General Zoology ZOO: Name of Presenter Position Department/College (Click View Master Slide Master To Edit)

GENERAL ZOOLOGY
ZOO
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
(click View>>Master>>Slide Master to edit)
MISSION
The
University
of
Batangas
provides quality education by
promoting
personal
and
professional growth and enabling
the person to participate in a global,
technology, and research driven
environment
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY
VISION
We envision the University of
Batangas to be a center of excellence
committed to serve the broader
community through quality education

R.N., M.A.N
PHILOSOPHY
The University of Batangas , a stock,
non -sectarian, private educational
institution believes in the pursuit of
knowledge,
values
and
skills
necessary for the preservation and
improvement of the Philippine
society.
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It has faith in the dignity of human

person, in demographic process, in
reward for individual excellence, and in
freedom of a person to worship God
according to his conscience.

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Thus, the institution believes that the

development of the individual as a
person and worker is an effective
means in building a better family,
community, and nation, and a better
world.

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Objectives
The University of Batangas aims to:
Pursue academic excellence through a
continuing search for and application of
truth, knowledge and wisdom via
traditional and alternative modes of
instructional delivery

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Promote moral and spiritual development

through an integrated education process
that will enhance human character and
dignity

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Develop cultural, economic and socio-civic

conscience through an educational
content relevant to national development
needs, conditions and aspirations;

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Strengthen involvement in community

services through varied economic projects
and extensive research

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Attain institutional self-reliance through

responsive programs for staff, facilitates
and systems development; and

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Ensure financial viability and profitability

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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Zoology
-is a science that is concerned with
animal life.
-it deals with the study of animal
structure, internal processes and
modes of life, their evolution and their
interaction with one another and with
their environment.
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Science
The word science comes from the
Latin word scientia which means
knowledge.
There are 6 methods that scientists use

in obtaining knowledge.
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This methods includes:

Observing nature
Classifying data
Using logic
Conducting experiments
Forming a hypothesis
Expressing findings mathematically

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4 Major groups of Scientific Study:
Mathematics and Logic

The Physical Sciences
The Life Sciences
Social Sciences

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The life sciences, also called the

biological sciences or biology, is
concerned with the study of living
organisims.

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5 Groups of Living Organisms

Plants
Animals
Protists
Fungi
Bacteria

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Subdivisions of Zoology
Zoology may be divided into:
Systemic Zoology
Morphology
Ex-perimental Zoology
Molecular Biology

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Systematic Zoology consists of

4 subdivisions:
A. Taxonomy study of the classification
of animals
B. Ecology study of the relationship of
animals with their environment
C. Zoogeography
study
of
the
distribution of animals on earth
D. Animal Evolution study of how the
existing kinds of animals came into
being
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Morphology stresses the structural aspects

of the animal.
It is subdivided into:
functions of cells Anatomy study of
animal structure as revealed by gross
dissection
Comparative Anatomy study of various
animal types from the lowest to highest
form
Histology study of tissues as revealed
by the microscope
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Cytology study of the minute parts and

functions of cells
Embryology study of the formation

and early development of the organism
Paleontology study of past life as
revealed by fossils

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Experimental Zoology includes

those subdivisions that are
concerned with experimental
alterations of the patterns of
organisms.

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It is subdivided into:
Genetics study of heredity
Experimental Morphology
study of animal structure
Embryology study of growth and
development of the animal from
fertilization up to birth or hatching

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Molecular Biology is the study of

the ultimate or ultramicroscopic
structure and function of living
matter.

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It includes:
A. Biochemistry study of the
chemical make-up of living tissues
B. Genetics study of the chemistry
genes
C. Chemistry of Macromolecules
study of the chemical make-up of
large molecules that make up
living matter
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Zoology
may
also
be
subdivided
according
to
animal subject of study as
follows:
1. Entomology, insects
2. Helminthology, worms with special
reference to parasitic forms
3. Herpetology, reptiles
4. Ornithology, birds
5. Parasitology, parasitic organisms
6. Ichtology, fishes
7. Mammalogy, mammals

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THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

There are various theories and
hypothesis that explain the origin of
living things. Most of them are based
on scientific explanations except the
religious ones which are based solely
on faith.

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Religious Explanations. Creation

stories of most religions explain the
origin of life. These stories tell how the
world and living things were created by
God.
The Theory of Spontaneous
Generation. This theory which
originated in ancient times claimed
that lower forms of life could arise from
non-living matter.
An italian scientist named Francesco
Redi , during mid 1600
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MODERN THEORIES
THEORY OF PANSPERMIA
States that spores from other part of the
universe landed on the earth and began to
develop
However, many scientists doubted that spores
couldve survived the harsh conditions of
outer space
It explains only the origin of life on earth but
not how life arose in the universe
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THEORY OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION

Was developed independently during the 1920s by a
Russian biochemist named alexander I. Oparin and by
J.B.S. Haldane, a British biologist.
Most accepted theory by biologists
Claims that life developed through a series of
spontaneous chemical reactions in the atmosphere
and oceans early in the earths history.

