactions in the cell

Nucleus
Controls all the activities which take place in
the cell.
Contains chromosomes which carry genetic
information.

Membrane

Vacuole
fluid-filled sac (cell sap) which surrounded
by tonoplast.
Storage place in a cell.
Cell sap: water, organic acids, sugars, amino
acids, mineral salts, waste pigments.
Supports herbaceous plants
so that they do not wilt easily.
Paramecium sp. Have
contractile vacuoles
and food vacuoles

Mitochondrion

(singular)

mitochondria(plural)

Involved in cellular respiration.

Release energy which stored in the form of
ATP ( Adenosine triphosphate)
Have a double membrane.

Ribosomes
Spherical organelles found attached to the
surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER) or suspended freely in the cytoplasm.
Comprises RNA and protein
Sites of protein synthesis, e.g.: enzyme

Endoplasmic Reticulum
consists of a network of folded membranes forming
interconnected tubules or sacs.
2 Types :a) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
b)Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
RER has ribosomes attached to its surfaces
SER does NOT have ribosomes attached to its
surfaces.
RER transports proteins made
by ribosomes
SER synthesis of lipids &
detoxification of drugs and poisons.

Golgi Apparatus
Consists

of a stack of
flattened membranous
sacs.
Functions as a processing,
packaging, transporting
and modifying centre of
carbohydrates, proteins,
phospholipids and
glycoproteins.

Lysosomes
Membrane-bound sacs that contain hydrolytic
enzymes.
These enzymes digest or break down complex
organic molecules such as proteins, lipids,
polysaccharides and nucleic acids.
Eliminate worn out mitochondria and other
damaged organelles to enable a cell to renew
itself.
Digest bacteria by breaking down the bacteria
cell wall.

Centrioles
Centrioles are found only in animal cells.
A pair of small cylindrical structures located
just outside the nucleus.
Form spindle fibres during cell division in
animal cells.

Chloroplasts
Contain

green

pigment
chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll traps
sunlight and
converts light
energy into
chemical energy
during
photosynthesis.

Compare and contrast between the structures of plant

and animal cells

Both have a nucleus, cytoplasm, a plasma membrane, Golgi

apparatus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and
ribosomes.
Animal Cells

Plant Cells

No cellulose cell wall, only A rigid cellulose cell wall

plasma membrane present
and
plasma
membrane
present
No chloroplast

Chloroplast
containing
chlorophyll
present
in
photosynthetic cells

Small, temporary vacuoles Contains as large central

called vesicles present
vacuole filled with cell sap
in matured cells

No tonoplast

Tonoplast surrounds the

vacuole
Nucleus centrally located Central vacuole pushes the
surrounded by the cytoplasm nucleus and cytoplasm to
the periphery
Centrioles present

No centrioles

Contain glycogen granules Contain starch granule for

for carbohydrate storage
carbohydrate storage
Lysosome present

Lysosome usually absence

except insectivorous plants,
e.g. Nepenthes, Utricularis

Size smaller

Size bigger

The Density of Organelles in Specific

Cells
Types of cells
Functions
Organelles in high
Sperm cells

Flight
muscle
cells in insects
and birds
Cells
in
the
meristems
of
plants
Liver cells

density
Require large amounts of Mitochondria
energy to propel towards the
uterus and Fallopian tube
during fertilization.
Contract and relax to enable Mitochondria
movement and flight.
Required large amount of Mitochondria
energy for mitotic cell division.
Plays
a
central
role
metabolism, regulating a wide
range of chemicals in the
blood.
Regulate the amount of sugar
released into bloodstream and
detoxification

Mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus
and rough
endoplasmic
reticulum.
Smooth
endoplasmic

Palisade mesophyll Absorbed

light
energy Chloroplast
cells of leaf
during photosynthesis
Testes cells

Synthesise
steroid
sex Smooth
hormones testosterone
endoplasmic
reticulum

Ovary cells

Synthesise
steroid
hormones oestrogen

Phagocytic cells,
e.g., macrophages
and neutrophils

Goblet cells in the

epithelial cells of
intestinal and
respiratory tract

sex Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Contain hydrolytic enzymes Lysosomes
to
break
down
the
pathogens, e.g. bacteria.

Secrete mucus

Golgi apparatus

2.2 Cell Organisation

Some organisms such as Amoeba sp. ,
Paramecium sp. have only one cell. These
organisms are called unicellular organisms.
Unicellular organisms have to carry out all the
living processes essential to maintain life,
including feeding, respiration, locomotion,
excretion and reproduction.
The survival of a unicellular organism
depends largely on the cellular components
called organelles.

Amoeba sp.

