06 Language Variation

EXFAC03-AAS v11
Language
 6: Language variation
Steve Pepper <pepper.steve@gmail.com>

Course contents
1. Universals
2. Typology
3. Language families
4. Language contact
5. Language death
6. Language variation
2> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

Language variation
 T
opics
●T
erminology
– Linguistic item and language variety
● Geographical variation
– Language vs. dialect, dialect continuum, isogloss
● Social variation
– Sociolect, slang, jargon
● Contextual variation
● Language policy

Language variation
 Languages vary
● from one place to another, Prestige
● from one social group to another, and Standard
● from one situation to another Dialect
 o
Tday’s topics are therefore
● geographical variation
● social variation Social
● contextual variation
 V
ariation has political implications, so we
also discuss language policy
● Two examples
– Cameroon and Korea
The Three Dimensions of
 These topics are the domain of Variation
sosiolinguistics

How do you pronounce ‘H’?
 The changing sound of
English pronunciation
● Pedants, beware!
● The sound of
– says
– ate
– mischievous
– harass
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-11642588
– garage
– schedule and
 Different accents? dialects?
– aitch (H)
sociolects? languages?
● is shifting

Some basic
terminology
 T
erms like ‘language’, ‘dialect’, ‘sociolect’, ‘accent’,
‘jargon’and ‘register ’are hard to define
 For example, defining dialect as a geographical
subdivision of a language begs the question
● What is a ‘language’?
● What do we mean by ‘subdivision’?
 More basic terms required:
● Linguistic item
● Language variety

Linguistic items
 Definition:
● Any basic unit of language
– e.g. words, sounds, grammatical constructions
 Examples of different linguistic items:
● Pronouns yous ‘2pl’and you ‘2 sg/pl’
● Words child and bairn (N. England, Scotland)
● Phonemes /ʌ/ and /ʊ/ in /sʌn/ and /sʊn/ (‘sun’, ‘son’)
● Suffixes /ɪŋ/ og /ɪn/ in /kʌmɪŋ/ og /kʌmɪn/ (‘coming’)
● Past tense forms caught and catched (dialect)
● Grammatical constructions
Give it to me! ~ Give me it! ~ Give it me!

Language variety
 Definition:
● Aset of linguistic items with similar social (including
geographical and cultural) distribution
 May refer to
● a full-fledged language or dialect
● a small set of linguistic items (e.g. slang)
● anything in between (e.g. sociolect, idiolect)

Varieties of English
(a) Standard English No one has gone to the post office yet.
(b) Jamaican Creole Nobadi no gaan a puos yet. ‘No one has gone to the post
office yet.’
(c) Southern US white Non-Standard dialect from Atlanta Nobody don’t like a
boss hardly. ‘Hardly anybody likes a boss.’
(d) Tok Pisin (New Guinea Pidgin) Papa, min bin mekim sin long God na long yu.
‘Father, I have sinned against God and against you.’
(e) Older Standard English of the ‘King James version’ Bible Father, I have
sinned against heaven, and in thy sight.
(f) Scots, from Leith When ah wis a boy ma mither an faither died. ‘When I was
a boy my mother and father died.’
(g) Standard English & English slang Walking 5 miles to work is a real ball-
ache. ‘Walking 5 miles to work is really inconvenient.’

Varieties of English
(a) Standard English No one has gone to the post office yet.
(b) Jamaican Creole Nobadi no gaan a puos yet. ‘No one has gone to the post
office yet.’
 Questions:
(c) Southern US white 1. Do these varieties represent
Non-Standard the same
dialect from or
Atlanta Nobody don’t like a
boss hardly. ‘Hardly different
anybody likes a boss.’
languages?
2. Do these varieties represent the same or
(d) Tok Pisin (New Guinea Pidgin)
different dialectsPapa,
of the min
samebin mekim sin long God na long yu.
language?
‘Father, I have sinned against God and against you.’
3. How many languages are actually represented
here? of the ‘King James version’ Bible Father, I have
(e) Older Standard English
sinned against  There are
heaven, andno
in unique (“correct”) answers!
thy sight.
(f) Scots, from Leith When ah wis a boy ma mither an faither died. ‘When I was
a boy my mother and father died.’
(g) Standard English & English slang Walking 5 miles to work is a real ball-
ache. ‘Walking 5 miles to work is really inconvenient.’
10 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

Varieties of Arabic
(h) Chadian Spoken Arabic of Ulâd Eli ’Amm Muusa daxalat zeribt al-bagar
‘Mûsa’s mother entered the enclosure of the cows.’
(i) Moroccan Spoken Arabic Bi˘t nəkri sayyara lmuddət usbu:ʢ
‘I would like to hire a car for a week.’
(j) Standard Maltese Mart is-sultan marida afna
‘The sultan’s wife is very ill.’
(k) Standard Written Arabic Ra'aytu nāsan ayra sukkāni Makkata
‘I saw people who were not the inhabitants of Mecca.’

