Database Systems

Structure Query Language

(SQL)
Objectives
• Example Tables
• Introduction
• ISO SQL Data Types
• Comparison Operators in SQL
• Logical Operators in SQL
• Arithmetic Operators in SQL
• SQL Schema and Catalog
• SQL Data Definition Statements (DDL)
• SQL Data Manipulation Statements (DML)
• Other SQL Operators

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 2

Example Table …
City Year Cars_sold
Dhahran 2001 525
Dhahran 2002 456
Riyadh 2001 700
Riyadh 2002 654
Jeddah 2001 921
Jeddah 2002 752
Khobar 2002
Car_Sales

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 Example: Tables …

Lid Lname dno salary

dno dname
1 Ahmed 1 4000
1 ICS
2 Amin 2 3700
2 COE
3 Hani 1 4200
3 SWE
4 Abdallah 4300
Departments 5 Ageel 1 4000
6 Yousef 2 3500
7 Khalid 2 4500

Lecturers

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 4

Objectives of SQL
• Ideally, database language should allow user to:
– create the database and relation structures;
– perform insertion, modification, deletion of data from relations;
– perform simple and complex queries.

• Must perform these tasks with minimal user effort and command
structure and syntax must be easy to learn.

• It must be portable.

• SQL does not contain flow control commands. These must be

implemented using a programming or job-control language, or
interactively by the decisions of the user.

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Objectives of SQL …
• SQL is relatively easy to learn:
– It is a non-procedural language - you specify what information you
require, rather than how to get it.
– It is essentially free-format.

• Can be used by a range of users including DBAs, management,

application programmers, and other types of end users.

• An ISO standard now exists for SQL, making it both the formal and
de facto standard language for relational databases.

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Objectives of SQL …
• Consists of standard English words:

CREATE TABLE staff(

sno VARCHAR(5),
lname VARCHAR(15),
salary NUMBER(7,2)
);

INSERT INTO staff

VALUES ('SG16', 'Brown', 8300);

SELECT sno, lname, salary

FROM staff
WHERE salary > 10000;

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History of SQL …
• In 1974, D. Chamberlin (IBM San Jose Laboratory) defined
language called 'Structured English Query Language' or SEQUEL.

• A revised version SEQUEL/2 was defined in 1976 but name was

subsequently changed to SQL for legal reasons.

• Still pronounced 'see-quel', though official pronunciation is 's-q-l'.

• IBM subsequently produced a prototype DBMS called System R,

based on SEQUEL/2.

• Roots of SQL, however, are in SQUARE (Specifying Queries as

Relational Expressions), which predates System R project.

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History of SQL …

• In late 70s, ORACLE appeared and was probably first commercial

RDBMS based on SQL.

• In 1987, ANSI and ISO published an initial standard for SQL.

• In 1989, ISO published an addendum that defined an 'Integrity

Enhancement Feature'.

• In 1992, first major revision to ISO standard occurred, referred to as

SQL2 or SQL/92.

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Importance of SQL …
• SQL has become part of application architectures such
as IBM's Systems Application Architecture (SAA).

• It is strategic choice of many large and influential

organizations (e.g. X/OPEN).

• SQL is Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS)

to which conformance is required for all sales of
databases to American Government.

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Importance of SQL …
• SQL Access Group trying to define enhancements that
will support interoperability across disparate systems.

• SQL is used in other standards and even influences

development of other standards as a definitional tool.
Examples include:
– ISO's Information Resource Directory System (IRDS)
Standard
– Remote Data Access (RDA) Standard.

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Components of SQL
• A database language must have support for the
components listed below. Most implementations of SQL
support various components listed below:
– Data Definition Language (DDL)
– Interactive Data Manipulation Language (Interactive
DML)
– Embedded Data Manipulation Language (Embedded
DML)
– Views
– Integrity and transaction control
– Authorization & Security (DCL)
– Catalog and dictionary facility.
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Basic Guidelines for Writing SQL
Statements …
• SQL statement consists of reserved words and user-defined words.
– Reserved words are a fixed part of SQL and must be spelt exactly as
required and cannot be split across lines.
– User-defined words are made up by user and represent names of
various database objects such as relations, columns, views.

• Most components of an SQL statement are case insensitive, except

for literal character data.

• More readable with indentation and lineation:

– Each clause should begin on a new line.
– Start of a clause should line up with start of other clauses.
– If clause has several parts, should each appear on a separate line and
be indented under start of clause.

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Basic Guidelines for Writing SQL
Statements …
• Use extended form of BNF notation:

– Upper case letters represent reserved words.