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Proposes that energy such as sunlight, lightning,

and volcanoes powered reactions among the
compounds that produced simple biological
molecules.
These molecules, such as sugars and amino
acids, then combined and formed more complex
molecules. The theory claims that these complex
molecules became organized into the first
organisms.
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Miller and Urey, 1953 two (2) American

chemists provided the first experimental
evidence in support of the theory of chemical
evolution
They subjected a mixture of ammonia,
hydrogen, methane and water to the energy of
high voltage sparks for one week amino
acids and other simple biochemical ompounds
had formed
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CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS
1. Chemical uniqueness the macromolecules
that make up living organisms are far more
intricate and complex than their non living
counterparts
4 Major categories of Biological Molecules:
PROTEINS
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
NUCLEIC ACIDS

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THINGS
2. Cellular Composition all living things are
made up of cells. Some are unicellular like
the amoeba, while others, like the human
body, are multicellular

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THINGS
3. Response to stimuli living organisms
react to both internal and external stimuli
(ex. thirst and hunger). This comes from
within the body
- when external stimuli is encountered, a
person would respond accordingly

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THINGS
4. Growth and development
Growth defined as an increase in mass, made
possible by a set of processes that involve the
intake of substances from the external
environment and incoporating these into the
inner structure of the organism.
Development results from different capabilities

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THINGS
5. Nutrition organisms feed by taking in
and assimilating materials that are for
growth and maintenance, while others
make their own food.

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THINGS
6. Reproduction this involves the
replication of genetic materials that are
passed on to the next generation.
- required to ensure the survival of the
species

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THINGS
7. Release of energy is necessary to stay
alive.
- this enables organisms to perform
necessary activities that will sustain life.

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THINGS
8. Excretion the process by which the
organism eliminates toxic waste products

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THINGS
9. Adaptation refers to inherited changes
that occur over time and help the species
survive.

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THINGS
10. Homeostasis all organisms stabilize
the internal conditions of their body
through this process.
- this process is brought about by different
feedback mechanisms

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ASSIGNMENT #1
Trace the history of Zoology including the
important personalities (scientists) that
have contributed in the development of
what is now known as the Modern
Zoology. You may include photos.
Write your answers in your notebook and
prepare for a recitation next meeting.
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The
Microscope
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
The History
Many people experimented with making microscopes
Was the microscope originally made by accident?
(Most people were creating telescopes)
The first microscope was 6 feet long!!!
The Greeks & Romans used lenses to magnify
objects over 1000 years ago.

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The History
Hans and Zacharias Janssen of Holland
in the 1590s created the first
compound microscope
Anthony van Leeuwenhoek and Robert
Hooke made improvements by working
on the lenses
Anthony
van
Leeuwenhoek
ABIGAIL
MARIE
UMALI
HERNANDEZ, Hooke Microscope
R.N., M.A.N 1632-1723
Robert Hooke
1635-1703
The History
Zacharias Jansen
1588-1631
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The First Microscope
How a Microscope Works

Convex Lenses are
curved glass used to
make microscopes
(and glasses etc.)
Convex Lenses bend

light and focus it in
one spot.
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How a Microscope Works

Ocular Lens
(Magnifies Image)
Body Tube
(Image Focuses)
Objective Lens
(Gathers Light,
Magnifies
And Focuses Image
Inside Body Tube)
Bending Light: The objective (bottom) convex lens

magnifies and focuses (bends) the image inside the
body tube and the ocular convex (top) lens of a
microscope
it (again).
ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALImagnifies
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
The Parts of a Microscope

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Ocular Lens
Body Tube
Nose Piece
Arm
Objective
Lenses
Stage
Clips
Diaphragm
Stage
Coarse Adj.
Fine Adjustment
Light Source
Base

to Magnification Section
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M.A.N
Body Tube
The body tube holds the objective lenses
and the ocular lens at the proper distance
ABIGAIL
MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
Diagram
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Nose Piece
The Nose Piece holds the objective lenses
and can be turned to increase the
magnification
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Objective Lenses
The Objective Lenses increase
magnification (usually from 10x to 40x)
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Stage Clips
These 2 clips hold the slide/specimen in
place on the stage.
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Diaphragm
The Diaphragm controls the amount of
light on the slide/specimen
Turn to let more light in or to

make dimmer.
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Light Source
Projects light upwards through the
diaphragm, the specimen and the lenses
Some have lights, others have mirrors
where you must move the mirror to reflect
light
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Ocular Lens/Eyepiece
Magnifies the specimen image
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Arm
Used to support the microscope when
carried. Holds the body tube, nose piece
and objective lenses
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Stage
Supports the slide/specimen
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Coarse Adjustment Knob

Moves the stage up and down (quickly) for
focusing your image
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Fine Adjustment Knob

This knob moves the stage SLIGHTLY to
sharpen the image
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Base
Supports the microscope
ABIGAIL
Diagram
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Magnification

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Magnification
To determine your magnificationyou just
multiply the ocular lens by the objective
lens
Ocular 10x Objective 40x:10 x 40 = 400
So the object is 400 times larger
Objective Lens have
their magnification
written on them.

R.N., M.A.N
Ocular lenses usually magnifies by 10x
Caring for a Microscope

Clean only with a soft cloth/tissue
Make sure its on a flat surface
Dont bang it
Carry it with 2 HANDSone on the arm and the
other on the base
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Carry a Microscope Correctly

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Using a Microscope
Start on the lowest magnification
Dont use the coarse adjustment knob on
high magnificationyoull break the slide!!!
Place slide on stage and lock clips
Adjust light source (if its a mirrordont
stand in front of it!)
Use fine adjustment to focus
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Cell Division
and Inheritance

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Chromosomes and Genes
Genes
A gene is a short section of DNA. Each gene codes for a
specific protein by specifying the order in which amino acids
must be joined together.

