7-4 Control System Design by

Frequency Response Approach

 1. Introduction: Basic requirements for closed-
loop systems in frequency domain
1) Performance specifications: A desired control
system should be stable with sufficiently fast transient
response, sufficiently small steady-state error, and
strong ability to counteract external disturbance.
In frequency domain, the performance specifica-tions
are usually given by
, Kg, c, K
or closed-loop performance indices Mr, b and so on.

w  w (4 z 4
 1)  2z 2
 c n

Remark:  1
w  w [(1  2z 2 )  (1  2z 2 ) 2  1]2
 b n
2)Frequency bands: In general, a control system
operates in low and medium frequency bands or
ranges while disturbance operates in high
frequency band.

b=(5~10)m

m b 1 2 

L M H
 Low frequency range represents the steady-state
performance and is expected to be unity, that is, with
higher open-loop gain or some integral factors in
open-loop transfer function.
(j)
G (s )
1

m b 
G
F (s ) =
1 +G
Medium frequency region represents the transient
response and is expected to be sufficiently fast and well
damped, that is, with higher b and 0Mr1.4.

(j)

m b 
High frequency region represents the disturbance
attenuation ability and is expected to be sufficiently
attenuated, that is, the frequency response in high
frequency region be decreased quickly.

(j)

m b 
3) Information Obtainable from Open-Loop
Frequency Response
L(ω)

20dB/dec
M
20dB/dec
-40dB/dec
ωc
ω2 ωm ω3

40dB/dec

The low frequency range (the range far below c) of the
locus indicates the steady-state behavior of the closed-loop
system.
 L(ω)

20dB/dec
M
20dB/dec
-40dB/dec
ωc

ω2 ωm ω3

40dB/dec

The medium-frequency region (the region near c) of the

locus indicates transient response and relative stability.

The high frequency region (the region far above c)

indicates disturbance attenuation.
Requirements on Open-Loop Frequency Response

To have a high value of the velocity error constant and

yet satisfactory relative stability, it is necessary to
reshape the open-loop frequency-response curve through
a compensator.
L(ω)

20dB/dec
M
20dB/dec
-40dB/dec
ωc
ω2 ωm ω3

40dB/dec
The requirement on open-loop frequency response for
low frequency region: The gain in low-frequency region
should be large enough and should have an integral factor.
L(ω)

20dB/dec
M
20dB/dec
-40dB/dec
ωc
ω2 ωm ω3

40dB/dec

G (s ) G
F (s ) =
1 +G
The requirement on open-loop frequency response for
medium frequency region: Near the gain crossover
frequency, the slope of the magnitude curve in the Bode
diagram should be -20 dB/decade.

L(ω) MFR
20dB/dec
-20dB/dec
h
20dB/dec
-40dB/dec
ωc
ω2 ωm ω3

40dB/dec

1/T s K
The requirement on open-loop frequency response for
high frequency region: For the high-frequency region,
the gain should be attenuated as rapidly as possible to
minimize the effects of noise.
L(ω) HFR
20dB/dec
h
20dB/dec
-40dB/dec
ωc
ω2 ωm ω3

40dB/dec

1/T s G
F (s ) =
1 +G
2. Lead Compensation

• Lead compensation essentially yields an appreciable

improvement in transient response and a small change in
steady-state accuracy.
• It may accentuate high-frequency noise effects.

R(s) C(s)
G c(s ) G(s)

Series compensation
1). Mathematical model:
1
s+
T s +1 T , 0 < a <1
Gc (s ) = K c a =Kc
aT s +1 1
s+
aT
f (w) = ÐGc ( j w) = tan - 1 T w - tan - 1 aT w
L(dB)

20dB / dec
20lg 
Bode diagram for 10lg  
0
1 m 1
T T
Gc T s +1 ( )
=
K c a aT s +1 90

m
0 
where it can be calculated by letting d/d=0 that (see
Appendix) 1
wm =
T a 1+ 1
fm
Therefore, we have
Gc ( j wm ) 2
= - 10lg a
K ca
T w(1 - a ) 1- a
tan f (wm ) = =
1 + aT 2w2 wm = 1 2 a
aT

1- a
sin f m =
1+ a
which relates the maximum phase-lead angle and the
value of .
 The phase-lead compensator

V 2 (s ) R2 R1Cs +1 T s +1
G c (s ) = = × =a×
V 1 (s ) R1 + R 2 R2 aT s +1
R1Cs +1
R1 + R 2
C

R2
a=
R1 + R 2
R1
V1 R2 V2
R 1R 2
T = C
R1 + R 2
2). Lead Compensation Design Procedure

The design procedure is introduced via the following

example.