The Living Processes of an

Amoeba sp.
habitat in freshwater environment as well as
in soil water.
Enclosed by plasma membrane and
constantly changing shape as it meets
obstacles and responds to stimuli.
Adverse stimuli such as acidic water or
bright light cause Amoeba sp. to retreat.
The gel-like cytoplasm is divided into two
layers. The outer is called ectoplasm and
inner endoplasm.

 Exchange

of gases, nutrients and

waste substances occur through the
plasma membrane by diffusion.
As Amoeba sp. lives in freshwater,
water diffuses into the cell by
osmosis and fill the contractile
vacuole.
Contractile vacuoles are involved in
osmoregulation.
When the vacuole is filled to a
maximum size, it contracts to expel
its contents from time to time.

Feeding

Pseudopodia used for feeding.

Amoeba sp. engulfs food by phagocytosis.
Holozoic organism which feeds on
microscope organism such as bacteria.
Presence of food cause Amoeba sp. to
advance by extending its pseudopodia.
Amoeba sp. enclose the food which is then
packaged in a food vacuole.
Food vacuole fuses with a lysosome and
food is digested by hydrolytic enzyme called
lysozyme.
The resulting nutrients are absorbed into the
cytoplasm.

Locomotion
It moves by extending temporary
pseudopodia or false foot and anchoring
the tips on the ground.
A pseudopodium forms arm-like extension
the direction of movement. This is known as
ameboid movement.

Reproduction
reproduces asexually
(ii)
In a favourable environment where food is
abundant, Amoeba sp. reproduces by binary
fission. Binary fission begins with nucleus
division, follows by cytoplasmic division to
produce two daughter cells from one parent cell.
(iii)
when the environment is not conducive to
reproduction (If food or water becomes scarce, or
), Amoeba sp. survives by forming a hard cyst
called spores

Paramecium sp.

Found abundantly in freshwater ponds.

General characteristics
Has a fixed slipper-like shape
The surface is covered by numerous rows of
cilia.
The cilia are involved in locomotion and
feeding.
Has 2 nuclei:
a)
macronucleus: controls cell activities and
asexual reproduction.
b)
micronucleus: required for sexual
reproduction

Living processes
Locomotion: moves by regular beating of
cilia ( sing: cilium).
Move forward by rotating and spiralling
along its axis.

Feeding
Feeds on microscopic organism
The beating of cilia along the oral groove
(mouth-like opening) sweeps water and food
particles into oral groove
The food particles in the food vacuoles are
digested by hydrolytic enzymes from the
cytoplasm.
Nutrients from the digested food then dissolve
and diffuse into cytoplasm.
The undigested contents are released through
anal pore.

Responds to stimuli
Has cilia which function as sensory
structures.
Is sensitive to chemicals, oxygen and
carbon dioxide, pH and physical stimuli such
as light, contact and temperature.
Move in opposite direction when it comes
into contact with a negative stimulus.

Respiration

Gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion

through the entire plasma membrane of the
organism.

Excrection
Waste products, eg: carbon dioxide are
excreted from the cell by simple diffusion.
Osmoregulation: control by 2 contractile
vacuoles, one at the anterior end and the
other at the posterior end.
Excess water diffuse contractile vacuole by
osmosis.
The contractile vacuole enlarges
The contractile vacuole contracts and
eliminates excess water to the
surroundings.

Reproduction
Can reproduce asexually as well as sexually.
In a favourable environment. Paramecium
reproduces rapidly by binary fission.
Sexual reproduction in Paramecium sp is
known as conjugation when the
environment is not favouble.


Cell Specialisation in Multicellular Organisms

In multicellular, the cells grow, change

shape and differentiate to carry out specific
functions.
In multicellular organisms the cells are often
organized into tissues, organs and organ
systems.
Eg: human life begins as a single cell known
as a zygote. The zygote divides into two
identical cells. Both cells continue to divide
to become 4 cells, then 8 cells and
eventually into a ball of cells known as an
embryo.

Embryo

Tissue

Cell Organisation in Animals

Animal tissues can be divided into four main
groups based on their structures and
functions. These are:
(i) Epithelial tissues line the body surface and
the surfaces of organs, cavities, and tubes.
(ii) Connective tissues hold body structures
together.
(iii) Muscle tissues move the body part.
(iv) Nerve tissues communicate between
different parts of the body.

Epithelial tissue
Consists

of one or more layers of cells.

Epithelial cells are tightly interconnected and form a
continuous layer over body surfaces and inner linings
of cavities like alimentary canal, lungs, blood vessels,
ducts
Epithelial tissue on the skin forms protective barrier
against infections, mechanical injuries and dehydration.
Epithelial cells in linings of the human intestine form
mucus-secreting goblet cells which secrete mucus into
the digestive tract.
The epithelial tissue that lines the trachea consists of
elongated cells with hair-like projections called cilia.
Some epithelial tissues undergo changes to form
glands (exocrine and endocrine). For example: sweat
gland, gastric gland, sebaceous gland and
salivary gland.