Varieties of Arabic
(h) Chadian Spoken Arabic of Ulâd Eli ’Amm Muusa daxalat zeribt al-bagar
 Again:
‘Mûsa’s mother entered the enclosure of the cows.’
1. One language or more than one?
(i) Moroccan Spoken Arabic Bi˘t nəkri sayyara lmuddət usbu:ʢ
2. If more than one, then how many?
‘I would like to hire a car for a week.’
 N.B. Standard WrittenArabic may be
(j) Standard Maltese Mart is-sultan
divided into marida
at last afna
two different forms
‘The sultan’s wife is very ill.’
● ClassicalArabic
(k) Standard Written Arabic Ra'aytuLiterary
● Modern nāsan Arabic
ayra sukkāni Makkata
‘I saw people who were not the inhabitants of Mecca.’
 We have chosen variants of ? Norwegian ↔ Swedish

English andArabic ? Hindi ↔ Urdu
 We could have compared many ? Bosnian ↔ Serbian ↔ Croatian
other “languages” ? Mandarin ↔ Cantonese

Geographical variation
 T
opics
● Language vs. dialect
● Dialect continuum
● Isoglosses
● Abstand languages and
Ausbau languages
● Standard languages

The example of Fula
 ANiger-Congo language
● Spoken in 17 countries
● Mostly in WestAfrica, especially
the Sahel
● Mauritania and Senegal in the
west, through Guinea, Mali,
Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria,
Cameroon, Chad, and
neighbouring areas Dialect
 Not geographically continuous “Ageographical variety of a
l a n g u a g e , s po k e n i n a
● Interrupted by many areas with certain area, and different
hundreds of other languages in some linguistic items
 Generally assumed to be a single from other geographical
v a r i e t i es o f t h e s a m e
language with a number of language.”
different dialects
Proposed definitions
of ‘language’
 This is a common definition of ‘dialect’used among linguists
● Different from the “popular” notion of a dialect being a
provincial variant of the “proper” language
 Problematic because it presupposes a satisfactory definition of
‘language’
1. “Alanguage consists of speech varieties Norwegian  Swedish

that are mutually intelligible” Mandarin  Cantonese
2. “Alanguage consists of speech varieties Norwegian  Swedish

that are considered subordinate to the Mandarin  Cantonese (? possibly)
same standard variety” Most ‘languages’have no standard variety
3. “Alanguage consists of speech varieties in (Depending on what ‘large’means)

which a large percentage of words are Norwegian  Swedish
etymologically related” Mandarin  Cantonese (? probably)

Dialects of Fula
 Different Fula-speaking areas can be referred
to as dialect areas
 Between ten and fifteen major dialects; most
important:
1. Northern Senegal, Southern Mauritania
2. Guinea
3. Mali
4. Burkina Faso, Western Nigeria, Western Niger
5. Central Nigeria
6. Eastern Nigeria, Northern Cameroon
 Speakers from neighbouring areas can
communicate without problems
● Each speaks his/her own native variety
 But speakers from one end of WestAfrica
have problems communicating with
speakers from the other end
● Abilities vary from person to person depending on
degree of exposure to other dialects

Dialect continuum
 Adialect continuum is a chain of dialects, let us say dialectsA–H:
● Speakers of dialectsAand B understand each other extremely well
● The same applies to B and C, to C and D, etc.
● Speakers ofAand C understand each other rather less well
● Speakers of dialectAand dialect E less well again
 There comes to a point, say at dialect G, where dialectAis no longer
intelligible to the local people and vice versa.
? 
 ()   
A B C D E F G H
  