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Chromosomes and Genes

Chromosomes
The cells nucleus contains chromosomes made

from long DNA molecules.
The diagram shows the relationship between the
cell, its nucleus, chromosomes in the nucleus,
and genes.

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MITOSIS
parent cell
chromosomes make
identical copies of
themselves
they line up along the
centre
they move apart
two daughter cells form
with identical
chromosomes to the
parent cell
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MEIOSIS
The main features
of meiosis are:
the chromosomes
are copied
the cell divides
twice, forming
four gametes

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Chromosomes, Genes and

Alleles
Chromosomes come in pairs.
Each pair is called a homolog
A gene is a unit of
heredity
that occupies
a specific
location on a
chromosome and
codes for a
particular product
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Alleles are alternate forms
Alleles alternate forms of a gene

Each letter on the chromosome
represents a gene - a unit of
heredity
that occupies a specific location
on a
chromosome and controls specific
characteristics in the organism
Chromosomes exist in homologous

pairs the genes are the same but
the form the gene may be different.
These are called alleles. Alleles exist
for every characteristic an organism
has
Alleles are
different on
each homolog
- Aa
Eye color
lip thickness
Hair color
Hair texture
Widows peak

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Alleles are the same on

each homolog - JJ
Homozygous versus Heterozygous

Alleles
If alleles for a gene are the
same they we say the
organism is are
homozygous for that
gene

Alleles
areMARIE
the same
on HERNANDEZ,
ABIGAIL
UMALI
each homolog - jj
eachM.A.N
homolog - JJ
R.N.,
If alleles for a gene are the

same they we say the
organism is heterozygous
for that gene
Alleles are
different on
each homolog
- Aa
Dominant versus Recessive

Alleles
The allele that is expressed visibly

In the organism is called the dominant
Allele. Represented by a capital letter
The allele that is masked by the

dominant
Allele in the organism is called the
recessive allele. Represented by a
Homologouslower cased letter.
chromosomes
Allele for curly

hair symbol
D (dominant)

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Allele for
straight hair
symbol d
(recessive)
Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype is the genetic make up within the cells of an organism
Phenotype describes the observable characteristics of an
organism
Allele for curly

hair symbol
D (dominant)
Genotype
Allele for
straight hair
symbol d
(recessive)
Phenotype
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI

Dd HERNANDEZ, Curly
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hair
How many different genotypes for hair texture are

are expressed in the homologous chromosomes below?
What will the phenotypes look like?
Genotype
Phenotype
Genotype
Phenotype
Genotype
Phenotype
DD
Curly hair
dd
Straight hair
Dd
Curly hair
Remember D symbol

R.N., M.A.N represents gene for
curly hairLIPA
and
is
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS
CITY
Remember d symbol
represents gene for
straight hair and is
Homozygous and Heterozygous

Genotype
Genotype
Phenotype
DD (homozygous)
Dd (heterozygous)
dd (homozygous)

Alleles
areMARIE
the same
on HERNANDEZ,
ABIGAIL
UMALI
each homolog - jj
eachM.A.N
homolog - JJ
R.N.,
Alleles are
different on
each homolog
- Aa
Genetic and Environmental causes of

Variation
Variation is inherited
Genetic skin colour
Environmental hair length
Both height, weight, intelligence

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Genetic Crosses

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Monohybrid inheritance
It shows the possible outcomes for
inheritance. It illustrates how the parents
alleles might combine in offspring.
Capital letters
represent a
dominant allele
and
lowercased letters
represent the
recessive allele
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Chemistry of
Life

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Chemistry of Life
Matter -- anything that has
MASS and takes up SPACE
EVERYTHING is made of
matter
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Chemistry of Life
Atoms the SMALLEST particle
that can exist and still be
considered matter
All LIVING and NONLIVING things
are made of atoms
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Atoms -- have three

components
ELECTRONS -- negatively charged
PROTONS -- positively charged;
found in nucleus
NEUTRONS -- neutral; found in
nucleus

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Electrons
Nucleus
Protons & Neutrons
Energy Levels

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Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when
bonds are FORMED or BROKEN.
This causes them to recombine into
different substances.

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Chemical Reactions
Metabolism
All reactions that occur in an organisms.
These reactions break down and build
molecules important to life.

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Chemical Reactions
Mixture:
A combination of a substance in which
the individual components contain their
own property.

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Chemistry of the Cell

Solution:
A mixture in which one or more
substances are distributed evenly in
another substance.
Solvent:
Solute:
A substance that
The substance
can dissolve other that is dissolved
substances

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pH
Chemical reactions also depend on the pH
of the environment within the organism.
pH A measure of how acidic or basic a solution is.

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pH
The scale goes from 0-14
0 being the most acidic
14 being the most basic

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Chemistry of Life
Elements -- a substance
that is made of only ONE
kind of ATOM

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Reading Periodic Table

Element
Atomic
Number
Symbol
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The Human Body

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Major Elements of Life

C = Carbon
H = Hydrogen
O = Oxygen
P = Phosphorus
K = Potassium
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I = Iodine
N = Nitrogen
S = Sulfur
Ca = Calcium
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Fe = Iron
Mg = Magnesium
Na = Sodium
Cl = Chlorine
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Chemistry of Life
Compounds matter that is
made of more than one kind of
ATOM
Compounds are made by atoms
sharing or taking ELECTRONS
from other atom
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Inorganic Compounds
Water ( H2O )
Each molecule is made of
two HYDROGEN atoms and
one OXYGEN atom
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Water H20

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Why is water so important to

agriculture?
At least 75% of animal body
mass is water
Plants contain 70-80% water
Transports nutrients and
wastes
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Why is water so important to

agriculture?
Dissolves compounds -Universal Solvent
Regulates body temperature in
animals
Provides structure for plants
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Organic Compounds
Organic Compounds contain carbon.
Carbon forms the structural backbone
of all living things.

