Different types of Sorting

Techniques used in Data

Structures
By:
Vishal Kumar Arora
AP,CSE Department,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh State Technical Campus,
Ferozepur.
Sorting: Definition

Sorting: an operation that segregates

items into groups according to specified
criterion.

A={3162134590}

A={0112334569}
Sorting
Sorting = ordering.
Sorted = ordered based on a particular
way.
Generally, collections of data are presented
in a sorted manner.
Examples of Sorting:
Words in a dictionary are sorted (and
case distinctions are ignored).
Files in a directory are often listed in
sorted order.
The index of a book is sorted (and case
distinctions are ignored).
Sorting: Contd
Many banks provide statements
that list checks in increasing order
(by check number).
In a newspaper, the calendar of events in
a schedule is generally sorted by date.
Musical compact disks in a record store
are generally sorted by recording artist.
Why?
Imagine finding the phone number of
your friend in your mobile phone, but the
phone book is not sorted.
Review of Complexity
Most of the primary sorting algorithms
run on different space and time
complexity.

Time Complexity is defined to be the time

the computer takes to run a program (or
algorithm in our case).

Space complexity is defined to be the

amount of memory the computer needs
to run a program.
Complexity (cont.)
Complexity in general, measures the
algorithms efficiency in internal factors
such as the time needed to run an
algorithm.

External Factors (not related to

complexity):
Size of the input of the algorithm
Speed of the Computer
Quality of the Compiler
O(n), (n), & (n)

An algorithm or function T(n) is O(f(n)) whenever

T(n)'s rate of growth is less than or equal to f(n)'s
rate.

An algorithm or function T(n) is (f(n)) whenever

T(n)'s rate of growth is greater than or equal to
f(n)'s rate.

An algorithm or function T(n) is (f(n)) if and

only if the rate of growth of T(n) is equal to f(n).
Types of Sorting Algorithms

There are many, many different types of

sorting algorithms, but the primary ones
are:

Bubble Sort
Radix Sort

Selection Sort
Swap Sort

Insertion Sort
Heap Sort

Merge Sort

Quick Sort

Shell Sort
Bubble Sort: Idea
Idea: bubble in water.
Bubble in water moves upward. Why?
How?
When a bubble moves upward, the water
from above will move downward to fill in
the space left by the bubble.
 Bubble Sort Example
9, 6, 2, 12, 11, 9, 3, 7
the
6,
Bubblesort
exchanging
second
9,
Bubblesortcompares
when
and as
2,
comparesthe
necessary.
it is
12,
thenumbers
numbersin

larger
Here
they
the
are
11, 9, 3, 7
inpairs
pairsfrom
first
fromleft
leftto
exchanging when necessary. Here the first number is comparedto
number
exchanged.
is
toright
right
compared to
the second and as it is larger they are exchanged.
Now
6,
Nowthe
larger and 2,
thenext
nextpair
so
pairof
this 9,
ofnumbers
pair is 12,
numbersare
also 11, 9, 3, 7
arecompared.
compared. Again
exchanged.
larger and so this pair is also exchanged.
Againthe
the99isisthe
the

In
6,
Inthe
thethird
exchange 2,
is made. 9,
thirdcomparison,
comparison,the
We 12,
the99isisnot
move on to 11, 9, 3, 7
notlarger
largerthan
compare
thanthe
the
the12
next
12so
sono
pair
exchange is made. We move on to compare the next pair without
any
no
without
anychange
changeto tothe
thelist.
list.
The
6,
The12 2,
12isislarger
largerthan9,
thanthe
the11
11so11,
sothey
theyare 12, 9, 3, 7
areexchanged.
exchanged.