“The Rhenish Fan”
Isoglosses
 Dialects can be mapped using isoglosses
● Lines on a map mark the boundary between different
linguistic items
● Usually no clear boundary between dialects
 The Rhenish Fan in Germany
● V
arieties: Low, Middle and High German
● Linguistic items: ‘ik~ich’, ‘Dorp~Dorf ’, ‘dat~das’
‘I’ ‘make’ ‘village’ ‘that’ ‘apple’ ‘pound’
German
ik maken dorp dat appel pund
Low
ich maken dorp dat appel pund
ich machen dorp dat appel pund German
ich machen dorf dat appel pund

Middle
ich machen dorf das appel pund
ich machen dorf das apfel pund

Germ
High
ich machen dorf das apfel pfund

Abstand languages
and Ausbau languages
 Abstand language  Ausbau languages arise out of
● = “Language by distance” situations with a dialect continuum
● Regarded as a language by dint of its ● One dialectal variety  standard
linguistic distance from other – Usually the variety used by educated people
languages in the capital
● e.g. Basque, Korean – Autonomous with respect to other dialects
– Other dialects are heteronomous with
 Ausbau language respect to the standard
● = “Language by development”  Status can change over time
● Regarded as a language by dint of its ● Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian formerly
autonomy with respect to related heteronomous dialects of Serbo-Croatian
languages
– Since 1990s autonomous languages
– Standardized form
● Scots, Plattdeutsch (Low German),
– Used in schools
Provençal once autonomous
– Written form widely used (including as
official national or regional language) – Now heteronomous with respect to English,
German and French
● e.g. (standard) Dutch and German

Standard languages
 Prototypical properties of a standard  Standard varieties rise and fall
language ● Reverse of standardization is
● Used by educated users dialectization
– e.g. in the professions, the media, etc. – Okinawan once the standard language of
the Ryukyuan kingdom: Now usually seen as
● Defined in dictionaries, grammars, and a dialect of Japanese
usage guides.
● Regarded as more correct and socially  Not all languages have a standard
acceptable variety
● Enjoys greater prestige ● May be anAbstand language without
– Non-standard varieties felt to be the being anAusbau language
province of the less educated ● Usual case for minority languages
● Used as a written language – Found within a larger nation state
● Used in important functions in the – Only used in private (e.g. at home)
society
 Alanguage may beAusbau despite little
– Government, parliament, courts, trade,
bureaucracy,education, literature, industry
Abstand from its relatives
● e.g. Danish, Norwegian, Swedish
The last word on
language vs. dialect?
 ‫אַ שּפראַ ך איז אַ דיאַ לעקט מיט אַ ן אַ רמיי און ֿפלאָ ט‬
 Ashprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot
 Alanguage is a dialect with an army and navy
●Usually attributed
A teacher at a Bronx high school once appeared among the
to Max Weinreich auditors. He had come to America as a child and the entire time
had never heard that Yiddish had a history and could also serve
for higher matters.... Once after a lecture he approached me and
asked, ‘What is the difference between a dialect and language?’ I
thought that the maskilic contempt had affected him, and tried to
lead him to the right path, but he interrupted me: ‘I know that, but
I will give you a better definition. A language is a dialect with an
army and navy.’ From that very time I made sure to remember
that I must convey this wonderful formulation of the social plight
of Yiddish to a large audience.
See also Romania/Moldova: Divided By A Common Language: http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1079514.html

Social variation
 Geographic distance leads
to language variation
 Social distance also leads to
language variation
 o
Tpics
● Social organization
– Social networks
– Social stratification
● Sociolect
● Slang
● Jargon

Social networks
 Individual belongs to social  Network strength based on
networks degrees of density and
● Stronger and looser ties with multiplexity
other individuals  Dense network
● Dimensions of solidarity ● Everyone knows everyone
between individuals in their else
everyday contacts
 Multiplex relationship
 Strong networks
– Ainteracts with B in more
● Language changes more than one capacity (e.g. as
slowly workmate and friend)
● Stigmatized and low-status
language items persist

Social stratification
 Hierarchical structure of a  Rank society
society ● People born with certain
● Arising from inequalities of rank, low social mobility
wealth and power ● Speak language of birth
 Different types of hierarchy throughout life
● Rank society  Class society
● Class society ● People born into certain
class, high social mobility
 Europe after ca. 1800
● Change their language in
● Change from hierarchy of order to improve social
rank to hierarchy of class status