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Carbohydrates
Organic Compounds that contain:
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
They provide energy

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Carbohydrates
Three Types
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides

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Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
simple SUGAR
contain C6H12O6
GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, AND
GALACTOSE

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Carbohydrates
Disaccharides
double SUGAR
contain two RINGS
SUCROSE and LACTOSE

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Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
complex CARBOHYDRATES
made of RINGS of SUGAR
STARCH, CELLULOSE, and
GLYCOGEN

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Proteins
Basic building material for all living
things.
Used for STRUCTURE and FUNCTION
Made of H, O, C, N

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Structure of Proteins
Amino Acids building BLOCKS
20 different kinds all have the same elements but
in different amounts
Polypeptides chains of AMINO ACIDS Joined

by peptide bonds
Proteins chains of POLYPEPTIDES
Used to make SKIN, HAIR, MUSCLE,
ORGANS, etc.
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Lipids
FATTY molecules
used to store ENERGY
Made of long chains of H & C
followed by
COOH
Do not DISSOLVE in WATER
Lipids have less OXYGEN than carbohydrates
Examples of Lipids are: FATS, OILS, AND
WAXES
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Nucleic Acids
Store INFORMATION that controls CELL
activities
Made of a PHOSPHATE a SUGAR, and a
BASE.

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Examples of Nucleic Acids are:

DNA :
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
The master copy of an organisms

information code.
Instructions to form all of an organisms
structural proteins

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Examples of Nucleic Acids are:

RNA :
Ribonucleic Acid
This forms a copy of the DNA for use in

making protein.

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Atoms are the building

block of life!

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THE CELL AND ITS STRUCTURE

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Introduction
Cells are the basic units of organisms
Cells can only be observed under microscope
Two basic types of cells:

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Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Plant Cell
Cell wall
Made of cellulose which

forms very thin fibres
Strong and rigid
In plant cells only
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Plant Cell
Cell wall
Protect and support

the enclosed
substances
(protoplasm)
Resist entry of excess
water into the cell
MARIE
GiveUMALI
shape
to the cell
ABIGAIL
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
Plant Cell
Cell wall
A dead layer
Large empty spaces
present between
cellulose fibres
freely permeable
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Plant Cell
Cell membrane
Lies immediately
against the cell wall
Made of protein and
lipid Selectively
permeable
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Plant Cell
Cell membrane
A living layer
Can control the
movement of
materials into and
out of the cell
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Plant Cell
Cytoplasm
Jelly-like substance
enclosed by cell
membrane
Provide a medium for
chemical reactions to
take place
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Plant Cell
Cytoplasm
Contains organelles
and granules :
e.g. chloroplast
e.g. mitochondrion
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Organelles
very small size can only be

observed under electron
microscope
has specific functions
in cytoplasm

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Plant Cell
Chloroplast
Contain the green
pigment chlorophyll
To trap light energy,
to make food by
photosynthesis
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Plant Cell
Chloroplast
Contain starch grains
(products of
photosynthesis)

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Plant Cell
Mitochondrion
( mitochondria )
Rod shape
For respiration

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Plant Cell
Mitochondrion
( mitochondria )
Active cells ( eg.

sperms, liver cells)
have more
mitochondria
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Plant Cell
Non-living granules
Starch granules
Oil droplets
Crystals of insoluble
wastes
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Plant Cell
Vacuole
large central vacuole
Surrounded by tonoplast
Contains cell sap
a solution of chemicals
(sugars, proteins,
mineral salts, wastes,
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI HERNANDEZ,
pigments)
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Plant Cell
Nucleus
Control the normal
activities of the cell
Bounded by a
nuclear membrane
Contains thread-like chromosomes

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Plant Cell
Nucleus
Each cell has fixed
number of chromosomes
Chromosomes carry
genes
genes control cell characteristics

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Different kinds of plant cells
Onion Epidermal Cells

root hair
Root Hair Cell

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Guard Cells
vacuole
cytoplasm
Animal cell
nucleus
mitochondrion
cell
glycogen
ABIGAIL
membrane
R.N.,
M.A.N
granule
No cell wall and

chloroplast
Stores glycogen
granules and oil
droplets in the
cytoplasm
Different kinds of animal cells

white blood cell
Amoeba
red blood cell
muscle cell
sperm
cheek
cells
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
nerve cell
Paramecium
Similarities between plant cells

and animal cells
Both have a cell membrane surrounding the
cytoplasm
Both have a nucleus

Both contain mitochondria
R.N., M.A.N
Differences between plant cells

and animal cells
Animal cells
Plant cells
Relatively smaller in
size
Relatively larger in
size
Irregular shape
Regular shape
No cell wall
Cell wall present

R.N., M.A.N
Differences between plant cells

and animal cells
Animal cells
Plant cells
Vacuole small or absent
Large central vacuole
Glycogen granules as
food store
Starch granules as
food store
Nucleus at the centre
Nucleus near cell wall