Muscle tissue

The most abundant tissue in the body

Muscle cells are known as muscle fibres.
There are three types of muscle tissues:

smooth muscle: can be found in intestine, blood

vessels, urinary and reproductive tract.
Responsible for involuntary body activities such as
peristalsis movement along the digestive tract.
skeletal or striated muscle: can be found in our
arms and legs. Involved in voluntary movements.
cardiac muscle: can be found in the walls of the
heart. Cardiac muscles contract to pump blood to
all parts of the body. The contraction of cardiac
muscles is involuntary.

Skeletal
muscle

Multinucleat
ed
striated
The nuclei in
striated
muscle fibres
are located at
the sides of
the fibres.

Smooth
muscle

spindleshaped
each cell has a
nucleus
Usually the
cells are
arranged in
parallel
Smooth
muscle does
not have

Cardiac
muscle

Uninucleated
Striated
Branched, the
branching connects
the muscle fibres to
form a network
There are also
intercalary discs
where adjacent fibres
meet.
Cardiac muscles can
contract without
stimulation from
nerves.
The muscle is said to

Nerve tissue

made up of nerve cells called neurons

Each neurone consists of a cell body and
nerve fibres called dendrites and axons.
specialised to detect stimuli and transmit
electrical signals called nerve impulses to
muscles or glands
Control and coordinate activities of the body

Connective tissue

Connective tissues include bone,

cartilage, blood cells and adipose
tissue.
Loose connective tissue binds epithelial
to underlying tissues and holds organs in
place.
Dense fibrous connective tissue
contains a large number of collagenous
fibres which packed closely together. It
can be found in tendons (muscles
bone)
and
ligaments (bone
bone).

Cartilage
Cartilage is a strong and flexible
connective tissue.
It provides support for the nose, ears
and covers ends of bones at joints.
The discs between the vertebrae which
acts as cushion to absorb pressure

Bone
Bone is a living tissue that is hard, rigid and
strong.
This enables bones to give body shape, provide
framework for support and protect the internal
organs.
Bones also provide a jointed skeleton for
tendons, which connect muscles to bones, and in
ligaments, which join bones together at joints to
enable movement.
Bones also act as storage areas
for calcium and phosphorus
in the body.

Blood Cells
Produced in the bone marrow.
Regulating, transporting and protective
functions
Human blood cells can be divided into
erythrocytes (red blood cells),
leucocytes (white blood cells) and
platelets.

Adipose Tissue
Consists of tightly packed cells that stores
fat
Can be found in the dermis of the skin and
around major organs.
Acts as energy reserve and provides
insulation and protection.

Organs

An organ is formed by 2 or more types of tissues working together

to perform particular function.
Examples of organs include the heart, skin, lungs, kidneys, eyes
and ears.
The skin is an organ because it consists of various types of tissues
joined together to perform specific functions.
The skin composed of two main layers: the epidermis and dermis.
The epidermis is made up of epithelial tissue.
The dermis is composed of connective tissue, nerve tissue,
epithelial tissue and muscle tissue.
Blood is the connective tissue that supplies blood to the skin
through a network of blood capillaries.
The nerve tissues act as receptors which transmit nerve impulses
for pressure, temperature, touch and pain from the skin to the other
parts of the nervous system.
Specialised epithelial tissues in the skin form structures such as
hair follicles which produce hair, sweat glands which secrete sweat
and oil glands which secrete sebum onto the surface of the skin.
The erector muscle is the muscle tissue that control the hair shaft
to stand upright during cold day or lie flat during hot day

Next come to .
Systems
Each system consists of several organs that
work together to perform a common
function.
There are 11 major systems which carry out
major body functions in humans:

Circulatory
System

Endocrine
System

Integumentar
y System

Nervous
System

Digestive
System

Lymphatic
System

Skeletal
System

Excretory
System

Muscular
System

FEMALE

Respiratory
System

MALE

Reproductive
System

Finally. Multicellular Organisms

All

systems combine to form a

multicellular organism.
The functions of these systems
must be coordinated for the
survival of the organism.

Cell Organisation
Connective Tissue

Specialized connective
tissue
Blood cells

Adipose tissue

Produce in
bone
marrow.

Acts as
energy
reserve.

Function
:
regulate,
transport and
protective.

Found
dermis
skin.

Cartilage

an

in
of

Strong, flexible
connective
tissue.
Provides
support to the
nose, ears and
bones
at
joints.