Example. Consider the following system with open-

loop transfer function G(s):
4
s (s + 2)

It is desired to design a compensator for the system so

that the static velocity error constant Kv is 20 sec-1, the
phase margin is at least 500, and the gain margin is at
least 10 dB.
Step 1: Determine the gain K to meet the steady-state
performance specification.
In this example, it is required that Kv=20 sec-1. Hence from
4 2K
K* =
s (s + 2) s (0.5s +1)
we obtain that K=10.

Step 2: Let
G1 (s ) = KG (s )

Using the gain K thus determined, draw a Bode diagram of

G1(jw), the gain adjusted but uncompensated system.
Evaluate the phase margin.
In this example,
20
G1 (s ) = KG (s ) =
s (0.5s +1)
Draw the Bode diagram of G1(j), from which it can be
evaluated that
20
L(wc )  20lg 2
 0  wc  6.32
0.5wc

g = 180 + f (wc ) = 180 - 90 - tan - 1 (0.5wc ) = 17

A phase margin of 170 implies that the system is quite

oscillatory. Thus, satisfying the specification on the steady
state yields a poor transient-response performance, and
therefore, a phase lead compensator should be designed.
 20
G( s) 
s(0.5s  1) Bode Diagram

[-20db]
40

20
Magnitude (dB)

0
[-40db]
-20

-40

-90
Phase (deg)

-135

170
-180
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Step 3: Determine the necessary phase-lead angle to be
added to the system. Add an additional 50 to 120 to the
phase-lead angle required, because the addition of the
lead compensator shifts the gain crossover frequency to
the right and decreases the phase margin.

In this example:

f m = 50 - 17 + 5 = 38
Let the phase lead compensator be of the form
T s +1
G c (s ) = K c a
aT s +1
Then the open loop transfer function becomes
T s +1
G c (s )G (s ) = K c a G (s )
aT s +1
Let
K = K ca

G1 (s ) = KG (s )

where K has been obtained as 10. Then

T s +1
Gc (s )G (s ) = G1 (s )
aT s +1
Step 4: 1)Determine the attenuation factor  by using the
formula (1)/(1+)=sinm (the main idea is to use m to
compensate for the lack of the phase margin.
In this example, let :
1- a 1- a
fm = arcsin = 38 Þ = sin 38 = 0.5 Þ a =0.24
1 +a 1 +a
Hence,
- 10 lg a Þ 6.2 dB

which should correspond to m, where

1
wm =
T a

2) Select new gain crossover frequency such that

wc' = wm
which can be found from the point  such that
20lgG1(j)=10lg=6.2 dB, that is, 9 rad/sec:
1
wm = = wc' = 9
T a
20 lg G

[ 20]

6.3 9
10lg

wc 6.2 dB = 10lga

00
wm = wc' = 9 [ 40]

-1800

=170
Step 5. Determine the corner frequencies of the lead
compensator.

In this example, with =0.24, we obtain

1 1
= 4.41 = 18.4
T aT

Step 6. Using the value of K determined in step 1 and that

of  determined in step 4, calculate constant Kc from

Kc =K / a

In this example,
K = K c a = 10 Þ K c = 10 / 0.24 = 41.7
Therefore, the
compensator is
s + 4.41
G c (s ) = 41.7
s +18.4
0.227s +1
= 10
0.054s +1

where
K = K c a = 10
G c (s ) 0.227s +1
=
10 0.054s +1
Step 7. Check the gain margin to be sure it is satisfactory.
If not, repeat the design process by modifying the pole-
zero locations of the compensator until a satisfactory
result is obtained.

In this example, since after the compensation, the phase

angle never crosses 1800 line, the gain margin always
satisfies the requirement. This completes the design.
 Summary of the design procedure
1. Determine the necessary phase-lead angle to be
added to the system:
f m = g '- g + (50  120 )

where ’ is the required phase margin.

