Shock

Objectives
 Definition
 Approach to the hypotensive patient
 Types
 Specific treatments
 Definition of Shock
Inadequate oxygen delivery to meet
metabolic demands
Results in global tissue hypoperfusion
and metabolic acidosis
Shock can occur with a normal blood
pressure and hypotension can occur
without shock
 Understanding Shock
Inadequate systemic oxygen delivery
activates autonomic responses to maintain
systemic oxygen delivery
Sympathetic nervous system
NE, epinephrine, dopamine, and cortisol release
Causes vasoconstriction, increase in HR, and increase of cardiac
contractility (cardiac output)
Renin-angiotensin axis
Water and sodium conservation and vasoconstriction
Increase in blood volume and blood pressure
 Understanding Shock
Cellular responses to decreased systemic oxygen
delivery
ATP depletion → ion pump dysfunction
Cellular edema
Hydrolysis of cellular membranes and cellular
death
Goal is to maintain cerebral and cardiac perfusion
Vasoconstriction of splanchnic, musculoskeletal,
and renal blood flow
Leads to systemic metabolic lactic acidosis that
overcomes the body’s compensatory mechanisms
 Global Tissue Hypoxia
Endothelial inflammation and disruption
Inability of O2 delivery to meet demand
Result:
Lactic acidosis
Cardiovascular insufficiency
Increased metabolic demands
Multiorgan Dysfunction
Syndrome (MODS)
Progression of physiologic effects as
shock ensues
Cardiac depression
Respiratory distress
Renal failure
DIC
Result is end organ failure
Approach to the Patient in Shock
ABCs
Cardiorespiratory monitor
Pulse oximetry
Supplemental oxygen
IV access
ABG, labs
Foley catheter
Vital signs including rectal temperature
 Diagnosis
Physical exam (VS, mental status, skin color,
temperature, pulses, etc)
Infectious source
Labs:
CBC
Chemistries
Lactate
Coagulation studies
Cultures
ABG
Further Evaluation
CT of head/sinuses
Lumbar puncture
Wound cultures
Acute abdominal series
Abdominal/pelvic CT or US
Cortisol level
Fibrinogen, FDPs, D-dimer
 Approach to the Patient in Shock

History Physical
Recent illness examination
Fever Vital Signs
Chest pain, SOB CNS – mental status
Abdominal pain Skin – color, temp,
rashes, sores
Comorbidities
CV – JVD, heart sounds
Medications Resp – lung sounds, RR,
Toxins/Ingestions oxygen sat, ABG
Recent hospitalization or GI – abd pain, rigidity,
surgery guarding, rebound
Baseline mental status Renal – urine output
Is This Patient in Shock?
Patient looks ill
Altered mental status
Skin cool and mottled
or hot and flushed
Weak or absent
peripheral pulses
Yes!
SBP <110 These are all signs and
Tachycardia symptoms of shock
 Shock
Do you remember how to
60
quickly estimate blood
pressure by pulse?
• If you palpate a pulse, 70

80
you know SBP is at
least this number
90
Goals of Treatment

ABCDE
Airway
control work of Breathing
optimize Circulation
assure adequate oxygen Delivery
achieve End points of resuscitation
Airway
Determine need for intubation but
remember: intubation can worsen
hypotension
Sedatives can lower blood pressure
Positive pressure ventilation decreases preload
May need volume resuscitation prior to
intubation to avoid hemodynamic collapse
 Control Work of Breathing
Respiratory muscles consume a significant
amount of oxygen
Tachypnea can contribute to lactic
acidosis
Mechanical ventilation and sedation
decrease WOB and improves survival
 Optimizing Circulation
Isotonic crystalloids
Titrated to:
CVP 8-12 mm Hg
Urine output 0.5 ml/kg/hr (30 ml/hr)
Improving heart rate
May require 4-6 L of fluids
No outcome benefit from colloids
 Maintaining Oxygen Delivery
Decrease oxygen demands
Provide analgesia and anxiolytics to relax muscles
and avoid shivering
Maintain arterial oxygen saturation/content
Give supplemental oxygen
Maintain Hemoglobin > 10 g/dL
Serial lactate levels or central venous oxygen
saturations to assess tissue oxygen extraction
 End Points of Resuscitation
Goal of resuscitation is to maximize survival
and minimize morbidity
Use objective hemodynamic and physiologic
values to guide therapy
Goal directed approach
Urine output > 0.5 mL/kg/hr
CVP 8-12 mmHg
MAP 65 to 90 mmHg
Central venous oxygen concentration > 70%
Persistent Hypotension
Inadequate volume
resuscitation
Pneumothorax
Cardiac tamponade
Hidden bleeding
Adrenal insufficiency
Medication allergy
Practically Speaking….
Keep one eye on these patients
Frequent vitals signs:
Monitor success of therapies
Watch for decompensated shock
Let your nurses know that these
patients are sick!
Types of Shock
Hypovolemic
Septic
Cardiogenic
Anaphylactic
Neurogenic
Obstructive
 What Type of Shock is This?
Types of Shock
 68 yo M with hx of HTN and DM
presents to the ER with abrupt
Hypovolemic
onset of diffuse abdominal pain
with radiation to his low back.
Septic
The pt is hypotensive,
tachycardic, afebrile, with cool
Cardiogenic
but dry skin