Bone

Provides
protection
and
give
support to
the body.

Epiderm
al Tissue

Ground
tissue

Vascular
tissue

Cell Organisation in plants

Tissues

2 main types: Meristematic tissues & Permanent

tissues
Meristematic tissues consists of small cells which have
thin walls, large nuclei, dense cytoplasm, and no
vacuoles. Young, actively dividing cells which have not
undergone differentiation and are located at the tips of
roots and the buds of shoots.
Permanent tissues are mature tissues that have
undergone differentiation.
There are 3 types of permanent tissues: epidermal
tissues, ground tissues and vascular tissues.

1. Epidermal tissues

Epidermal tissue is the outermost layer that covers the stem,

leaves and roots of young plants.
Most epidermal cells are flat and have large vacuoles.
The cells secrete cutin which forms a layer of waxy cuticle on the
outer surface of epidermis. The waxy cuticle reduces water loss by
evaporation from the plant and entry of pathogens.
Epidermis of leaves have specialised cells containing chloroplasts
found among epidermal cells. These are pairs of guard cells with
each pair enclosing a stoma pore and control the opening and
closing of stomata.
Epidermis is transparent and allows light to reach the mesophyll
layers of leaves for photosynthesis.
Stomata pores in the epidermis allow gaseous exchange.
The root epidermal cells have long projections called root hairs to
increase the surface area for water absorption.

2. Ground Tissue

Consists of parenchyma tissue, collenchyma tissue

& sclerenchyma tissue.
Parenchyma cells store sugar and starch.
Parenchyma tissue which is turgid gives support &
shape to herbaceous plants.
Collenchyma cells have unevenly thickened cell
walls at corners. It gives support non-woody
(herbaceous) plants, young stems and petioles.
Sclerenchyma cells have cell walls which are
uniformly thickened by lignin & may be dead. They
give support and mechanical strength to mature
regions of a plant.

3. Vascular Tissue

Consists of xylem and phloem

Xylem vessels joined together end to end,
extending from the roots right up the
leaves.
Xylem transport water & dissolved
mineral salts from the roots to other parts
of the plant
Phloem consists mainly of sieve tubes
which are arranged end to end to form
long continuous tube-like structures.
Phloem transport synthesised organic
compounds in the leaf to other parts of
the plants

Organs in plants
Organs: leaf, stem, root & flower
Eg: leaf is made up of ground tissue,
epidermal tissue and vascular tissue

Systems in plants

Flowering
plants consists
of two main
system: the
root system and
shoot system.

Regulating the internal

environment

Internal environment of a multicellular organism

consists of the interstitial fluid and the blood
plasma.
The interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the
cells and constantly bathes the cells.
The physical factors include body temperature,
blood pressure and osmotic pressure.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively
constant internal environment for the cells to
function optimally.
Homeostatic mechanism is to bring back to normal
and known as negative feedback mechanism.

Body Temperature

Regulated by integumentary system ( skin and sweat

glands) , nervous system, circulatory system, muscular
system and endocrine system.
When body temperature rises above the normal level, the
receptors in the skin detect the changes.
This information is transmitted to the hypothalamus, the
temperature regulatory centre in the brain.
Hypothalamus activates various effectors such as blood
vessels and the sweat glands.
The blood vessels dilate and allow more blood to flow near
the surface of the body which to increase the heat loss to the
external environment.
The sweat glands are activated by the nervous system to
produce more sweat that will lower the body temperature
through evaporation.
So, the result is lowering the temperature to its original level.

Chapter 2 Cell Structure And Cell Organisatio

Cell Organisation
Involvement Of Various Systems In
Maintaining An Optimal Internal
Environment
Systems in the body work together to maintain a stable
internal environment.
Example :
Body
temperature rises
above
normal
level.

Skins
receptor
detect changes.

Transmit
informatio
n to

Normal
body
temperature
37C.
Body
temperature
drops
towards
normal
through
evaporation.

Nervous
system
signals
blood
vessel to dilate
and sweat gland
to secrete.

Hypothalamus

Normal body temperature is maintained by the negative

feedback mechanism.
ITeach Biology Form 4

Concentration of O and
CO
The respiratory, circulatory and nervous system regulate
the concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
blood streams.
The circulatory system transport oxygen from the lungs
to the body cells.
Carbon dioxide is removed from the body cells into the
bloodstream and transported back to the lungs.
Eg: the decrease concentration of oxygen and increase
concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood during
vigorous physical activities are detected by the nervous
system.
Breathing and pulse rates increase so that the normal
concentrations of carbon dioxide and oxygen is attained.

Blood Sugar Level