2. Let the maximum phase angle of the compensator
be equal to m:
1- a
fm = arcsin Þ a
1 +a
Þ - 10 lg a
and let
wc' = wm
3. Determine c’ by
letting
20lg G1 ( jw = 10lg a
20 lg G

[ 20]

6.3 wc' 10lga


wc 20lg G1 ( jw) = 10lga

[ 40]

5. Determine the corner frequencies by

' 1
w = wm =
c
T a
Remark: If the required ’c is given, the design
procedure can be simplified as follows.
Example. Consider the following system with open-
loop transfer function G(s):

K
s (0.1s +1)

It is desired to design a compensator for the system so

that the static velocity error ess0.01, 450, and c 40.
Step 1: Determine the gain K to meet the steady-state
performance specification.
In this example, it is required that ess0.01. Hence K100.

Step 2: Using the gain K thus determined, draw a Bode

diagram of G (jw), the gain adjusted but uncompensated
system. Evaluate the phase margin.

In this example, with K=100,

100
G( s) 
s(0.1s  1)

From its Bode diagram (or by calculation),

 20 lg G
 20dB / dec

 40dB / dec

44 88
0 
10 22 31
 6dB

g  17.90
1800

wc  31rad / s
g  17.90

Obviously, a lead compensator is necessary.

Step 3: Determine the new crossover frequency. Since
wc we choose
it is required that =m40,
wc  44 rad / s
Step 4: Evaluate
20lg | G( jwc ) |
of the uncompensated system. In this example,
20lg | G( jwc ) | 6 dB

Step 5: Determine the corner frequencies of the

compensator. From
10 lg a  6 dB
we obtain
a  1/ 4
 Let
1
wm  wc'   44
aT
we obtain
T  0.04544
Hence,
G c (s ) T s  1 0.04544s  1
 
K ca aT s  1 0.01136s  1

This ends the design.

Bode diagrams for the system before and after the lead
compensation by using Matlab.
3. Lag Compensation

The primary function of a lag compensator is to provide

attenuation in high frequency range to give a system
sufficient phase margin.

1). Mathematical model:

1
s+
T s +1 T , b >1
Gc (s ) = K c b =Kc
bT s +1 1
s+
bT
f (w) = ÐGc ( j w) = tan - 1 T w - tan - 1 bT w
 Gc (s ) T s +1
Bode diagram for = , b >1
K c b bT s +1
L(dB)

1
From which we T m 1
T 
0
can obtain that 20dB / dec 10lg 
20lg 

1
wm  (  )
T b 
0

b 1
f (wm )  arcsin
f m

b 1
90
Gc ( j w)
20lg  20lg b
K c b w 1
T
 The phase-lag compensator
The phase-lag compensation transfer function can be
obtained with the network shown in the following
Figure:

Vo ( s ) R2Cs  1
R1 Gc ( s)  
Vi ( s) ( R1  R2 )Cs  1

R2 R1  R 2
vi v0 b T  (R1  R 2 )C
C
R2

T s 1
Gc (s ) 
bT s  1
2). Lag Compensation Design Procedure

The design procedure is introduced via the following

example.

Example. Consider the following system with open-

loop transfer function G(s):

G (s )

1
G (s ) =
s (s +1)(0.5s +1)
It is desired to compensate the system so that the static
velocity error constant Kv is 5 sec-1, the
phase margin is at least 40°and the gain margin is at
least 10 dB.

Step 1: Determine gain K to satisfy the requirement on

the given static velocity error constant.

In this example, from

1
G1 (s ) = K
s (s +1)(0.5s +1)

we obtain that
Kv =K =5
Draw the Bode diagram of the gain-adjusted but
uncompensated system G1(j):= KG(j).
[40]
[20]

14 dB

[60]

=200

=200 implies that the gain-adjusted but un-

compensated system is unstable.
Since in this example, there is no requirement about c, it
is possible to use a lag compensator to satisfy the required
performance specifications.

[20]

'
[40]
wc

[20] [60]
00
900

1800
Step 2: Find the new crossover frequency point c’ such
that
g   g * d  g * (5  12 )
0 0

where * is the required phase margin with addition of 50

to 120 to compensate for the phase lag of the lag
compensator.

In this example, [20]

it can be found [40]
that *=400
corresponds to [60]
0.7. We choose  00
=120. Hence, 900
’=520. 1800
400
0.7
With ’=520, it can be found from the Bode diagram that
’ corresponds to 0.5 rad/s. Therefore, we choose c’=0.5
rad/s.