The
Theend
The

endof
6,
Thetwelve
ofthe
2,
thelist
listhas
9,
twelveisisgreater
greaterthan
hasbeen
beenreached
11,
thanthe
the99so
reachedso
sothey
sothis
9, 12, 3, 7
theyareareexchanged
thisisisthe
exchanged
theend
endof ofthe
thefirst
firstpass.
pass. The
The

6, 2, 9, 11, 9, 3, 12, 7
twelve
twelveatatthe
theend
endof ofthe
thelist
listmust
mustbebelargest
largestnumber
numberin inthe
thelist
listand
andsosoisisnow
nowinin
the The 12 is greater than the 3 so they are exchanged.
thecorrect
Theposition.
correct 12 We
Wenow
is greater
position. nowstart
than the 3aso
start anew pass
they
new are from
pass fromleft
leftto
exchanged. toright.
right.

The
6,
The12 2,
12isisgreater 9,
greaterthan
thanthe
the77so11,
sothey
theyare 9, 3, 7, 12
areexchanged.
exchanged.
 Bubble Sort Example
First Pass
6, 2, 9, 11, 9, 3, 7, 12
Second Pass
6, 6,
2, 2, 9, 9,
11, 3,
11,
9, 7,
11,
3, 11,
7, 12
Notice
Noticethat
thatthis
thistime
timewe
wedodonot
nothave
haveto
tocompare
comparethe
thelast
lasttwo
two
numbers
numbers as we know the 12 is in position. This pass thereforeonly
as we know the 12 is in position. This pass therefore only
requires 6 comparisons.
requires 6 comparisons.
 Bubble Sort Example
First Pass
6, 2, 9, 11, 9, 3, 7, 12
Second Pass

Third Pass
2, 6, 9, 9, 3, 7, 11, 12
2, 6, 9, 3,
9, 7,
3, 9,
9, 7, 11, 12
This
Thistime
timethe
the11
11and
and12
12are
arein
inposition.
position. This
Thispass
passtherefore
thereforeonly
only
requires
requires55comparisons.
comparisons.
 Bubble Sort Example
First Pass
6, 2, 9, 11, 9, 3, 7, 12
Second Pass

Third Pass
2, 6, 9, 9, 3, 7, 11, 12
Fourth Pass
2, 6, 9, 3, 7, 9, 11, 12
2, 6, 9,
3, 3, 9,
9,
7, 7, 9, 11, 12
Each
Eachpass
passrequires
requiresfewer
fewercomparisons.
comparisons. This
Thistime
timeonly
only44are
areneeded.
needed.
 Bubble Sort Example
First Pass
6, 2, 9, 11, 9, 3, 7, 12
Second Pass

Third Pass
2, 6, 9, 9, 3, 7, 11, 12
Fourth Pass
2, 6, 9, 3, 7, 9, 11, 12
Fifth Pass
2, 6, 3, 7, 9, 9, 11, 12
2, 6,
3, 3,
6, 7, 9, 9, 11, 12
The
Thelist
listisisnow
nowsorted
sortedbut
butthe
thealgorithm
algorithmdoes
doesnot
notknow
knowthis
thisuntil
untilitit
completes
completesaapasspasswith
withno
noexchanges.
exchanges.
 Bubble Sort Example
First Pass
6, 2, 9, 11, 9, 3, 7, 12
Second Pass

Third Pass
2, 6, 9, 9, 3, 7, 11, 12
Fourth Pass
2, 6, 9, 3, 7, 9, 11, 12
Fifth Pass
2,
This
Thispass
6,
passno
3,
noexchanges
7, 9, 9, 11,
exchangesarearemade
madeso
sothe
thealgorithm
algorithmknows
knowsthe
12
thelist
listisis
sorted.
sorted. ItItcan
cantherefore
thereforesave
savetime
timeby
bynot
notdoing
doingthe
thefinal
finalpass.
pass. With
2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 9, 11, 12
With
other
otherlists
liststhis
thischeck
checkcould
couldsave
savemuch
muchmore
morework.
work.
Sixth Pass