Anaphylactic
Hypovolemic
NeurogenicShock
Obstructive
Hypovolemic Shock
Hypovolemic Shock
Non-hemorrhagic
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Bowel obstruction, pancreatitis
Burns
Neglect, environmental (dehydration)
Hemorrhagic
GI bleed
Trauma
Massive hemoptysis
AAA rupture
Ectopic pregnancy, post-partum bleeding
Hypovolemic Shock
ABCs
Establish 2 large bore IVs or a central line
Crystalloids
Normal Saline or Lactate Ringers
Up to 3 liters
PRBCs
O negative or cross matched
Control any bleeding
Arrange definitive treatment
Evaluation of Hypovolemic Shock
CBC As indicated
ABG/lactate CXR
Electrolytes Pelvic x-ray
Abd/pelvis CT
BUN, Creatinine
Chest CT
Coagulation GI endoscopy
studies Bronchoscopy
Type and cross- Vascular
match radiology
Infusion Rates
Access Gravity Pressure

18 g peripheral IV 50 mL/min 150 mL/min

16 g peripheral IV 100 mL/min 225 mL/min
14 g peripheral IV 150 mL/min 275 mL/min
8.5 Fr CV cordis 200 mL/min 450 mL/min
 What Type of Shock is This?
 An 81 yo F resident of a nursing
Types of Shock
home presents to the ED with
Hypovolemic
altered mental status. She is
febrile to 39.4, hypotensive with a
Septic
widened pulse pressure,
tachycardic, with warm
Cardiogenic
extremities

Anaphylactic
Septic
Neurogenic
Obstructive
Septic Shock
Sepsis
Two or more of SIRS criteria
Temp > 38 or < 36 C
HR > 90
RR > 20
WBC > 12,000 or < 4,000
Plus the presumed existence of
infection
Blood pressure can be normal!
Septic Shock
Sepsis (remember definition?)
Plus refractory hypotension
After bolus of 20-40 mL/Kg patient still
has one of the following:
SBP < 90 mm Hg
MAP < 65 mm Hg
Decrease of 40 mm Hg from baseline
Sepsis
 Pathogenesis of Sepsis

Nguyen H et al. Severe Sepsis and Septic-Shock: Review of the Literature and Emergency Department Management Guidelines. Ann Emerg Med. 2006;42:28-54.
Septic Shock
Clinical signs:
Hyperthermia or hypothermia
Tachycardia
Wide pulse pressure
Low blood pressure (SBP<90)
Mental status changes
Beware of compensated shock!
Blood pressure may be “normal”
Ancillary Studies
Cardiac monitor
Pulse oximetry
CBC, Chem 7, coags, LFTs, lipase, UA
ABG with lactate
Blood culture x 2, urine culture
CXR
Foley catheter (why do you need this?)
Treatment of Septic Shock
2 large bore IVs
NS IVF bolus- 1-2 L wide open (if no
contraindications)
Supplemental oxygen
Empiric antibiotics, based on suspected
source, as soon as possible
 Treatment of Sepsis
Antibiotics- Survival correlates with how quickly
the correct drug was given
Cover gram positive and gram negative bacteria
Zosyn 3.375 grams IV and ceftriaxone 1 gram IV or
Imipenem 1 gram IV
Add additional coverage as indicated
Pseudomonas- Gentamicin or Cefepime
MRSA- Vancomycin
Intra-abdominal or head/neck anaerobic infections-
Clindamycin or Metronidazole
Asplenic- Ceftriaxone for N. meningitidis, H. infuenzae
Neutropenic – Cefepime or Imipenem
Persistent Hypotension
If no response after 2-3 L IVF, start a
vasopressor (norepinephrine, dopamine,
etc) and titrate to effect
Goal: MAP > 60
Consider adrenal insufficiency:
hydrocortisone 100 mg IV
 Early Goal Directed Therapy
Septic Shock Study 2001
263 patients with septic shock by
refractory hypotension or lactate criteria
Randomly assigned to EGDT or to
standard resuscitation arms (130 vs 133)
Control arm treated at clinician’s discretion
and admitted to ICU ASAP
EGDT group followed protocol for 6 hours
then admitted to ICU