– Lower case letters represent user-defined words.
– | indicates a choice among alternatives.
– Curly braces indicate a required element.
– Square brackets indicate an optional element.
– … indicates optional repetition (0 or more).
– ALL SQL is case less

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ISO SQL Data Types

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Comparison Operators in SQL
• There are six comparison operators in SQL. These operators are
used to build conditions that are used in the WHERE clause of a
DML statement:

Operator Meaning
= Equal
<> Not Equal
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or Eqaul
>= Greater than or Eqaul

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Logical Operators in SQL
• There are three logical operators that help us to build
compound conditions to be used in the WHERE clause
of the SELECT statement.
– The AND operator joins two or more conditions, and
display a row only if that row’s data satisfies ALL the
specified conditions.
– The OR operator joins two or more conditions, and
display a row only if that row’s data satisfies any of
the specified conditions.
– The NOT is a unary operator, and is used to negates
a condition.

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 17

Arithmetic Operators in SQL
• Another feature of SQL allows the use of arithmetic in
queries.

– The standard arithmetic operators ( +, -, /, *) can be

applied to numeric values or attributes with numeric
domain.

– The arithmetic operators can be used in expressions

in the SELECT and the WHERE clauses to compute
numeric values.

– All attributes that can be computed using arithmetic

expressions (such as age from birth date, annual
salary from monthly salary) must be eliminated as
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part of a good design practice in databases.
SQL Schema and Catalog

• In SQL92, relations and other database objects exist in an

environment.

• Each environment contains one or more catalogs, and each catalog

consists of set of schemas.

• Schema is a named collection of related database objects.

• Objects in a schema can be tables, views, domains, constraints,

translations, and character sets. All have same owner.

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SELECT
• SELECT Definition
• Selecting Columns
• Selecting Rows
• Sorting
• Aggregation
• Grouping
• Restricting Groups
• Aliasing Table Names
• Nested Queries
• Join
• Set Operations
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 20
SELECT Definition …

• SQL has only one statement for retrieving information from a

database called the SELECT statement.

• SQL SELECT statement is different from that of Relational Algebra.

• An important distinction between SQL and formal relational model

is that SQL allows duplicate rows. Hence an SQL table is not a set
but a multiset (some times called a bag) of tuples.

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Retrieving Information From the
Database

Data

DB

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SQL

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SQL - Usage

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SELECT Definition …
• A SELECT statement can consist up to six clauses.

SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]

{* | [column_expression [AS
new_name]] [,...] }
FROM table_name [alias] [, ...]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column_list]
[HAVING condition]
[ORDER By column_list]

• Only SELECT and FROM clauses are mandatory.

• Order of the clauses cannot be changed.

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SELECT Definition …

• FROM Specifies table(s) to be used.

• WHERE Filters rows.

• GROUP BY Forms groups of rows with same column value.

• HAVING Filters groups subject to some condition.

• SELECT Specifies which columns are to appear in output.

• ORDER BY Specifies the order of the output.

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Selecting Columns
• Selecting all columns +
• Selecting Specific columns +
• Selecting Computed columns +
• Renaming Columns +

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 Input Tables

Selecting All Columns

Example 1:
City Year Cars_sold
SELECT city, year, cars_sold Dhahran 2001 525
FROM car_sales;
Dhahran 2002 456
• Can use * as an abbreviation
Riyadh 2001 700
for 'all columns':
Riyadh 2002 654
Example 2:
Jeddah 2001 921
SELECT *
FROM car_sales; Jeddah 2002 752

Khobar 2002
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 Input Tables

Selecting Specific Columns

• Selected columns can be listed
as shown in the following
City Cars_sold
example. Notice that the year
column was not selected so it Dhahran 525
doesn’t appear in the output.
Dhahran 456
Example: Riyadh 700

Riyadh 654
SELECT city, cars_sold
FROM car_sales; Jeddah 921

Jeddah 752

Khobar
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 29
 Input Tables

Selecting Computed Columns

• If the value of a car

is 100,000 then the City Year Cars_Sold Cars_Sold *100000
total sales per year
for each city is Dhahran 2001 525 52500000
computed as follows.
Dhahran 2002 456 45600000

Example: Riyadh 2001 700 70000000

Riyadh 2002 654 65400000

SELECT
city Jeddah 2001 921 92100000
,year
Jeddah 2002 752 75200000
,cars_sold
,cars_sold * 100000 Khobar 2002 0 0
FROM car_sales;
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 Input Tables

Renaming Columns

• The name of the

computed column in City Year Sold sales
the last slide cab be
changed from Dhahran 2001 525 52500000
cars_sold*100000 to
sales as follows. Dhahran 2002 456 45600000

Riyadh 2001 700 70000000

Example:
Riyadh 2002 654 65400000
SELECT
city Jeddah 2001 921 92100000
,year
Jeddah 2002 752 75200000
,cars_sold As Sold
,cars_sold * 100000 Khobar 2002 0 0
AS sales
FROM car_sales;
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Selecting Rows
• Selecting All Rows +
• Partial match Search +
• Range Search +
• Set Membership Search +
• Pattern matching Search +
• Null Search +
• Removing Duplicate Rows +