From rank to class
 Traditional European rank society
● People spoke the dialect of their home area
● Only minor variation between the ranks
● Easy to locate someone geographically, but not socially
 Change to class society
● Ca. 1800: industrialization
● New social strata:
– Working class and bourgeoisie (middle class)
● Opportunities to improve economic and social status

The emergence of
middle class English
 England, end of 18th century  Network differences an important
● Standard written language, no factor
standard spoken language ● Close-knit solidarity characteristic
 Middle class speaking habits of lower and higher social groups
changed towards most – Leads to greater stability
prestigious variety ● Weaker among middle sectors of
society
● Used at royal court in London
– Easier to change
● Upper class (aristocracy) and
lower class continue to speak  Network structures result
local dialect naturally from different life modes
● Middle class dialect varied much ● e.g. self-employed, wage-earners,
less from place to place professionals

Sociolects
 Language varieties used by particular societal strata
 Most language varieties have geographical as well as
social distribution
 Geographical variation now larger among lower classes
than middle and upper classes

Huntin’, shootin’
and fishin’
 The story of English -ing
 Originally two suffixes
● Verbal noun [-ɪŋe], written <-inge>
– e.g. ‘writinge’cf. NOR skriving
● Present participle [-ɪnde], written <-inde>
– e.g. ‘writinde’cf. NOR skrivende
 Erosion  neutralization
-ɪŋe -ɪŋ
-ɪn
-ɪnde -ɪnd
● pronounced [-ɪn], written <-ing>
Three in Norway is an account of a “huntin’,
● Middle class  [-ɪŋ] (conform to standard)
shootin’ and fishin’” trip to Jotunheimen in
● Upper and lower class retained [-ɪn] Norway by three English (actually two
– Hence the phrase huntin’, shootin’ and fishin’ English and one Irish) gentlemen in 1882
– Descriptive of upper class pastimes

Slang
 Very informal language variety
● Includes new and sometimes not polite words
British slang (http://www.peevish.co.uk/slang/)
and meanings… kerb crawler Noun.Aperson who drives slowly

 Often used among particular groups of to view street prostitutes, with the intention
people of procuring their services. {Informal}.
● e.g. teenagers or professional groups khyber (pass) Noun. Buttocks, anus.
● Not commonly used in serious speech or Cockney rhyming slang on ‘arse’.
writing
kiddie fiddler Noun.Apaedophile. Derog.
 Some expressions contain ordinary words
with a special meaning kipper Noun. The face. E.g. “Did you see the
● e.g. khyber, kisser and knocking miserable kipper on that idiot stood at the
● New meanings, often based upon fanciful and back?” [Liverpool/North-west use.]
creative metaphors and metonymies
kisser Noun. Mouth. Origins in boxing.
– e.g. Cockney rhyming slang
 Other expressions contain special words knocking shop Noun.Abrothel.
with no «non-slang» meanings kooky Adj. Crazy,eccentric.
● e.g. kooky

Jargon
 Aset of vocabulary items used by guddiri ‘bull without a tail’
members of particular professions wudde ‘cow without a tail’
● i.e. their technical terms jaabuye ‘cow with a large navel’
lelwaaye ‘cattle with eyes like a gazelle’
 Linguists have a large vocabulary gerlaaye ‘cattle that is like a bush-fowl’
that is not well understood by happuye ‘cow in milk after her calf has died’
non-linguists mbutuye ‘cow whose calf has been killed so that she
● (ref. these lectures...) may be fattened’
elliinge ‘cattle with upright horns’
 Other typical examples gajje ‘cattle with horns twisted back’(also called
● Computer jargon mooro)
– scroll bar, SCSI, short cut, spam... hippe ‘cattle with horns drooping forward’
● Printers’jargon hogole ‘cattle with horns almost meeting’
– NOR: slis, drittel, enke, horeunge... lettooye ‘cattle with one horn up and the other
drooping’
 All professions have their own
wijaaye ‘cattle with horns drooping towards the ears’
jargons
tolle ‘cow with one horn’
● Farmer ’s jargon wumale ‘cow without horns’
● Jargon of Fulani shepherds…
Contextual variation –
honorifics
 Contextual variation: V
ariation within the individual
Honorifics and politeness in Korean