Rivers E et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock N Engl J Med. 2001:345:1368-1377.
 Treatment Algorithm

Rivers E et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock N Engl J Med. 2001:345:1368-1377.
 EGDT Group
First 6 hours in ED
More fluid (5 L vs 3.5 L)
More transfusion (64.1% vs 18.5%)
More dobutamine (13.7% vs 0.8%)
Outcome
3.8 days less in hospital
2 fold less cardiopulmonary complications
Better: SvO2, lactate, base deficit, PH
Relative reduction in mortality of 34.4%
46.5% control vs 30.5% EGDT
What Type of Shock is This?
 A 55 yo M with hx of HTN,
Types of Shock
DM presents with “crushing”
Hypovolemic
substernal CP, diaphoresis,
hypotension, tachycardia
Septic
and cool, clammy extremities

Cardiogenic
Anaphylactic
Cardiogenic
Neurogenic
Obstructive
Cardiogenic Shock
 Cardiogenic Shock
Defined as: Signs:
SBP < 90 mmHg Cool, mottled skin
CI < 2.2 L/m/m2 Tachypnea
PCWP > 18 Hypotension
mmHg Altered mental
status
Narrowed pulse
pressure
Rales, murmur
 Etiologies
What are some causes of cardiogenic shock?
• AMI
• Sepsis
• Myocarditis
• Myocardial contusion
• Aortic or mitral stenosis, HCM
• Acute aortic insufficiency
 Pathophysiology of Cardiogenic Shock

Often after ischemia, loss of LV

function
Lose 40% of LV clinical shock ensues
CO reduction = lactic acidosis, hypoxia
Stroke volume is reduced
Tachycardia develops as compensation
Ischemia and infarction worsens
Ancillary Tests
EKG
CXR
CBC, Chem 10, cardiac enzymes,
coagulation studies
Echocardiogram
 Treatment of Cardiogenic Shock
Goals- Airway stability and improving
myocardial pump function
Cardiac monitor, pulse oximetry
Supplemental oxygen, IV access
Intubation will decrease preload and
result in hypotension
Be prepared to give fluid bolus
Treatment of Cardiogenic Shock
AMI
 Aspirin, beta blocker, morphine, heparin
 If no pulmonary edema, IV fluid challenge
 If pulmonary edema
Dopamine – will ↑ HR and thus cardiac work
Dobutamine – May drop blood pressure
Combination therapy may be more effective
 PCI or thrombolytics
RV infarct
 Fluids and Dobutamine (no NTG)
Acute mitral regurgitation or VSD
Pressors (Dobutamine and Nitroprusside)
 What Type of Shock is This?
 A 34 yo F presents to the ER after
Types of Shock
dining at a restaurant where
Hypovolemic
shortly after eating the first few
bites of her meal, became anxious,
Septic
diaphoretic, began wheezing,
noted diffuse pruritic rash, nausea,
Cardiogenic
and a sensation of her “throat
closing off”. She is currently
Anaphylactic
hypotensive, tachycardic and ill
appearing.
Neurogenic
Anaphalactic
Obstructive
Anaphalactic Shock
 Anaphylactic Shock
Anaphylaxis – a severe systemic
hypersensitivity reaction characterized by
multisystem involvement
IgE mediated
Anaphylactoid reaction – clinically
indistinguishable from anaphylaxis, do not
require a sensitizing exposure
Not IgE mediated
 Anaphylactic Shock
What are some symptoms of anaphylaxis?
• First- Pruritus, flushing, urticaria appear