R.N., M.A.N
Microscope
Instrument for
observing small
objects

R.N., M.A.N
Different parts of a
microscope
R.N., M.A.N
Revolving
nosepiece
Clip
Eyepiece
Body tube
Course
adjustment
Fine adjustment
Condenser
Arm
Iris diaphragm
Stage
Condenser
control knob
Objective
Mirror
R.N., M.A.N
Base
The cell as the basic unit of life

Cell is the smallest unit of living organisms
Unicellular organisms are made of one cell
only
The cells of multicellular organisms are
specialized to perform different functions
e.g. mesophyll cells for photosynthesis
and root hair cells for water absorption
R.N., M.A.N
Levels of organization
Cells are grouped together and work
as a whole to perform special
functions
R.N., M.A.N
Tissue
A group of similar cells to perform a
particular function
Animals : epithelial tissue, muscular
tissue
Plants : vascular tissue, mesophyll
R.N., M.A.N
Organ
Different tissues group together to
carry out specialized functions
Heart : consists of muscles,
nervous tissue and blood vessels
Leaf : consists of epidermis,
mesophyll and vascular tissue
R.N., M.A.N
The Structures of a Leaf

Chloroplast
Palisade Mesophyll
Cell
Spongy Mesophyll
Cell
Air Space
Stoma
R.N., M.A.N
The Structures of a Heart

R.N., M.A.N
System
Several organs and tissues work together
carry out a particular set of functions in a coordinated way
Human : digestive, respiratory, excretory,
circulatory and reproductive systems
Plant : root and shoot systems

R.N., M.A.N
to
System in our body

examples of systems :
Digestive System
Respiratory System
Circulatory System
Nervous System
Reproductive System
R.N., M.A.N

R.N., M.A.N
The Respiratory System

R.N., M.A.N
The Circulatory System

R.N., M.A.N
The Nervous System

R.N., M.A.N
Male Reproductive System

R.N., M.A.N
Female Reproductive System

R.N., M.A.N
Level of Organization
cells
(e.g. muscle cells, nerve

cells)
tissues (e.g. muscle, epithelium)
organs (e.g. heart, lungs, stomach)
systems (e.g. circulatory system)
organisms (e.g. man)
R.N., M.A.N
Phases of Embryonic
Development

R.N., M.A.N
7 steps:
1. gametogenesis
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
fertilization
cleavage
blastulation
gastrulation
neurulation
organogenesis

R.N., M.A.N
1.Gametogenesis
is a process by which the diploid germ cells
undergo a number of chromosomal and
morphological changes to form mature haploid
gametes.
Animals produce gametes directly through meiosis
in organs called gonads. Males and females of a
species that reproduces sexually have different
forms of gametogenesis:
spermatogenesis (male) in testes produce sperms.
oogenesis (female) in Ovary produce ova.
R.N., M.A.N

R.N., M.A.N
Structure of sperm

R.N., M.A.N
Structure of ovum

R.N., M.A.N
Common terms
Animal Pole: the pole (end) of the egg where
yolk is least concentrated.
Animal hemisphere: the hemisphere of the egg
where animal pole is located.
Vegetal pole: the pole (end) of the egg where
yolk is the most concentrated.
Vegetal hemisphere: the hemisphere of the egg
where vegetal pole is located.
R.N., M.A.N
2.Fertilization:
is the process whereby two sex cells (gametes) fuse together
to create a new individual with genetic potentials derived
from both parents.
Have two separate activity:

1. Combining of genes derived from the two parents.
2. Creation of new organisms.
Thus
The first function is: Transmit genes from parents to
offspring.
The second is : initiate reactions in the egg cytoplasm that
proceed development. Also,
Restoration of the diploid number of chromosomes reduced
during meiosis.
R.N., M.A.N
It have 4 major steps:

1. Sperm contacts the egg
2. Sperm or its nucleus enters the egg, and
regulation of sperm entry .
3. Sperm and egg nuclei fuse
4. Egg becomes activated and developmental
changes begin

R.N., M.A.N
3. Cleavage
Is the process of repeated rapid mitotic cell divisions of the
zygote (unicellular structure) to form the Blastula
(multicellular structure).
The produced cells named Blastomeres.
During this stage the size of the embryo does not change,
the blastomeres become smaller with each division.
The type & pattern of cleavage differ from species to
species.
continues divisions to form a ball of 32 cells called the
morula.
The morula continues divisions to form the hollow blastula
with up to several hundred cells.
The cavity of the blastula is the blastocoel.
R.N., M.A.N
Figure 47.8x Cleavage in a frog embryo

R.N., M.A.N
4. Blastulation
The result (end period) of cleavage.

The production of a multicellular blastula
Blastula cells are called blastomeres.
A cavity forms within the ball of the cells called
the blastocoel.

R.N., M.A.N
Blastula of frog

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Human blastula

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Starfish development, unfertilized egg.
16 blastomeres.
2 blastomeres.
32 blastomeres.
morula
R.N., M.A.N
4 blastomeres.
Starfish development,
nonmotile
blastula.
5. Gastrulation
The morphogenetic process called gastrulation
rearranges the cells of a blastula into a threelayered (triploblastic) embryo, called a
gastrula, that has a primitive gut.
It means rearrangement of blastula cells that
transforms the blastula into a gastrula.
The blastula develops a hole in one end and
cells start to migrate into the hole; this forms
the gastrula
Characterized by cell movement.
Blastocoel is gradually disappear and a new
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI
formed
HERNANDEZ,
cavity
is
Gastrocoel.
R.N., M.A.N
The gastrula is a three-layered embryo