[20]
[40]

[60]
00
520
900
400
1800
0.5 0.7
Step 3: Choose the corner frequency  = 1/T
(corresponding to the zero of the lag compensator) 1
octave to 1 decade below the new gain crossover frequency.
In this example, we choose

1 1/T
w = = 0.1
T 20lg

Step 4: Determine  such that

20 lg b  20 lg G1 ( j wc' )  0

which will bring the magnitude curve down to 0 dB at

this new gain crossover frequency. Then determine the
corner frequency =1/T.
In this example, it can be measured that
20 lg G1 ( j wc' )  20 dB
Therefore,
1
20lg + 20lg10 = 0 Þ b = 10
b
[20]
[40]

20lg
[60]
00
520
900
400
1800
0.1 0.5 0.7
Since we have obtained that =10 and
1
w = = 0.1
T 1
the corner frequency w = = 0.01
bT

Step 5: Finally, let

K
K = K cb Þ K c =
b
In this example,
5
K = K c b = 5 Þ K c = = 0.5
10
Therefore, the compensator is
T s +1 0.1s +1
Gc (s ) = K c b =5
bT s +1 0.01s +1
 5(0.1s +1)
Gc (s )G (s ) =
s (s +1)(0.5s +1)(0.01s +1)
[40]
[20]

c’ 14 dB

[60]

’=400

=200
Example. Consider a unity-feedback system with its
open-loop transfer function as
1
G (s ) 
s (0.5s  1)

It is required that the steady-state error for unit ramp

input be 0.05 and the phase margin of the system be at
least 450.
Step 1: According to the requirement of the steady-state
error, we need that
1
G1 (s )  K
s (0.5s  1)
with
K  K v  20
Then, plotting the Bode diagram of the gain-adjusted
but uncompensated transfer function yields

20 dB /dec

40 dB /dec

20
G1 (s ) 
s (0.5s  1)
from which it can be obtained that
wc  6.3 rad /s
f (wc )  900  tan 1 (0.5wc )  1620

Therefore, the phase margin is g  18

.
0

20 dB / dec

40 dB / dec

20
G1 (s ) 
s (0.5s  1)

Step 2: With ’=450 and an additional 50 to compensate
for the phase-lag, we obtain
wc¢ = 1.5rad / s f (wc )  1300

at which it can be found that 20lgG1(jc’)=20dB.

20 dB / dec

40 dB / dec

20
G1 (s ) 
s (0.5s  1)

wc¢
To make c’ be the new crossover frequency, the following
equation should be satisfied
- 20 lg b = - 20 lg G1 ( j wc' ) = - 20 dB
Þ b = 10

[20] 20lgG1(jc’)=20dB

c’ 20lg [40]

00
900

1800
0.15 c’=1.5
Step 3: Determine corner frequencies of the
compensator:
1 1
G c (s ) T s +1
= b = 10 bT T 
K c b bT s +1
20 dB / dec 20 lg b
1
Choose = 0.1×wc¢ = 0.15
T 
1
Then = 0.015
bT

Therefore, the compensator is

6.67s +1 6.67s +1
G c (s ) = 20 = K cb
66.7s +1 66.7s +1
Step 4: Finally, let
K
K = K cb Þ K c =
b
In this example,
20
K = K c b = 20 Þ K c = =2
10

The open-loop transfer function of the compensated

system is then obtained as

20 6.67s  1
G (s )Gc (s )  
s (0.5s  1) 66.7s  1
 1 6.67 s  1
G( s)  Gc ( s)  20
s(0.5s  1) 66.7 s  1
Bode Diagram
100

[-20db]
Magnitude (dB)

50

[-40db]

0 [-20db]

[-40db]
-50
-90
Phase (deg)

-135

c '  1.5
-180
-2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
The time response of the uncompensated and
compensated system are show in the following figure:

uncompensated

compensated
 A Few Comments on Lag Compensation
1. Lag compensators are essentially low-pass filters.
Therefore, lag compensation permits a high gain at low
frequencies.
2. The closed-loop pole located near the origin gives a very
slowly decaying transient response, although its
magnitude will become very small because the zero of
the lag compensator will almost cancel the effect of this
pole. However, the transient response (decay) due to this
pole is so slow that the settling time will be adversely
affected.
3. c’<c  ts.
3. The phase lag-lead compensator