2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 9, 11, 12
Bubble Sort Example
Quiz Time
1. Which number is definitely in its correct position at the
end of the first pass?
Answer: The last number must be the largest.
2. How does the number of comparisons required change as
the pass number increases?
Answer: Each pass requires one fewer comparison than the last.
3. How does the algorithm know when the list is sorted?
Answer: When a pass with no exchanges occurs.
4. What is the maximum number of comparisons required
for a list of 10 numbers?
Answer: 9 comparisons, then 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 so total 45
Bubble Sort: Example

1 40 2 1 43 3 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4

2 2 1 40 3 43 0 -1 58 3 42 4 65

3 1 2 3 40 0 -1 43 3 42 4 58 65

4 1 2 3 0 -1 40 3 42 4 43 58 65

Notice that at least one element will be

in the correct position each iteration.
Bubble Sort: Example
5 1 2 0 -1 3 3 40 4 42 43 58 65

6 1 0 -1 2 3 3 4 40 42 43 58 65

7 0 -1 1 2 3 3 4 40 42 43 58 65

8 -1 0 1 2 3 3 4 40 42 43 58 65
Bubble Sort: Analysis
Running time:
Worst case: O(N2)
Best case: O(N)
Variant:
bi-directional bubble sort
original bubble sort: only works to one
direction
bi-directional bubble sort: works back and
forth.
Selection Sort: Idea
1. We have two group of items:
sorted group, and
unsorted group
2. Initially, all items are in the unsorted
group. The sorted group is empty.
We assume that items in the unsorted
group unsorted.
We have to keep items in the sorted
group sorted.
Selection Sort: Contd
1. Select the best (eg. smallest) item
from the unsorted group, then put
the best item at the end of the
sorted group.
2. Repeat the process until the unsorted
group becomes empty.
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 6 2

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 6 2

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 6 2

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 6 2

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 6 2

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 6 2

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 6 2

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 6 2

Largest

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 2 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 2 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 2 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 2 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 2 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 2 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 2 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

5 1 3 4 2 6

Largest

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Largest

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Largest

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

2 1 3 4 5 6

Largest

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

1 2 3 4 5 6

Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort

1 2 3 4 5 6
DONE!
Comparison

Data Movement

Sorted
Selection Sort: Example
40 2 1 43 3 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4

40 2 1 43 3 4 0 -1 58 3 42 65

40 2 1 43 3 4 0 -1 42 3 58 65

40 2 1 3 3 4 0 -1 42 43 58 65
Selection Sort: Example

40 2 1 3 3 4 0 -1 42 43 58 65

-1 2 1 3 3 4 0 40 42 43 58 65

-1 2 1 3 3 0 4 40 42 43 58 65

-1 2 1 0 3 3 4 40 42 43 58 65
Selection Sort: Example

-1 2 1 0 3 3 4 40 42 43 58 65

-1 0 1 2 3 3 4 40 42 43 58 65

-1 0 1 2 3 3 4 40 42 43 58 65

-1 0 1 2 3 3 4 40 42 43 58 65

-1 0 1 2 3 3 4 40 42 43 58 65
Selection Sort: Analysis
Running time:
Worst case: O(N2)
Best case: O(N2)
Insertion Sort: Idea
Idea: sorting cards.
8 | 5 9 2 6 3
5 8 | 9 2 6 3
5 8 9 | 2 6 3
2 5 8 9 | 6 3
2 5 6 8 9 | 3
2 3 5 6 8 9 |
Insertion Sort: Idea
1. We have two group of items:
sorted group, and
unsorted group
2. Initially, all items in the unsorted group and the sorted
group is empty.
We assume that items in the unsorted group unsorted.
We have to keep items in the sorted group sorted.
3. Pick any item from, then insert the item at the right
position in the sorted group to maintain sorted
property.
4. Repeat the process until the unsorted group becomes
empty.
Insertion Sort: Example