The formation of three primary embryonic germ
layers
Endoderm (inner)
Mesoderm (middle)
Ectoderm (outer)
The pattern of gastrulation is affected by the amount
of yolk.
The cells at the vegetal pole invaginate, initiating
gastrulation.
R.N., M.A.N

R.N., M.A.N

R.N., M.A.N
Gastrulation in a Frog Embryo

R.N., M.A.N
Figure 47.10 Gastrulation in a frog embryo

R.N., M.A.N
6. Neurulation
Chordates Only
formation of a dorsal, hollow neural tube
by
ectodermal cells flatten into neural plate
the center of the plate sinks forming neural groove
edge of plate is elevated to form neural folds
neural folds fuse and form neural tube
anterior end develops into brain
posterior end develops into spinal cord
R.N., M.A.N
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
Neurulation

R.N., M.A.N
The Neural Crest

The neural crest is a
critical structure that
guides formation of several
organ systems
The neural crest forms on
either side of the point of
fusion
Its cells migrate to form the
dorsal root ganglia, the
postganglionic sympathetic
neurons, many sense organs
and all pigment-forming
ABIGAIL MARIE
cellsUMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
Organogenesis
Organogenesis is the formation of the organs
The layers are germ layers; they have specific fates
in the developing embryo:
Endoderm
The innermost layer
Goes on to form the gut
Mesoderm
The middle layer.
Goes on to form the muscles, circulatory system, blood

and many different organs
Ectoderm
The outermost
Goes
on to
form the skin and nervous system
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N

R.N., M.A.N
Organogenesis Begins With

Development of the Nervous System
The nervous system is the first
organ system to develop.
The notochord grows and
induces overlying ectoderm to
form the neural plate.
Cells of the neural plate fold to
form the neural groove and
the surrounding neural folds
fuse to form the neural tube.
The anterior portion forms the
brain; the rest forms the spinal
ABIGAIL
cord.
R.N., M.A.N
7. Organogenesis
Development of organs from three primary germ

layers
Ectoderm forms:
skin and associated glands, nervous
system.
Mesoderm forms:
muscles, skeleton, gonads, excretory
system, circulatory system.
Endoderm forms:
lining of digestive tract, liver,
pancreas, lungs.
R.N., M.A.N

R.N., M.A.N
Figure 47.11 Organogenesis in a frog

embryo

R.N., M.A.N
Somatic &Germ Cells

Somatic Cells:
1.
Found in all body tissues except gonads.

Contain diploid numbers of chromosomes (2N).
Replacement of dead cells
Reproduce by mitotic division.
Functions:
Responsible for formation of different system and
organs.
2. Have other specific functions
e.x.: muscular system have myoplast for contraction and
relaxation .
nervous system have neurons for transmission of
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI HERNANDEZ,
impulses.
R.N., M.A.N
digestive system have secretory cells for secretion of

enzymes for digestion.
bone have osteoplasts make hardening of bone.
Lung have cells for respiration.
Germ Cells:
Found only in gonads (testes & ovary)

Contain haploid number of chromosomes (1N)
Reproduce by meiotic division (meiosis).
Function : Formation of gametes (male & female)

R.N., M.A.N
Primordial germ cells

Appears in the wall of the endodermal layer of the
yolk sac due to their large size and high content of
alkaline phosphatase , and migrate by amoeboid
movement toward the hind gut epithelium and
then through dorsal mesentery reach to the
primordia of the gonads ( primitive sex glands).
Become recognizable at 24 days post-fertilization.
Invading the genital ridges in the 6th week of
development.
The primordia of the gonads give a chemostatic
the germ cells.
ABIGAILattractant
MARIE UMALI for
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
Also may be the germ cells directed toward the

gonads by the mature of cellular and non-cellular
microenvironment that surround them.
Or by tissue rearrangement that occur in the early
embryos.
If they fail to reach the ridges, the gonads will not
develop.
So, it have the inductive influence on the
development of gonads into ovary and testes.
Determine sex of the embryo.
They will form different stages of spermatogenesis
and oogenesis in the future.
Found in adult in gonads (testes and ovary)
R.N., M.A.N

R.N., M.A.N
Basic Developmental Vocabulary

Fertilization activates egg & brings together the
nuclei of the egg and sperm.

Cleavage partitions the zygote into many smaller
cells.
Gastrulation rearranges the blastula to form a
three-layered embryo with a primitive gut, the
archenteron.
Organogenesis is the process by which the organs
in the animal body form from the three embryonic
germ layers.
R.N., M.A.N
Basic Developmental Vocabulary

Blastula a hollow sphere of cells (128 cells) formed by
cleavage of the morula. The blastula contains the blastocoel

that is fluid-filled. The blastopore is the place where
gastrulation begins.
Gastrulation the process leading to the creation of the
primitive gut or archenteron. Invagination at the blastopore

results in the gut.
Gastrula transformation of the blastula into an embryo

possessing 3 germ layers, ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm.
Morula a solid mass of 16-64 cells formed by cleavage.