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 Input Tables

Selecting All Rows

• A SELECT statement without a

WHERE clause selects all City Year Cars_Sold
rows.
Dhahran 2001 525

Example: Dhahran 2002 456

Riyadh 2001 700

SELECT * Riyadh 2002 654

FROM car_sales; Jeddah 2001 921

Jeddah 2002 752

Khobar 2002

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Selecting Rows
• To Select certain rows of a table you need to use the
WHERE clause of the SELECT statement.
• The WHERE clause has a condition which is a logical
expression.
• The Where condition consists of:
– Comparison Operators
– Logical Operators
– Arithmetic Operators
– Other SQL constructs which will be discussed later.
• A record to be selected it must make the WHERE logical
expression true. In other words it must satisfy the where
condition.
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 Input Tables

Partial match Search

• Selecting all the records whose column City Year Cars_Sold

values match the column values
specified in the WHERE clause.
Dhahran 2001 525

Example1:
Dhahran 2002 456
SELECT *
FROM car_sales
WHERE city = ‘Dhahran’;

Example2:

SELECT * City Year Cars_Sold

FROM car_sales
WHERE city = ‘Dhahran’ Dhahran 2002 456
AND year > 2001;
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 Input Tables

Range Search
Selecting all the records whose column values is between the
values specified in the WHERE cluause.
Example:

SELECT *
City Year Sold
FROM car_sales
WHERE cars_sold >= 525 Dhahran 2001 525
AND cars_sold <= 752;
Riyadh 2001 700
OR

SELECT *
Riyadh 2002 654
FROM car_sales
WHERE cars_sold Jeddah 2002 752
BETWEEN 525 AND 752;
 BETWEEN test includes the endpoints of range. NOT BETWEEN list the one not in the range.
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 Input Tables

Set Membership Search …

Selecting all the records whose column value is a member of the
set specified in the WHERE clause.

Example: City Year Sold

SELECT * Dhahran 2001 525

FROM car_sales
WHERE city Dhahran 2002 456

IN
Riyadh 2001 700
(‘Dhahran’, ‘Riyadh’);

Riyadh 2002 654

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 Input Tables

Set Membership Search

Selecting all the records whose column value not a member of the
set specified in the WHERE clause.

Example:
City Year Sold
SELECT *
FROM car_sales Jeddah 2001 921
WHERE city
NOT IN Jeddah 2002 752

(‘Dhahran’, ‘Riyadh’);
Khobar 2002

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Pattern Matching Search …
• SQL has two special pattern matching
symbols:
– %: sequence of zero or more characters;
– _ (underscore): any single character.

• LIKE '%dd%' means a sequence of

characters of any length containing ‘dd'.

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 Input Tables

Pattern matching Search

Selecting all the records whose column value match the pattern specified in
the WHERE clause.

Example: Example:

SELECT * SELECT *
FROM car_sales FROM car_sales
WHERE WHERE
city LIKE ‘J%’ city LIKE ‘%dd%’

City Year Sold City Year Sold

Jeddah 2001 921 Jeddah 2001 921

Jeddah 2002 752 Jeddah 2002 752

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 Input Tables

NULL Search
Example 1: Select all cities Example 2: Select all cities where
where the number of cars the number of cars sold is kown.
sold is unkown.
SELECT city
FROM car_sales
SELECT city
WHERE cars_sold IS NOT NULL;
FROM car_sales
WHERE cars_sold IS NULL;
City
City Dhahran
Dhahran
Khoba Riyadh
r Riyadh
Jeddah
Jeddah
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 Input Tables

Removing Duplicate Rows

Example1: Example2:

SELECT city SELECT DISTINCT city

FROM car_sales
FROM car_sales
City

Dhahran City
Dhahran
Dhahran
Riyadh
Riyadh
Riyadh
Jeddah
Jeddah
Khobar
Jeddah
Khobar

Using DISTINCT in the SELECT clause removes duplicate rows from the output table
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Sorting
• The ORDER BY clause specifies an order
for displaying the result of a query.
– SQL allows the user to order the tuples in the result of a query by
the values of one or more attributes; the default order is
ascending or increasing.

– The keyword DESC is specified to sort in a descending order of

values while the keyword ASC can be used to specify ascending
order explicitly.