40 2 1 43 3 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4

2 40 1 43 3 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4

1 2 40 43 3 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4
Insertion Sort: Example

1 2 40 43 3 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4

1 2 3 40 43 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4

1 2 3 40 43 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4
Insertion Sort: Example

1 2 3 40 43 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4

0 1 2 3 40 43 65 -1 58 3 42 4

-1
0 1
0 2
1 3
2 40
3 40
43 43
65 65 58 3 42 4
Insertion Sort: Example
-1
0 1
0 2
1 3
2 40
3 40
43 43
65 58 65 3 42 4

-1
0 1
0 2
1 3
2 40
3 43
3 40
65 43
43 58 58
65 65 42 4

-1
0 1
0 2
1 3
2 40
3 43
3 40
65 42 43
43 65 58 65 4

-1
0 1
0 2
1 3
2 40
3 43
3 43
65
4 40
42 42
65 43
43 58 58
65 65
Insertion Sort: Analysis
Running time analysis:
Worst case: O(N2)
Best case: O(N)
A Lower Bound
Bubble Sort, Selection Sort, Insertion
Sort all have worst case of O(N2).
Turns out, for any algorithm that
exchanges adjacent items, this is the
best worst case: (N2)
In other words, this is a lower bound!
Mergesort
Mergesort (divide-and-conquer)
Divide array into two halves.

A L G O R I T H M S

A L G O R I T H M S divide
Mergesort
Mergesort (divide-and-conquer)
Divide array into two halves.
Recursively sort each half.

A L G O R I T H M S

A L G O R I T H M S divide

A G L O R H I M S T sort
Mergesort
Mergesort (divide-and-conquer)
Divide array into two halves.
Recursively sort each half.
Merge two halves to make sorted whole.
A L G O R I T H M S

A L G O R I T H M S divide

A G L O R H I M S T sort

A G H I L M O R S T merge
Merging
Merge.
Keep track of smallest element in each sorted half.
Insert smallest of two elements into auxiliary array.
Repeat until done.

smallest smallest

A G L O R H I M S T

A auxiliary array
Merging
Merge.
Keep track of smallest element in each sorted half.
Insert smallest of two elements into auxiliary array.
Repeat until done.

smallest smallest

A G L O R H I M S T

A G auxiliary array
Merging
Merge.
Keep track of smallest element in each sorted half.
Insert smallest of two elements into auxiliary array.
Repeat until done.

smallest smallest

A G L O R H I M S T

A G H auxiliary array
Merging
Merge.
Keep track of smallest element in each sorted half.
Insert smallest of two elements into auxiliary array.
Repeat until done.

smallest smallest

A G L O R H I M S T

A G H I auxiliary array
Merging
Merge.
Keep track of smallest element in each sorted half.
Insert smallest of two elements into auxiliary array.
Repeat until done.

smallest smallest

A G L O R H I M S T

A G H I L auxiliary array
Merging
Merge.
Keep track of smallest element in each sorted half.
Insert smallest of two elements into auxiliary array.
Repeat until done.

smallest smallest

A G L O R H I M S T

A G H I L M auxiliary array
Merging
Merge.
Keep track of smallest element in each sorted half.
Insert smallest of two elements into auxiliary array.
Repeat until done.

smallest smallest

A G L O R H I M S T

A G H I L M O auxiliary array
Merging
Merge.
Keep track of smallest element in each sorted half.
Insert smallest of two elements into auxiliary array.
Repeat until done.

smallest smallest

A G L O R H I M S T

A G H I L M O R auxiliary array
Merging
Merge.
Keep track of smallest element in each sorted half.
Insert smallest of two elements into auxiliary array.
Repeat until done.
first half
exhausted smallest

A G L O R H I M S T

A G H I L M O R S auxiliary array
Merging
Merge.
Keep track of smallest element in each sorted half.
Insert smallest of two elements into auxiliary array.
Repeat until done.
first half
exhausted smallest