• Next- Throat fullness, anxiety, chest tightness,

shortness of breath and lightheadedness

• Finally- Altered mental status, respiratory

distress and circulatory collapse
Anaphylactic Shock
Risk factors for fatal anaphylaxis
Poorly controlled asthma
Previous anaphylaxis
Reoccurrence rates
40-60% for insect stings
20-40% for radiocontrast agents
10-20% for penicillin
Most common causes
Antibiotics
Insects
Food
 Anaphylactic Shock
Mild, localized urticaria can progress to full anaphylaxis
Symptoms usually begin within 60 minutes of exposure
Faster the onset of symptoms = more severe reaction
Biphasic phenomenon occurs in up to 20% of patients
Symptoms return 3-4 hours after initial reaction has cleared
A “lump in my throat” and “hoarseness” heralds life-
threatening laryngeal edema
 Anaphylactic Shock- Diagnosis
Clinical diagnosis
Defined by airway compromise, hypotension,
or involvement of cutaneous, respiratory, or
GI systems
Look for exposure to drug, food, or insect
Labs have no role
Anaphylactic Shock- Treatment
ABC’s
Angioedema and respiratory compromise require
immediate intubation
IV, cardiac monitor, pulse oximetry
IVFs, oxygen
Epinephrine
Second line
Corticosteriods
H1 and H2 blockers
 Anaphylactic Shock- Treatment
Epinephrine
0.3 mg IM of 1:1000 (epi-pen)
Repeat every 5-10 min as needed
Caution with patients taking beta blockers- can cause
severe hypertension due to unopposed alpha stimulation
For CV collapse, 1 mg IV of 1:10,000
If refractory, start IV drip
Anaphylactic Shock - Treatment
 Corticosteroids
 Methylprednisolone 125 mg IV
 Prednisone 60 mg PO
 Antihistamines
 H1 blocker- Diphenhydramine 25-50 mg IV
 H2 blocker- Ranitidine 50 mg IV
 Bronchodilators
 Albuterol nebulizer
 Atrovent nebulizer
 Magnesium sulfate 2 g IV over 20 minutes
 Glucagon
 For patients taking beta blockers and with refractory hypotension
 1 mg IV q5 minutes until hypotension resolves
Anaphylactic Shock - Disposition
All patients who receive epinephrine
should be observed for 4-6 hours
If symptom free, discharge home
If on beta blockers or h/o severe
reaction in past, consider admission
 What Type of Shock is This?
 A 41 yo M presents to the ER
Types of Shock
after an MVC complaining of
Hypovolemic
decreased sensation below his
waist and is now hypotensive,
Septic
bradycardic, with warm
extremities
Cardiogenic
Anaphylactic
Neurogenic
Neurogenic
Obstructive
Neurogenic Shock
Neurogenic Shock
Occurs after acute spinal cord injury
Sympathetic outflow is disrupted leaving
unopposed vagal tone
Results in hypotension and bradycardia
Spinal shock- temporary loss of spinal reflex
activity below a total or near total spinal cord
injury (not the same as neurogenic shock, the
terms are not interchangeable)
Neurogenic Shock
Loss of sympathetic tone results in
warm and dry skin
Shock usually lasts from 1 to 3 weeks
Any injury above T1 can disrupt the
entire sympathetic system
Higher injuries = worse paralysis
Neurogenic Shock- Treatment
A,B,Cs
Remember c-spine precautions
Fluid resuscitation
Keep MAP at 85-90 mm Hg for first 7 days
Thought to minimize secondary cord injury
If crystalloid is insufficient use vasopressors
Search for other causes of hypotension
For bradycardia
Atropine
Pacemaker
Neurogenic Shock- Treatment
Methylprednisolone
Used only for blunt spinal cord injury
High dose therapy for 23 hours
Must be started within 8 hours
Controversial- Risk for infection, GI bleed
 What Type of Shock is This?
Types of Shock
 A 24 yo M presents to the ED
after an MVC c/o chest pain
Hypovolemic
and difficulty breathing. On PE,
you note the pt to be
Septic
tachycardic, hypotensive,
hypoxic, and with decreased
Cardiogenic
breath sounds on left

Anaphylactic
Obstructive
Neurogenic
Obstructive
Obstructive Shock
Obstructive Shock
Tension pneumothorax
Air trapped in pleural space with 1 way
valve, air/pressure builds up
Mediastinum shifted impeding venous
return
Chest pain, SOB, decreased breath sounds
No tests needed!
Rx: Needle decompression, chest tube
Obstructive Shock
Cardiac tamponade
Blood in pericardial sac prevents venous
return to and contraction of heart
Related to trauma, pericarditis, MI
Beck’s triad: hypotension, muffled heart
sounds, JVD
Diagnosis: large heart CXR, echo
Rx: Pericardiocentisis
Obstructive Shock
Pulmonary embolism
Virscow triad: hypercoaguable, venous
injury, venostasis
Signs: Tachypnea, tachycardia, hypoxia
Low risk: D-dimer
Higher risk: CT chest or VQ scan
Rx: Heparin, consider thrombolytics
Obstructive Shock
Aortic stenosis
Resistance to systolic ejection causes
decreased cardiac function
Chest pain with syncope
Systolic ejection murmur
Diagnosed with echo
Vasodilators (NTG) will drop pressure!
Rx: Valve surgery
 The End

Any Questions?
References
 Tintinalli. Emergency Medicine. 6th
edition
 Rivers et al. Early Goal-Directed
Therapy in the Treatment of Severe
Sepsis and Septic Shock. NEJM 2001;
345(19):1368.