– The sorting will be applied alphabetically or numerically

depending on the type of the column attribute.
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 Input Tables

Example: Sorting
Example: SELECT *
FROM car_sales
ORDER BY city asc, car_sales desc;
The following SELECT statement
sorts the car_sales table in
ascending order of city and City Year Cars_Sold
descending order of car_sales Dhahran 2001 525
columns
Dhahran 2002 456

Jeddah 2001 921

Jeddah 2002 752

Khobar 2002

Riyadh 2001 700

Riyadh 2002 654

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Aggregation …

• ISO standard defines five aggregate functions:

– COUNT returns number of values in a specified

column.
– SUM returns sum of values in a specified column.
– AVG returns average of values in a specified
column.
– MIN returns smallest value in a specified column.
– MAX returns largest value in a specified column.
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Aggregation …
• Each operates on a single column of a table and return single value.

• COUNT, MIN, and MAX apply to numeric and non-numeric fields, but
SUM and AVG may be used on numeric fields only.

• Apart from COUNT(*), each function eliminates nulls first and

operates only on remaining non-null values.

• COUNT(*) counts all rows of a table, regardless of whether nulls or

duplicate values occur.

• Can use DISTINCT before column name to eliminate duplicates.

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Aggregation …

• DISTINCT has no effect with MIN/MAX, but may have with

SUM/AVG.

• Aggregate functions can be used only in SELECT list and in HAVING

clause.

• If SELECT list includes an aggregate function and there is no

GROUP BY clause, then SELECT list cannot reference a column with
an aggregate function. For example, following is illegal:

SELECT city, COUNT(*)

FROM car_sales;

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 Input Tables

Example : COUNT

• How many rows  How many cities are

are there in the there in the car_sales
table?
car_sales table?
SELECT
SELECT COUNT(*) as Rows COUNT(DISTINCT city)
FROM car_sales as city
FROM car_sales

Rows city

7 4
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 Input Tables

Example : SUM
• Find the total number  Find the number of all the
of all the cars sold from cars_sold in Dhahran from
the car_sales table? the car_sales table?

SELECT SELECT
SUM(cars_sold) as cars_sold SUM(cars_sold) as Dah_cars
FROM car_sales FROM car_sales
WHERE city = ‘Dhahran’

Cars_sold Dah_cars

4008 981

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 Input Tables

Example: MIN, MAX, AVG

• Find the minimum, maximum, and average cars_sold per year and
per city form the car_sales table

SELECT MIN(cars_sold) as Min_sold

, MAX(cars_sold) as Max_sold
, AVG(cars_sold) as Avg_sold
FROM car_sales
WHERE car_sales IS NOT NULL;

Min_sold Max_sold Avg_sold

456 921 668

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Grouping
• Use GROUP BY clause to get sub-totals.
• SELECT and GROUP BY closely integrated: each item in SELECT
list must be single-valued per group, and SELECT clause may
only contain:
– Column names.
– Aggregate functions.
– Constants.
– An expression involving combinations of the above.

• All column names in SELECT list must appear in GROUP BY clause

unless name is used only in an aggregate function.

• If WHERE is used with GROUP BY, WHERE is applied first, then

groups are formed from remaining rows satisfying predicate.

• ISO considers two nulls to be equal for purposes of GROUP BY.

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 Input Tables

Example: Grouping
• Find the total cars sold in each city from the car_sales table.

SELECT city, SUM(cars_sold) as cars

FROM car_sales
WHERE cars_sold IS NOT NULL
GROUP BY city
ORDER BY SUM(cars_sold) ;

City Cars
Dhahran 981
Riyadh 1354
Jeddah 1637

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 Input Tables

Example: Basic Construct of Grouping

• Find the total cars sold in each city from the car_sales table.

City Cars
Dhahran 981
Riyadh 1354
Jeddah 1637
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Restricting Groups

• HAVING clause is designed for use with GROUP BY clause

to restrict groups that appear in final result table.

• Similar to WHERE, but WHERE filters individual rows

whereas HAVING filters groups.

• Column names in HAVING clause must also appear in the

GROUP BY list or be contained within an aggregate function.

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 Input Tables

Example: Restricting Groups

• Find the cities who sold a total of more than 1000 cars from the
car_sales table.

SELECT city, SUM(cars_sold) as cars

FROM car_sales
WHERE cars_sold IS NOT NULL
GROUP BY city
HAVING SUM(cars_sold) > 1000 ;

City Cars
Riyadh 1354
Jeddah 1637

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Aliasing Table Names

• A table alias is created by directly placing an alias after the table

name in the FROM clause.
• The advantage of using a table alias when performing JOIN is
readily apparent when we discuss JOIN later.

• For example in the following example we will refer to departments

table as d or dept.

SELECT d.dname SELECT dept.dname

FROM departments d FROM departments dept
WHERE d.dno = 1; WHERE dept.dno = 1;
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Nested queries

• Some SQL statements can have a

SELECT embedded within them.
• A subselect can be used in WHERE and
HAVING clauses of an outer SELECT,
where it is called a nested query or a
subquery.
• Subselects may also appear in INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETEs.
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 Input Tables

Example: Nested queries

• From the Lecturer table, select lecturers
whose salary is above average.
• Cannot write 'WHERE salary >
avg(salary)'. Inner select

SELECT *
FROM lecturers
WHERE salary > (
SELECT AVG(salary)
FROM lecturers
Outer select );

 The Inner select is done before the outer select.