A G L O R H I M S T

A G H I L M O R S T auxiliary array
Notes on Quicksort
Quicksort is more widely used than any
other sort.
Quicksort is well-studied, not difficult to
implement, works well on a variety of
data, and consumes fewer resources
that other sorts in nearly all situations.
Quicksort is O(n*log n) time, and O(log
n) additional space due to recursion.
Quicksort Algorithm
Quicksort is a divide-and-conquer method for
sorting. It works by partitioning an array into
parts, then sorting each part independently.
The crux of the problem is how to partition
the array such that the following conditions
are true:
There is some element, a[i], where a[i] is
in its final position.
For all l < i, a[l] < a[i].
For all i < r, a[i] < a[r].
Quicksort Algorithm (cont)
As is typical with a recursive program, once you figure
out how to divide your problem into smaller
subproblems, the implementation is amazingly simple.
int partition(Item a[], int l, int r);
void quicksort(Item a[], int l, int r)
{ int i;
if (r <= l) return;
i = partition(a, l, r);
quicksort(a, l, i-1);
quicksort(a, i+1, r);
}
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
repeat until pointers cross

Q U I C K S O R T I S C O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
 Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
swap me repeat until pointers cross

Q U I C K S O R T I S C O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
 Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
swap me repeat until pointers cross

Q U I C K S O R T I S C O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
 Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
swap me repeat until pointers cross

Q U I C K S O R T I S C O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
 Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
swap me repeat until pointers cross swap me

Q U I C K S O R T I S C O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
repeat until pointers cross

C U I C K S O R T I S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
merepeat until pointers cross
swap

C U I C K S O R T I S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
merepeat until pointers cross
swap

C U I C K S O R T I S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
merepeat until pointers cross
swap swap me

C U I C K S O R T I S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
repeat until pointers cross

C I I C K S O R T U S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
repeat until pointers cross

C I I C K S O R T U S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
exchange
repeat until pointers cross

C I I C K S O R T U S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
Exchange and repeat until pointers cross

C I I C K S O R T U S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
Exchange and repeat until pointers cross
swap me

C I I C K S O R T U S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
Exchange and repeat until pointers cross
swap me

C I I C K S O R T U S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
Exchange and repeat until pointers cross

swap me

C I I C K S O R T U S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
Exchange and repeat until pointers cross

swap me

C I I C K S O R T U S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
Exchange and repeat until pointers crossswap with
pointers cross partitioning
element

C I I C K S O R T U S Q O O L

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Partitioning in Quicksort
How do we partition the array efficiently?
choose partition element to be rightmost element
scan from left for larger element
scan from right for smaller element
Exchange and repeat until pointers cross
partition is
complete

C I I C K L O R T U S Q O O S

partition element unpartitioned left

partitioned right
Quicksort Demo
Quicksort illustrates the operation of the basic
algorithm. When the array is partitioned, one
element is in place on the diagonal, the left
subarray has its upper corner at that element,
and the right subarray has its lower corner at
that element. The original file is divided into
two smaller parts that are sorted
independently. The left subarray is always
sorted first, so the sorted result emerges as a
line of black dots moving right and up the
diagonal.
Why study Heapsort?
It is a well-known, traditional sorting
algorithm you will be expected to
know
Heapsort is always O(n log n)
Quicksort is usually O(n log n) but in the
worst case slows to O(n2)
Quicksort is generally faster, but
Heapsort is better in time-critical
applications
What is a heap?
Definitions of heap:
1. A large area of memory from which the
programmer can allocate blocks as
needed, and deallocate them (or allow
them to be garbage collected) when no
longer needed
2. A balanced, left-justified binary tree in
which no node has a value greater
than the value in its parent
Heapsort uses the second definition
Balanced binary trees
Recall:
The depth of a node is its distance from the root
The depth of a tree is the depth of the deepest node
A binary tree of depth n is balanced if all the nodes at depths 0 through
n-2 have two children

n-2
n-1
n
Balanced Balanced Not balanced
Left-justified binary trees
A balanced binary tree is left-justified if:
all the leaves are at the same depth, or
all the leaves at depth n+1 are to the left of
all the nodes at depth n