R.N., M.A.N
Frog Body Parts

and Functions

R.N., M.A.N
Anatomy of a Frogs Head

R.N., M.A.N
Functions of the body parts that

make up the frogs head
External nares or nostrils - Anterior openings
for the entry or exit of air.
Esophagus - Tube that connects the mouth and
the stomach in a frog.
Tympanic Membrane - The eardrum - receives
sound waves
Glottis - The opening from the mouth into the
respiratory system
R.N., M.A.N
Functions of the body parts that

make up the frogs head
Tongue - Muscular structure attached to the
front of the mouth which is extended to catch
insects (its food).
Maxillary Teeth - Sharp teeth in the maxilla
of a frogs mouth that function in holding
captured prey.
Vomerine Teeth - Small projections in the top
of a frogs mouth that function in holding and
captured prey.
Eustachian tube openings - Openings in
the mouth that lead to tubes that connect to
ABIGAILthe
MARIEmiddle
UMALI HERNANDEZ,
ear to equalize air pressure
R.N., M.A.N
External Anatomy of the Frog

R.N., M.A.N
Functions of the External Anatomy

of the Frog
Nictitating Membrane - A transparent
part of a frogs lower eyelid that moves
over the eye to clean it and protect it.
Cloacal Opening - Opening of cloaca
through which undigested food, urine,
eggs, and sperm are passed.

R.N., M.A.N
Internal Anatomy of a Frog

R.N., M.A.N
Functions of the Internal Anatomy

of a Frog:
Stomach - Stores food and mixes it with
enzymes to begin digestion.
Small Intestine - The principal organ of
digestion and absorption of digested food.
Duodenum - The anterior (front) part of the
small intestine into which food passes from
the stomach
Pancreas - Gland which secretes digestive
enzymes into the duodenum.
Gall Bladder - Sac which stores bile.
R.N., M.A.N
Functions of the Internal Anatomy

of a Frog:
Large Intestine - Posterior organ of the digestive
system which stores undigested food.
Liver - Secretes bile and processes digested food
molecules
Urinary Bladder - The organ that collects and
stores urine until released.
Fat Bodies - Masses of fat in the body cavities of
frogs. Needed for hibernating and mating
Spleen - Organ in the frogs circulatory system that
makes, stores, and destroys blood cells.
Cloaca - Organ through which the products of the
frogs digestive and urogenital system pass when
ABIGAILdischarged
from the body.
R.N., M.A.N
Anatomy of a Frog Heart

R.N., M.A.N
Functions of the Frog Heart

Heart - Pumping organ of the circulatory system
(has 3 chambers).
Anterior Vena Cava - Large vein that carries blood
from the anterior part of the body toward the heart.
Posterior Vena Cava - Large vein that carries
blood from the posterior part of the body towards
the heart.
Sinus Venosus - Sac that receives blood from the
vena cava

R.N., M.A.N
Functions of the Frog Heart

Right Atrium - Chamber of the frogs heart
which receives blood from the sinus venosus.
Left Atrium - The chamber of the heart that
receives blood from the lungs.
Pulmonary Veins - The blood vessels that
carry blood form the lungs to the left atrium.
Ventricle - Chamber of a frogs heart that
pumps blood out of the heart to the lungs and
other parts of the body.
Truncus Arteriosis - Large artery in a frog
that carries blood away from the ventricle into
branches
that
lead
to
all
parts
of
the
body.
R.N., M.A.N
Frog Brain

R.N., M.A.N
Functions of the Frog Brain

Spinal Cord - Main pathway to and from the brain
Spinal Nerves - Nerves that lead to and from the
spinal cord
Olfactory Lobe - Part of the frogs brain
associated with the sense of smell
Cerebrum - Part of the brain that is associated
with memory, pain, and voluntary muscle control.
Optic Lobes - Part of the brain associated with
vision.
R.N., M.A.N
Functions of the Frog Brain

Cerebellum - Part of a brain that influences
balance and equilibrium.
Medulla Oblongata - Part of a brain that is
the center for some involuntary functions.
Cranial Nerves - Nerves that lead to and
from the brain.

R.N., M.A.N
Frog Reproductive System

R.N., M.A.N

Functions
Urinary Ducts - Tubes in a frog that carry

urine from the kidneys to the cloaca
Urinary Bladder - The organ that collects
and stores urine until released.
Adrenal Glands - Organs located near the
kidneys which secrete hormones.
Ova or Eggs - Female sex cell or gametes

R.N., M.A.N

Functions
Ovaries - Organs of the female reproductive
system that produce the eggs.
Oviducts - Tubes of a female frogs
reproductive system that carry eggs from the
ovaries to the cloaca.
Testes - Male sex organs that produce sex
cells (sperm).
Sperm - Male sex cell or gametes.
Seminal Vesicles - Enlarged distal sections
of the male frogs urinary ducts that collect
sperm prior to entry into the cloaca.

R.N., M.A.N
Frog Dissection
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
Index to Frog Dissection

Index to Frog muscles dissection
Frog mouth
Frog internals
Internals 1
Internals 2
Male
female

R.N., M.A.N
Frog muscles
Dorsal view
Full view
Shoulder and head area
Shoulder lateral
Shoulder dorsal
Anterior dorsal view

Upper body
Back legs
Lateral muscles

R.N., M.A.N
Ventral view
Full view
Upper body
Back legs- medial view
Superficial muscles
Dissection 1
Dissection 2 (deep muscles)
Key to all muscles
SKELETAL SYSTEM

R.N., M.A.N

R.N., M.A.N

R.N., M.A.N

R.N., M.A.N
Frog Dorsal view

R.N., M.A.N
Muscle index
Muscle index
Frog shoulder lateral view

Muscles contrasted
Tympanic
membrane
10
Mouse click once for key

R.N., M.A.N
4.
5.
6.
10.
Masseter
Depressor mandibularis
Dorsalis scapulae
Latissimus dorsi
Muscle index
Frog shoulder dorsal view