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 Input Tables

Nested query: Example

• List the names of all Lecturers who are in

the ICS department

SELECT lname
FROM lecturers
WHERE dno IN (
SELECT dno
FROM department
WHERE dname = ‘ICS’
);

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Nested Query Rules

• ORDER BY clause may not be used in a subquery (although it may

be used in outermost SELECT).

• Subquery SELECT list must consist of a single column name or

expression, except for subqueries that use EXISTS.

• By default, column names refer to table name in FROM clause of

subquery. Can refer to a table in FROM using an alias.
• When subquery is an operand in a comparison, subquery must
appear on right-hand side.

• A subquery may not be used as an operand in an expression.

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 Input Tables

Nested Query: Example

• Find lecturers whose salary higher than
the salary of at least 1 COE lecturer.
SELECT *
FROM Lecturers
WHERE salary > (
SELECT min(salary)
FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = (
SELECT DNO
FROM department
WHERE dname = ‘COE’
)
);

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 Input Tables

Nested Query: Example

• Find lecturers whose salary higher than the salary of every COE lecturer.

SELECT *
FROM Lecturers
WHERE salary > (
SELECT max(salary)
FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = (
SELECT DNO
FROM department
WHERE dname = ‘COE’
)
);

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Join
• Can use subqueries provided result columns come from same table.
• If result columns come from more than one table must use a join.
• To perform join, include more than one table in FROM clause.
• Use comma as separator and typically include WHERE clause to
specify join column(s).

• Also possible to use an alias for a table named in FROM clause.

• Alias is separated from table name with a space.

• Alias can be used to qualify column names when there is ambiguity.

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 Input Tables

Example: Join (Inner Join)

• The default type of join is inner join, where arow is included in the
result only if matching row exists in the other relation.
• List each lecturer’s name and his department name.

Lname dname
SELECT a.lname, b.dname Ahmed ICS
FROM lecturers a, Amin COE
departments b
WHERE a.dno = b.dno;
Hani ICS
Ageel ICS

PK-FK never makes default join, must Yousef COE

specify Join in SQL Khalid COE

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 64

Example: Join (Inner Join) …
• To obtain correct rows, include only those
rows from both tables that have identical
values in the dno columns: a.dno = b.dno.

• These two columns are the matching

columns for two tables.

• This type of join is also called inner join

and they equivalent to equi-join in
relational algebra.
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Computing a Join
• Procedure for generating results of a SELECT with a
join are:
1. Form Cartesian product of the tables named in
FROM clause.
2. If there is a WHERE clause, apply the search
condition to each row of the product table, retaining
those rows that satisfy the condition.
3. For each remaining row, determine the value of each
item in the SELECT list to produce a single row in the
result table.
4. If SELECT DISTINCT has been specified, eliminate
any duplicate rows from the result table.
5. If there is an ORDER BY clause, sort the result table
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 66
as required.
Outer Joins
• With an inner join, if one row of a table is unmatched,
row is omitted from result table.
• The outer join operations retain rows that do not satisfy
the join condition.
• There are three types of OUTER JOIN
– Left Outer Join
– Right Outer Join
– Full Outer Join
• Lets discuss inner join then we will come back to outer
join.
• Query execution (Performance) is much better than
other joins Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 67
 Input Tables

Outer Join …
• Inner join of departments
and lecturers tables will
result in the following
Lid Lname dno salary dno dname
output.
1 Ahmed 1 4000 1 ICS
2 Amin 2 3700 2 COE
SELECT a.*, b.* 3 Hani 1 4200 1 ICS
FROM lecturers a, 4 Ageel 1 4000 1 ICS
Departments b
5 Yousef 2 3500 2
WHERE a.dno = b.dno
COE
6 Khalid 2 4500 2 COE

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 68

Outer Join …
• Result table has two rows where the dno
are the same.

• There are no rows corresponding to NW or

Abdella.