Left-justified Not left-justified

The heap property
A node has the heap property if the
value in the node is as large as or
larger than the values in its children
12 12 12

8 3 8 12 8 14
Blue node has Blue node has Blue node does not
heap property heap property have heap property
All leaf nodes automatically have the heap property
A binary tree is a heap if all nodes in it have the
heap property
siftUp
Given a node that does not have the heap
property, you can give it the heap property by
exchanging its value with the value of the
larger child
14
12
8 12
8 14 Blue node has
Blue node does not heap property
have heap property
This is sometimes called sifting up
Notice that the child may have lost the heap
property
Constructing a heap I
A tree consisting of a single node is automatically a heap
We construct a heap by adding nodes one at a time:
Add the node just to the right of the rightmost node in the
deepest level
If the deepest level is full, start a new level
Examples:

Add a new Add a new

node here node here
Constructing a heap II
Each time we add a node, we may destroy the heap property of its
parent node
To fix this, we sift up
But each time we sift up, the value of the topmost node in the sift may
increase, and this may destroy the heap property of its parent node
We repeat the sifting up process, moving up in the tree, until either
We reach nodes whose values dont need to be swapped (because
the parent is still larger than both children), or
We reach the root
Constructing a heap III
8 8 10 10

10 8 8 5

1 2 3

10 10 12

8 5 12 5 10 5

12 8 8
4
Other children are not affected
12 12 14

10 5 14 5 12 5

8 14 8 10 8 10

The node containing 8 is not affected because its parent gets

larger, not smaller
The node containing 5 is not affected because its parent gets
larger, not smaller
The node containing 8 is still not affected because, although its
parent got smaller, its parent is still greater than it was originally
A sample heap
Heres a sample binary tree after it has been
heapified
25

22 17

19 22 14 15

18 14 21 3 9 11

Notice that heapified does not mean sorted

Heapifying does not change the shape of the
binary tree; this binary tree is balanced and
left-justified because it started out that way
Removing the root
Notice that the largest number is now in the root
Suppose we discard the root:
11

22 17

19 22 14 15

18 14 21 3 9 11

How can we fix the binary tree so it is once

again balanced and left-justified?
Solution: remove the rightmost leaf at the
deepest level and use it for the new root
The reHeap method I
Our tree is balanced and left-justified, but no longer a heap
However, only the root lacks the heap property

11

22 17

19 22 14 15

18 14 21 3 9

We can siftUp() the root

After doing this, one and only one of its
children may have lost the heap property
The reHeap method II
Now the left child of the root (still the
number 11) lacks the heap property
22

11 17

19 22 14 15

18 14 21 3 9

We can siftUp() this node

After doing this, one and only one of its
children may have lost the heap property
The reHeap method III
Now the right child of the left child of the root
(still the number 11) lacks the heap property:
22

22 17

19 11 14 15

18 14 21 3 9

We can siftUp() this node

After doing this, one and only one of its children may
have lost the heap property but it doesnt, because
its a leaf
The reHeap method IV
Our tree is once again a heap, because
every node in it has the heap property
22

22 17

19 21 14 15

18 14 11 3 9

Once again, the largest (or a largest) value is in the root

We can repeat this process until the tree becomes empty
This produces a sequence of values in order largest to
smallest
Sorting
What do heaps have to do with sorting an array?
Heres the neat part:
Because the binary tree is balanced and left justified,
it can be represented as an array
All our operations on binary trees can be represented
as operations on arrays
To sort:
heapify the array;
while the array isnt empty {
remove and replace the root;
reheap the new root node;
}
Mapping into an25array
22 17

19 22 14 15

18 14 21 3 9 11

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
25 22 17 19 22 14 15 18 14 21 3 9 11
Notice:
The left child of index i is at index 2*i+1
The right child of index i is at index 2*i+2
Example: the children of node 3 (19) are 7 (18) and 8
(14)
Removing and replacing the
root
The root is the first element in the array
The rightmost node at the deepest level is the last
element
Swap them...