Muscles contrasted
6
5
10
2.
4.
5.
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ, 6.
7.
R.N., M.A.N
10.
Pterygoideus
Masseter
Dorsalis scapulae
Deltoid
Latissimus dorsi
Muscle index
Anterior Dorsal view

Muscles contrasted
2
R.N., M.A.N
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
10.
11.
14.
Pterygoideus
Temporal
Masseter
Dorsalis scapulae
Latissimus dorsi
Longissimus dorsi
External oblique
Muscle index
Legs lateral muscles

Muscles contrasted

R.N., M.A.N
17.
18.
20.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Gluteus
Piriformis
Triceps femoris
Gracilis minor
Gastrocnemius
Tendon of Achilles
Semimembranous
Biceps femoris
Muscle index
Ventral
muscles
Contrasted muscles

7.
Deltoid
9.
Pectoralis
13.
Linea alba
20.
Triceps femoris
21.
Adductor magnus
22.
Sartorius
24.
Gracilis major
25.
Gracilis minor
26.
Gastrocnemius
27.
Tendon of Achilles
30.
Mylohoid

R.N., M.A.N
Muscle index
Frog ventral anterior muscles

Muscles contrasted

R.N., M.A.N
7.
12.
13.
14.

Deltoid
Pectoralis
Rectus abdominis
Linea alba
External oblique
Muscle index
Frog medial leg

Muscles contrasted

R.N., M.A.N

20.
Triceps femoris
21.
Adductor magnus
22.
Sartorius
24.
Gracilis major
26.
Gastrocnemius
Muscle index
Legs medial muscles

19. Adductor longus
20. Triceps femoris
21. Adductor magnus
22. Sartorius
23. Not shown here
24. Gracilis major
25. Gracilis minor
26. Gastrocnemius
27. Tendon Achilles

R.N., M.A.N
Muscle index
Medial leg muscles (deep)

Sartorius (cut)
Adductor longus (cut)
Triceps femoris
Gracilis major
Gracilis minor
Semitendinosus (double
belly)
12.
Rectus abdominis
23.
External oblique
24.
19.
Adductor longus
26.
20.
Triceps femoris
28.
21.
Adductor magnus
Sartorius
ABIGAIL MARIE22.UMALI
HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
Semitendinosus
Gracilis major
Gastrocnemius
Semimebranosus
Adductor magnus
Muscle index
Key to Frog muscles

1. Mylohyoid
2. Pterygoideus
3. Temporal
4. Masseter
5. Depressor mandibularis
6. Dorsalis scapulae
7. Deltoid
8. Triceps brachii
9. Pectoralis
10. Latissimus dorsi
11. Longissimus dorsi
12. Rectus abdominis
13. Linea alba
ABIGAIL MARIE
UMALI
HERNANDEZ,
15.
Cutaneous
abdominis
R.N., M.A.N
16.---17. Gluteus
18. Piriformis
19. Adductor longus
20. Triceps femoris
21. Adductor magnus
22. Sartorius
23. Semitendinosus
24. Gracilis major
25. Gracilis minor
26. Gastrocnemius
27. Tendon Achilles
28. Semimembranous
29. Biceps femoris
Frog mouth
30.
31.
33.
34.
35.
36.

R.N., M.A.N
Maxillary
Mouseteeth
click one time for answers
Vomerine teeth
Eustachian tubes
Tongue
Glottis
Esophagus
Frog internals 1
One mouse click for answers
38.
39.
40.
41.
43.
51.
52.

R.N., M.A.N
Ventricle
Auricle (atrium)
Conus arteriosus
Aortic arches
Liver
Fat bodies
Urinary bladder
Frog internals 2
Mouse click once for answers
40
38
42
43
39
44
56
55
50
46
52
49
47

R.N., M.A.N
51
38.
39.
40.
42.
43.
44.
46.
47.
49.
50.
51.
52.
55.
56.
Auricle (atrium)
Ventricle
Conus arteriosus
Lung
Liver
Gall bladder
Small intestine
Large intestine
Spleen
Kidney
Fat bodies
Urinary bladder
Adrenal gland
testis
Frog internals- male

45
45
48
48
49
49
46
46
56
56
55
55
47
47

R.N., M.A.N
50
50
57
57
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
55.
56.
57.
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Pancreas
Spleen
Kidney
Adrenal
Testis
Vestigial oviducts
Frog internals- female

Mouse click one time for answers
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
51.
52.
58.
59.

R.N., M.A.N
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Pancreas
Spleen
Fat bodies
Urinary bladder
Ovary
Oviduct
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GENERAL ZOOLOGY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

It has faith in the dignity of human

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Thus, the institution believes that the

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Promote moral and spiritual development

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Develop cultural, economic and socio-civic

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Strengthen involvement in community

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Attain institutional self-reliance through

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Ensure financial viability and profitability

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

There are 6 methods that scientists use

This methods includes:

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

4 Major groups of Scientific Study:

Mathematics and Logic

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

The life sciences, also called the

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

5 Groups of Living Organisms

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Systematic Zoology consists of

Morphology stresses the structural aspects

Cytology study of the minute parts and

Embryology study of the formation

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Experimental Zoology includes

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Molecular Biology is the study of

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

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Religious Explanations. Creation

THEORY OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION

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Proposes that energy such as sunlight, lightning,

Miller and Urey, 1953 two (2) American

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ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

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The First Microscope