• To include unmatched rows in result table,

use an outer join.
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 69
Example: Left Outer Join (3-Tables)…

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 Input Tables

Example: Left Outer Join

• If We want to Include
in the output table the
lecturers whose
department is unknow Lid Lname dno salary dno dname
we rewrite our
previous query as 1 Ahmed 1 4000 1 SE
follows 2 Amin 2 3700 2 SWE
3 Hani 1 4200 1 ICS
5 Ageel 1 4000 1 SWE
SELECT a.*, b.* 6 Yousef 2 3500 2 COE
FROM lecturers a,
Departments b 7 Khalid 2 4500 2 COE
WHERE a.dno = b.dno(+) 4 Addella 4300

select d.dname, e.empno, e.ename

from dept d, emp e
where d.deptno=e.deptno(+);
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 71
 Input Tables

Example: Right Outer Join

• If We want to Include Lid Lname dno salary dno dname
in the output table the
departments with no 1 Ahmed 4 4000 4 SE
lecturers we rewrite
our previous query as 2 Amin 3 3700 3 SWE
follows 3 Hani 1 4200 1 ICS
5 Ageel 3 4000 3 SWE
6 Yousef 2 3500 2 COE
7 Khalid 2 4500 2 COE
SELECT a.*, b.* 5 NW
FROM lecturers a,
Departments b
WHERE a.dno (+) = b.dno

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 72

 Input Tables

Example: Full Outer Join

• If We want to Include in Lid Lname dno salary dno dname
the output table the
departments with no 1 Ahmed 4 4000 4 SE
lecturers and the 2 Amin 3 3700 3 SWE
lecturers with unknow
departments we rewrite 3 Hani 1 4200 1 ICS
our previous query as 5 Ageel 3 4000 3
follows SWE
6 Yousef 2 3500 2 COE
SELECT a.*, b.* 7 Khalid 2 4500 2 COE
FROM lecturers a,
NW
Departments b 5
WHERE a.dno (+) = b.dno 4 Abdella 4300
UNION
SELECT a.*, b.*
FROM lecturers a,
Departments b
WHERE a.dno= b.dno (+);
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 73
Characteristic of Outer Join
• Left Outer Join:
– Includes those rows of first (left) table unmatched with rows from
second (right) table.
– Columns from second table are filled with NULLs.

• Right outer Join :

– includes those rows of second (right) table that are unmatched with
rows from first (left) table.
– Columns from first table are filled with NULLs.

• Full Outer Join:

– Is the UNION of both left and right outer joins.

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 74

Examples: Left, Right and Full
Outer Joins

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 75

Union, Intersect, and Difference
• Can use normal set operations of union, intersection,
and difference to combine results of two or more queries
into a single result table.
• Union of two tables, A and B, is table containing all rows
in either A or B or both.
• Intersection is table containing all rows common to both
A and B.
• Difference is table containing all rows in A but not in B.
• Two tables must be union compatible.
• If ALL specified, result can include duplicate rows

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 76

 Input Tables

Example: Use of UNION

• List all the ICS and COE  List all the ICS and COE
faculty salaries. faculty salaries. Include
Remove duplicates duplicates

SELECT salary SELECT salary

FROM lecturers FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = 1 WHERE dno = 1
UNION UNION ALL
SELECT salary SELECT salary
FROM lecturers FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = 2; WHERE dno = 2;

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 77

 Input Tables

Example: Use of UNION …

• List all the ICS and COE  List all the ICS and COE
faculty salaries. Remove faculty salaries. Include
duplicates duplicates

SELECT salary SELECT salary

FROM lecturers FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = WHERE dno =
( SELECT dno ( SELECT dno
FROM departments FROM departments
WHERE dname= ‘ICS’ WHERE dname= ‘ICS’
) )
UNION UNION ALL
SELECT salary SELECT salary
FROM lecturers FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = WHERE dno =
( SELECT dno ( SELECT dno
FROM departments FROM departments
WHERE dname= ‘COE’ WHERE dname= ‘COE’
) )
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 78
 Input Tables

Example: Use of DIFFERENCE

• List salaries that are taken by ICS and not COE lecturers.
SELECT salary
FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = (
SELECT dno
FROM departments
where dname= ‘ICS’
)
MINUS
SELECT salary
FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = (
SELECT dno
FROM departments
WHERE dname= ‘COE’
)

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 79

 Input Tables

Example: Use of INTESECTION

• List salaries that are taken by both COE and ICS lecturers.

SELECT salary
FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = (
SELECT dno
FROM departments
where dname= ‘ICS’
)
INTERSECTION
SELECT salary Produces result tables from both
FROM lecturers queries and creates single result
WHERE dno = ( table consisting of those rows that
SELECT dno
FROM departments
are common to both result tables.
WHERE dname= ‘COE’
)

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 80

Other SQL Operators
• IN (covered)
• BETWEEN (covered)
• LIKE (covered)
• ANY (SOME)
• ALL
• EXISTS
• NOT EXISTS

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 81

ANY (SOME) and ALL

• ANY and ALL may be used with subqueries that produce a single
column of numbers.

• If subquery preceded by ALL, condition will only be true if it is

satisfied by all values produced by subquery.

• If subquery preceded by ANY, condition will be true if it is satisfied

by any values produced by subquery.

• If subquery is empty, ALL returns true, ANY returns false.

• ISO standard allows SOME to be used in place of ANY.