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
25 22 17 19 22 14 15 18 14 21 3 9 11

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11 22 17 19 22 14 15 18 14 21 3 9 25
...And pretend that the last element in the array
no longer existsthat is, the last index is 11 (9)
Reheap and repeat
Reheap the root node (index 0, containing
0 )...
11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
11 22 17 19 22 14 15 18 14 21 3 9 25

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
22 22 17 19 21 14 15 18 14 11 3 9 25

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
9 22 17 19 22 14 15 18 14 21 3 22 25
...And again, remove and replace the root node
Remember, though, that the last array index is changed
Repeat until the last becomes first, and the array is sorted!
Analysis I
Heres how the algorithm starts:
heapify the array;
Heapifying the array: we add each of
n nodes
Each node has to be sifted up, possibly
as far as the root
Since the binary tree is perfectly balanced,
sifting up a single node takes O(log n) time
Since we do this n times, heapifying
takes n*O(log n) time, that is, O(n log n)
time
Analysis II
Heres the rest of the algorithm:
while the array isnt empty {
remove and replace the root;
reheap the new root node;
}
We do the while loop n times (actually, n-1
times), because we remove one of the n
nodes each time
Removing and replacing the root takes O(1)
time
Therefore, the total time is n times however
long it takes the reheap method
Analysis III
To reheap the root node, we have to follow
one path from the root to a leaf node (and we
might stop before we reach a leaf)
The binary tree is perfectly balanced
Therefore, this path is O(log n) long
And we only do O(1) operations at each node
Therefore, reheaping takes O(log n) times
Since we reheap inside a while loop that we
do n times, the total time for the while loop is
n*O(log n), or O(n log n)
Analysis IV
Heres the algorithm again:
heapify the array;
while the array isnt empty {
remove and replace the root;
reheap the new root node;
}
We have seen that heapifying takes O(n log
n) time
The while loop takes O(n log n) time
The total time is therefore O(n log n) + O(n log
n)
This is the same as O(n log n) time
The End
 Shell Sort: Idea
Donald Shell (1959): Exchange items that are far apart!

Original:
40 2 1 43 3 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4

5-sort: Sort items with distance 5 element:

40 2 1 43 3 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4
Shell
Original: Sort: Example
40 2 1 43 3 65 0 -1 58 3 42 4

After 5-sort:
40 0 -1 43 3 42 2 1 58 3 65 4

After 3-sort:
2 0 -1 3 1 4 40 3 42 43 65 58

After 1-sort:
-1
0 1
0 2
1 3
2 40
3 43
3 43
65
4 40
42 42
65 43
43 58 58
65 65
Shell Sort: Gap Values
Gap: the distance between items being
sorted.
As we progress, the gap decreases.
Shell Sort is also called Diminishing Gap
Sort.
Shell proposed starting gap of N/2,
halving at each step.
There are many ways of choosing the
next gap.
 Shell Sort: Analysis

O(N3/2)? O(N5/4)? O(N7/6)?

So we have 3 nested loops, but Shell Sort is still better
than Insertion Sort! Why?
Generic Sort
So far we have methods to sort integers. What about
Strings? Employees? Cookies?
A new method for each class? No!
In order to be sorted, objects should be comparable
(less than, equal, greater than).
Solution:
use an interface that has a method to compare two
objects.
Remember: A class that implements an interface
inherits the interface (method definitions) = interface
inheritance, not implementation inheritance.
Other kinds of sort

Heap sort. We will discuss this after

tree.
Postman sort / Radix Sort.
etc.