 Plain level you = nŏ  Blunt level you = tangsin
● Used by any speaker to any child; own ●Authoritative connotations, gradually disappearing
younger sibling, child, or grandchild; from daily usage
daughter-in-law; intimate adult friends ●Sometimes used by a boss to subordinates or by
whose friendship began in childhood an old generation husband to wife
 Intimate level you = chane  Polite level you = kŭ-dae (obsolete), taek
● Close friends whose friendship began in ●Most popular level towards an adult, used by both
childhood or adolescence males and females in daily conversations
 Familiar level you = chagi ●Less formal than the deferential level.
● E.g. male adult to adolescent (high school  Deferential level you = ŏrŭsin (rare)
or college student); one’s son-in-law;
between close adult friends whose ●Used in formal situations such as news reports
friendship began in adolescence and public lectures

Language policy
 The language situation varies enormously from country to country
 We look here at two very contrasting countries
 Cameroon  Korea
●Languages: 280 ●Languages: 1

A linguistic thought
experiment
Imagine the following situation. oYu live in a small When you were in school, the only language
town called Speechville. oYur mother tongue is you were taught was Japanese. oYu had a
German, and this language is spoken by your teacher who had recently moved to your town
family and your closest neighbours. If you walk from the southern part of the country.He
five minutes down the street, the language you could only speak two languages: Italian, which
hear around you is Finnish, and after another was his mother tongue, and Japanese, the
five minutes everybody speaks Russian. When official language.
you want to communicate with any of these When you started in school, you could only
Finns and Russians, you address them in the speak your mother tongue, German, and the
local lingua franca, which is English. local lingua franca, English, which you used
Imagine, furthermore, that German, Finnish and when talking to your Finnish speaking
Russian are never used as written languages. playmates down the street. But the teacher
All street signs in your town are written in addressed you and the other sixty-two
Japanese, which is the official language of your children in the classroom in Japanese from
country. the very first day.
1. German Germanic Indo-European 4. English Germanic Indo-European

2. Finnish Finno-Ugric Uralic 5. Japanese Japanese
3. Russian Slavic Indo-European 6. Italian Romance Indo-European

The linguistic situation
in Cameroon
 Galim,Adamawa Province  AtypicalAfrican village
● approx. 3,000 inhabitants ● 5–10 local languages
● Alocal lingua franca (Fula)
● Anational language (French)
 Social-functional classification of
these languages
 ● LG 1: Fula
● LG 2: Hausa
● LG 3: Nizaa, Vute, Kanuri,
Mbum, Chamba
1. German
Nizaa Germanic
Mambiloid Indo-European
Niger-Congo 4. English
Fula Germanic
Atlantic Indo-European
Niger-Congo
2. Finnish
Hausa Finno-Ugric
Chadic Uralic
Afro-Asiatic 5. Japanese
French Japanese
Romance Indo-European
3. Russian
Chamba Slavic
Adamawa Indo-European
Niger-Congo 6. Italian
Ewondo Romance
Bantu Indo-European
Niger-Congo

Patterns of
multilingualism
 Fula spoken by everybody  Social groups
● Hausa second lingua franca ● SG 1 – Upper stratum: merchants
– The only L2 for the Fulani people – High degree of intermarriage
Languages – Language(s) of this SG only
Ethnic groups Fula Hausa Kanuri Other ● SG 2 – Other villagers
Sedentary Fulani L1
L2 – Own languages and those of SG 1
Hausa L1 SG1
L2 – Often other SG 2 languages
Kanuri* <L1> <L1>
L2 ● SG 3 – Nomadic Fulani
Nizaa, Vute, Mbum,
L3 L1 SG2
Chamba L2 – On the fringe of village society
Nomadic Fulani L1 – Own language only; low status
SG3
1. German
Nizaa Germanic
Mambiloid Indo-European
Niger-Congo 4. English
Fula Germanic
Atlantic Indo-European
Niger-Congo
2. Finnish
Hausa Finno-Ugric
Chadic Uralic
Afro-Asiatic 5. Japanese
French Japanese
Romance Indo-European
3. Russian
Chamba Slavic
Adamawa Indo-European
Niger-Congo 6. Italian
Ewondo Romance
Bantu Indo-European
Niger-Congo