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 82

 Input Tables
Example using the SOME
Operator
• Find lecturers whose salary higher than
the salary of at least 1 COE lecturer.
SELECT *
FROM Lecturers
WHERE salary > SOME (
SELECT salary
FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = (
SELECT DNO
FROM department
WHERE dname = ‘COE’
)
);

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 83

Example Using the ALL
Operator
• Find lecturers whose salary higher than the salary of every COE lecturer.

SELECT *
FROM Lecturers
WHERE salary > ALL (
SELECT salary
FROM lecturers
WHERE dno = (
SELECT DNO
FROM department
WHERE dname = ‘COE’
)
);

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 84

EXISTS and NOT EXISTS
• EXISTS and NOT EXISTS are for use only with subqueries specially with
correlated subqueries. A correlated subquery is a subquery where some
attributes of the outer select are used in the inner select.

• They produce a simple true/false result.

• EXISTS is true if and only if there exists at least one row in result table
returned by subquery.

• It is false if subquery returns an empty result table.

• NOT EXISTS is the opposite of EXISTS.

• Since EXISTS and NOT EXISTS check only for existence or non-existence
of rows in subquery result table, subquery can contain any number of
columns.
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 85
 Input Tables
--- Example using the EXISTS
Operator
• Find all ICS lecturers.

SELECT *
FROM lecturers a
WHERE EXISTS
(
SELECT 1
FROM department b
WHERE a.dno = b.dno
AND b.dname = ‘ICS‘
);

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 86

Example using the NOT
EXISTS Operator
• Find all non ICS
lecturers.
SELECT *
FROM lecturers a
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(
SELECT 1
FROM department b
WHERE a.dno = b.dno
AND b.dname = ‘ICS‘
);

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 87

More SQL Functions
• SUBSTR TO_CHAR
• INSTR TO_DATE
• LENGTH
TO_NUMBER
• LEFT, RIGHT
• LPAD, RPAD ADD_MONTHS
• TRIM FLOOR
• DECODE SYSDATE
• CEIL
NVL
• ROWNUM
TRANSLATE

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 88

SQL Data Definition Statements
(DDL)
• CREATE SCHEMA and DROP SCEHMA +

• CREATE TABLE +

• ALTER TABLE +

• DROP TABLE +

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 89

CREATE SCHEMA and DROP
SCHEMA
CREATE SCHEMA [name| AUTHORIZATION creator_id ];

Example: CREATE USER COMPANY IDENTIFIED BY password;

DROP SCHEMA name [RESTRICT | CASCADE ];

Example: DROP USER COMPANY CASCADE;

• With RESTRICT (default), schema must be empty or operation fails.

• With CASCADE, operation cascades to drop all objects associated with

schema in the order defined above. If any of these operations fail, DROP
SCHEMA fails.

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 90

CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE table_name
(col_name data_type [NULL | NOT NULL] [,...]);

• Creates a table with one or more columns of the specified

data_type.

• NULL (default) indicates whether column can contain nulls.

• With NOT NULL, system rejects any attempt to insert a null in the
column.

• Primary keys should always be specified as NOT NULL.

• Foreign keys are often (but not always) candidates for NOT NULL.
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 91
CREATE TABLE – Example 1
CREATE TABLE Employee
(
fname VARCHAR2(15) NOT NULL,
minit CHAR,
lname VARCHAR2(15) NOT NULL,
ssn CHAR(9),
bdate DATE,
address VARCHAR2(50),
sex CHAR,
salary NUMBER(10,2) NOT NULL,
Superssn CHAR(9),
dno NUMBER(3) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT employee_ssn_pk PRIMARY KEY(ssn),
CONSTRAINT employee_superssn_fk
FOREIGN KEY(Superssn) REFERENCES employee(ssn),
CONSTRAINT employee_dno_fk
FOREIGN KEY(dno) REFERENCES department(dnumber),
);

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 92

CREATE TABLE – Example 2

CREATE TABLE department

(
dname VARCHAR2(15) NOT NULL,
dnumber NUMBER(3) NOT NULL,
mgrssn CHAR(9),
mgrStartDateDATE,
CONSTRAINT department_dnumber_pk
PRIMARY KEY(dnumber),
CONSTRAINT department_mgrssn_fk
FOREIGN KEY(mgrssn) REFERENCES employee(ssn)
);

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 93

DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE tbl_name [RESTRICT | CASCADE]

e.g. DROP TABLE employee;

• Removes named table and all rows within it.

• With RESTRICT, if any other objects depend for their existence on

continued existence of this table, SQL does not allow request.

• With CASCADE, SQL drops all dependent objects (and objects

dependent on these objects).