 The lead compensator improves settling time

and phase margin, but increases the bandwidth.
 However, phase-lag compensator when applied
properly improves phase margin but usually
results in a longer settling time.
 It is natural, therefore, to consider using a
combination of the lead-lag compensator, so
that the advantages of both schemes can be
utilized.
The transfer function of a lag-lead compensator can be
written as
æ 1 +T s öæ 1 +T s ö 1
Gc (s ) = K c çç 1 ÷ç
֍
2 ÷
÷ (b > 1, a = )
è 1 + aT s
1 øè 1 + bT s
2 ø b
lead lag

It is usually assumed that the two corner frequencies of

the lag portion are lower than the two corner frequencies
of the lead portion.
L(dB)
10
1 1 1 1
T2 T2 T1  T1 
0

10

(  )
90
1 
0

90
Example. Consider a unity-feedback system with its
open-loop transfer function as
K
G (s ) 
s (0.5s  1)(s  1)

It is desired that the static velocity error constant be 10/s,

the phase margin be 500, and the gain margin be 10 dB or
more.
According to the requirement of the steady-state error, we
need that
K  K v  10

Then, plotting the Bode diagram of the gain-adjusted but

uncompensated transfer function yields
 [-40]

1.5
 [-40]

=320 shows that the system is unstable.

A lag-lead compensator is utilized:

[-40]
 After the compensation:

[-40]

For more detail, see p. 513.

4. Feedforward Compensation
We consider the following system
G c (s )

R C
G(s)
- E

where Gc(s) is called feedforward compensator and can

be used to improve the steady-state error while keeping
the system stability. The closed-loop transfer function
is
C (s ) G (s )
= (1 +Gc (s ))
R (s ) 1 +G (s )
It is required that
E (s ) = R (s ) - C (s ) = 0
Since
1 - G ( s ) G c (s )
E (s ) = R (s ) - C (s ) = R (s )
1 +G (s )

a natural choice seems

Gc (s ) = G - 1 (s )
In that case
E (s ) = R (s ) - C (s ) = 0
However,
1
G c (s ) =
G (s )

sometimes is difficult to be physically realized,

especially when G(s) has zeros in right half s plane.
Therefore, approximation compensation is necessary.
Example. The original system is
R C
G (s )

To improve the steady-state performance, an integrator can

be used. However, such a compensator could cause
instability:
K C
R G (s )
s

To solve such a conflicting requirement, feedforward

compensator can be utilized.
Example. The block diagram of system is

Gc (s )
0.855 C
R
s (0.1s +1)(0.05s +1)

Design a Gc(s) as simple as possible such that there is no

steady-state error when r(t)=t·1(t).
Solution: The original system is Type 1 system.
Therefore, without compensation, the static velocity error
is nonzero. Since
1 - G ( s ) G c (s )
E (s ) = R (s ) - C (s ) = R (s )
1 +G (s )
70
We can choose
Gc (s ) =G - 1 (s )

which, however, is not the simpler one. An alternative is

to write
1 G (s )Gc (s )
E (s )  C (s )  R (s )  R (s )
1  G (s )
s (0.1s  1)(0.05s  1) Gc (s )0.855 1
  2
s (0.1s  1)(0.05s  1)  1 s

Using Final value theorem,

ess  lims 0 sE (s )
s (0.1s  1)(0.05s  1) G c (s )0.855 1
 lims 0 
s (0.1s  1)(0.05s  1)  1 s
 0.005s 3  0.01s 2  s Gc (s )0.855 1
ess  lims 0 
s (0.1s  1)(0.05s  1)  1 s

Let
s
G c (s )0.855  s  G c (s ) 
0.855

Substituting Gc(s) into E(s) yields

0.005s 3  0.01s 2 1
ess  lims 0 
s (0.1s  1)(0.05s  1)  1 s
0.005s 2  0.01s
 lims 0 0
s (0.1s  1)(0.05s  1)  1

Gc(s)=s/0.885 is obviously simpler than Gc(s)=1/G(s).

This completes the design.
 Appendix
1 1 T w(1  a )
1
f (w)  G c ( j w)  tan T w  tan aT w  tan
1  aT 2 w2

d f (w) d
0   tan f (w)  0
dw dw

d T w(1  a )  T (1  a )[1  aT 2w2 ] 1

  0  wm 
d w 1  aT 2w2  (1  aT 2w2 )2 T a

Therefore,

T w(1  a ) 1 a
tan f (wm )  
1  aT 2w2 wm 
1 2 a
aT