Language policy in
Cameroon and Africa
 Colonial language French adds a  “One language, one nation”
further complication ● Astrictly European concept
● Official language since WW1 – No meaning in anAfrican context
● Limited use until recently  Cameroonian nationalism is non-
– Schools, public offices linguistic
● Insufficiently understood to function ● Language regarded as a regional or
as lingua franca “separatist” affair
– Only 13% have good grounding ● Language differences ignored in
in French from school
OFFICIAL order to create national unity
● Will probably not replace Fula
in Northern Cameroon
(1)  Typical in most ofAfrica
– InAfrica, the lingua franca – Usual language hierarchy
NA
TIONAL
tends to be anAfrican ■ 1 official language
language or a pidgin (5–10)
■ 5-10 national languages
with a European
LOCAL ■ 10s or 100s of local
language superstrate
(10s or 100s) languages
The linguistic situation
in Korea
 Korean spoken in North  High literary rates
and South Korea  Own writing system (Han’gŭl)
●No linguistic minorities ● Developed in 15th C on the
●Among the few monolingual initiative of King Sejong
states in the world
● Scientifically designed alphabet
 2 standard varieties in which 2, 3 or 4 letters are
●Both regulated by national “stacked” to create syllables
language policies  E.g. ‘huchu’(pepper)
– South Korea: Seoul dialect
● H (ᄒ) + U (ᅮ) = 후
– North Korea: Pyongyang dialect
● CH (ᄎ) + U (ᅮ) = 추
 7 regional dialects
● HU-CHU = 후+추 = 후추
●Some not easily mutually
intelligible
The End
Steve Pepper <pepper.steve@gmail.com>

Summary of concepts:
Universals
 Absolute, statistical and implicational universals
 Lexicon and grammar
 Form and meaning
 Phonology,morphology,syntax, semantics
 Arbitrariness, motivation, iconicity
 Double articulation (duality of patterning)

Typology
 Analytic vs. synthetic (polysynthetic)
 Agglutinative vs. flective
 Word order (SOV
, SVO, VSO, etc.)
 Head-first vs. head-last
 Left-branching vs. right-branching
 Verb-framed vs. satellite-framed

Language families
 Family trees and protolanguages
 The comparative method
 Regular sound change
 Regular sound correspondences
 Indo-European,Afro-Asiatic, Sino-Tibetan, Uralic

Language contact
 Borrowing
 Code-switching
 Language shift and interference
 Language death
 Superstrate and substrate languages
 Pidgins and creoles
 Linguistic areas, Sprachbund

Language variation
 Linguistic item and language variety
 Language vs. dialect
 Dialect continuum
 Isogloss
 Abstand languages andAusbau languages
 Standard languages
 Sociolect, slag, jargon
 Multilingualism and language policy

Next week: Culture!
 Further reading on language variation
● Michael E. Brown and Sumit Ganguly (eds.) 2003. Fighting Words:
Language Policy and Ethnic Relation in Asia. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press
● Fardon, Richard and Graham Furniss. 1994. African languages,
development and the state. London: Routledge
● Ljung, Magnus. 2011. Swearing. A cross-cultural linguistic study.
Basingstoke: Palgrave
● Trudgill, Peter. 2000. Sociolinguistics: An introduction to language and
society. London : Penguin
● Trudgill, Peter and J. K. Chambers. 1998. Dialectology. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
● Vickers, Caroline H. and Sharon K. Deckert. 2011. An Introduction to
Sociolinguistics: Society and Identity. London: Continuum

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EXFAC03-AAS v11

Steve Pepper <pepper.steve@gmail.com>

2> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

3> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

4> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

5> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

6> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

7> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

8> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

9> Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

10 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

11 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

 We have chosen variants of ? Norwegian ↔ Swedish

12 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

13 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

1. “Alanguage consists of speech varieties Norwegian  Swedish

2. “Alanguage consists of speech varieties Norwegian  Swedish

3. “Alanguage consists of speech varieties in (Depending on what ‘large’means)

15 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

16 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

‘I’ ‘make’ ‘village’ ‘that’ ‘apple’ ‘pound’

ich machen dorp dat appel pund German

ich machen dorf dat appel pund

ich machen dorf das appel pund

ich machen dorf das apfel pund

ich machen dorf das apfel pfund

18 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

19 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

See also Romania/Moldova: Divided By A Common Language: http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1079514.html

22 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

23 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

24 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

25 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

26 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

27 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

28 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

and meanings… kerb crawler Noun.Aperson who drives slowly

29 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

Honorifics and politeness in Korean

31 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

32 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

1. German Germanic Indo-European 4. English Germanic Indo-European

33 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

34 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

35 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

Steve Pepper <pepper.steve@gmail.com>

39 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

40 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

41 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

42 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

43 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

44 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper

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