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 94

ALTER TABLE
• The ALTER command is a schema modification command.
• It is used to add or drop a column, change a column definition, add or
drop table constraints.
Examples:
ALTER TABLE COMPANY.EMPLOYEE
MODIFY(lname VARCHAR2(30));

ALTER TABLE EMP

ADD Constraints pk_emp primary key (EMPNO);

ALTER TABLE EMP

ADD CONSTRAINTS FK_DEPTNO FOREIGN KEY (DEPTNO)
REFERENCES DEPT(DEPTNO);
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 95
SQL Data Manipulation
Statements (DML)

• INSERT Statement +
• UPDATE Statement +
• DELETE Statement +

• Note: Use following control commands for above

SQL
• Commit for DO or confirm
• Rollback for UNDO
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 96
INSERT Statement
• Definition of INSERT Statement +
• Types of INSERT Statement +
• INSERT and Integrity Constraints +

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 97

Definition of INSERT Statement
• INSERT is used to add a single row to a
table where we specify the relation name
and a list of values for the row.

• There are three types of INSERT

Statement:
– INSERT With Column list +
– INSERT Without Column list +
– INSERT with SELECT Statement +
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 98
INSERT with Column list
INSERT INTO table_name (column_list) VALUES
(data_value_list);

• Example: INSERT INTO employee(fname, lname, ssn, salary,

dno)
VALUES (‘Majid', ‘Al-Ghamdi', ‘1111111', 4000,
123);

• data_value_list must match column_list as follows:

– Number of items in each list must be the same.
– Must be direct correspondence in position of items in two lists.
– Data type of each item in data_value_list must be compatible
with data type of corresponding column.
– If one of the table columns is omitted from the column_list It
must also be omitted from the data_value_list and make sure it
is nullable.
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 99
INSERT without Column List
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (data_value_list);

• Example: INSERT INTO employee

VALUES (‘Adel', NULL, ‘Al-Eid', ‘222222’,
NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, 1);

• data_value_list must match the columns

of the table as follows:
– Number of items in the list must be equal to
the number of columns of the table.
– Data type of corresponding items must be
compatible.
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 100
INSERT … SELECT
• Second form of INSERT allows multiple rows to
be copied from one or more tables to another:

INSERT INTO table_name [ (column_list) ]

SELECT ...

Example:

INSERT INTO Table1 (A1, A2, A3)

SELECT B1, B2, B3 FROM Table2;
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 101
INSERT and Integrity
Constraints
• A DBMS that fully implement SQL2 should
support and enforce all the integrity constraints
that can be specified in the DDL.

• A DBMS enforcing NOT NULL will reject an

INSERT command in which an attribute
declared to be NOT NULL does not have a
value.

• A DBMS not supporting referential integrity will

allow insertion even if the referential integrity
constraint is violated . Ahmed
Dr. Ejaz 102
UPDATE
• Definition +
• Examples
– Update All Rows +
– Update Specific Rows +
– Update Multiple Columns +

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 103

UPDATE Definition …
• The UPDATE command is used to modify attribute values of one or
more selected rows.

UPDATE table_name
SET column_name1 = data_value1
[, column_name2 = data_value2...]
[WHERE search_condition]

• table_name can be name of a base table or an updatable view.

• SET clause specifies names of one or more columns that are to be

updated.

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 104

UPDATE Definition …

• WHERE clause is optional:

– If omitted, named columns are updated for all
rows in table.
– If specified, only those rows that satisfy
search_condition are updated.

• New data_value(s) must be compatible

with data type for corresponding column.
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 105
Example: UPDATE All Rows
Give all employees a 3% pay increase.

UPDATE staff
SET salary = salary*1.03;

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 106

Example: UPDATE Specific
Rows
• Give all Employees in Department one a
5% pay increase.

UPDATE employee
SET salary = salary*1.05
WHERE dno = 1;

• WHERE clause finds rows that contain

data for dno = 1. Update is applied only to
these particular rows.
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 107
Example: UPDATE Multiple
Columns
• Change Adel’s department to 2 and his
Salary to 4,000. Assume Adel’s ssn =
111;

UPDATE employee
SET dno = 2
, salary = 4000
WHERE ssn = ‘111’;

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 108

DELETE
• DELETE Definition +
• DELETE Example +

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 109

DELETE Definition
• A DELETE command removes rows from a table and may include a
where-clause.

• Rows are explicitly deleted from only one table at a time. However,
the deletion may propagate to rows in other tables if referential
triggered actions are specified in the referential integrity constraints
of the DDL.

DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE search_condition]

• table_name can be name of a base table or an updatable view.

• The WHERE clause is optional; if omitted, all rows are deleted from
table. But if it is included only those rows that satisfy the
search_condition are deleted.

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 110

Example: DELETE

• Delete all records from employee.

DELETE FROM employee;

• Delete all employees in department 1.

DELETE FROM employee
WHERE dno = 1;
Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 111
 END

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed 112