Chapter Seven

Motivation
Concepts
Chapter Learning Objectives
 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
– Describe the three elements of motivation.
– Identify four early theories of motivation and evaluate their
applicability today.
– Apply the predictions of the self-determination theory to intrinsic
and extrinsic rewards.
– Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and management by
objectives.
– Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory.
– Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity
theory.
– Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating
employees.
– Compare contemporary theories of motivation.
– Explain to what degree motivation theories are culture-bound.

7-1
Activity
 1. Think back on your work experience to a time when
you were performing at your very best. What factors
accounted for your high performance? List them.
(Time: 5 minutes)
 2. Think back on your work experience to a time when
you were performing at less than your best or poorly.
What factors accounted for this performance? List
them. (Time: 5 minutes)

6-2
Defining Motivation(动机)
The result of the interaction between the individual and the
situation.

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity,

direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal –
specifically, an organizational goal.

Three key elements:

– Intensity 强度– how hard a person tries
– Direction 方向– effort that is channeled toward, and
consistent with, organizational goals

– Persistence 坚持性– how long a person can maintain effort

What Is Motivation?

Direction

Intensity Persistence
Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the
basis for contemporary theories and are still used by
practicing managers.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Assumptions Self-Actualization
Higher Order – Individuals cannot
Esteem move to the next
Internal higher level until
Social all needs at the
current (lower)
Lower Order Safety level are satisfied
External Physiological – Must move in
hierarchical order

See E X H I B I T 7-1
Maslow’s
Hierarchy
of Needs Self

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological
Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Existence Growth

Relatedness
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
. Adaptation of Maslow’s work
Three Needs
.Existence (physical/safety)
.Relatedness (social)
.Growth (self-esteem / actualisation)
. More than one need may be operative at
the same time

. Not a rigid hierarchy

. The stifling of higher level needs causes
lower level needs to increase (frustration
- progression - regression)
 Alderfer: Application to the
Workplace
1. ERG can all exist simultaneously

2. If E needs are not completely satisfied,

challenging work can still motivate.

3. If higher level needs are frustrated,

regression to lower level needs.
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
 Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X
(basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).
– Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
– The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees

Theory X Theory Y

• Workers have little • Workers are self-

ambition directed
• Dislike work • Enjoy work
• Avoid responsibility • Accept responsibility

 No empirical evidence to support this theory.

 Dislike & Avoid Work

Theory X Avoid Responsibility

Workers & Innovation

Need Coercion

Enjoy Work

Theory Y Accept Responsibility

Workers Capable of Innovation

Self-Directed
McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y

More a description of employer stereotypes

about workers than motivation.

Implications for:
. Organisational structures
. Policies, rules
. Culture
. Job design
. Leadership, supervision
. Rewards, punishment
. Control
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory 双因素理论
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites
but separate constructs
Hygiene Factors Motivators
保健因素 激励因素

Extrinsic and Company Intrinsic and

Growth
Policies
Related to Related to
Dissatisfaction Satisfaction
Salary Responsibility

Work
Achievement
Conditions

See E X H I B I T S 7-2 and 7-3

Criticisms of Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg says that hygiene factors must be met to remove
dissatisfaction. If motivators are given, then satisfaction
can occur.

Herzberg is limited by his methodology

– Participants had self-serving bias
Reliability of raters questioned
– Bias or errors of observation
No overall measure of satisfaction was used
Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong
relationship between satisfaction and productivity
What Do Employees Want ?
Class Exercise:
1. Please write down what you see as the five most
important aspects of a job.
2. Why money does not make the list of top five factors in
the selection.
3. What motivates you to work hard?
4. What would you see as a de-motivator in the
workplace?

6–16
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
 Need for Achievement (nAch) 成就需要
– The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards,
to strive to succeed
 Need for Power (nPow) 权力需要
– The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise
 Need for Affiliation (nAff) 归属需要
– The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
 People have varying levels of each of the three needs.
– Hard to measure
 Need for The Theory
Achievement
(nAch)
of Needs

Need for
Power
(nPow)

Need for David

Affiliation McClelland
(nAff)
 McClelland’s 3 Learned Needs

NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (nAch)

The desire to excel, to achieve in relation to
a set of standards, to strive to succeed, to
do things better than others.
Personal responsibility

Prefer jobs
Rapid feedback
that offer
Moderate risks/goals

Not gamblers / 50-50 chance

 McClelland’s 3 Learned Needs
NEED FOR POWER (nPow)

Need to make others behave in a way that

they would not have behaved otherwise.

The desire to be influential and to control

others.

Prefer to be in competitive and status-

oriented situations.

Tendency to be more concerned with

prestige and influence than effective
performance.
 McClelland’s 3 Learned Needs
NEED FOR AFFILIATION (nAff)

Desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

Prefer cooperative situations; not competitive.

Desire relationships involving a high degree of mutual

understanding.

IDENTIFICATION OF DOMINANT NEED

Questionnaires
Projective test responding to pictures (What is happening in
this picture?)
Performance Predictions for High nAch
 People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
– Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success,
avoiding very low- or high-risk situations
– Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
– Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus.
Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch
– Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial
success
 Good research support, but it is not a very practical
theory
Different approaches to understanding needs

Needs hierarchy ERG Motivatorhygiene McClelland’s

theory theory Theory learned needs
Herzberg

Self- Need for

actualisation achievement
Growth Motivators
Need for
Esteem
power

Need for
Belongingness Relatedness
affiliation

Safety Hygienes
Existence
Physiological

What outcomes are individuals motivated to obtain in the workplace

Contemporary Theories of Motivation
 Cognitive evaluation Theory
 Goal-Setting Theory
– Management by Objectives (MBO)
 Self-Efficacy Theory
– Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning
Theory
 Reinforcement Theory
 Equity Theory
 Expectancy Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory 认知评价理论

People prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so

anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an
obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine
motivation.
Major Implications for Work Rewards
– Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent
– Extrinsic rewards may decrease intrinsic rewards
– Goal setting is more effective in improving motivation
– Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible rewards
reduce it

See E X H I B I T 7-4
Cognitive Evaluation

Intrinsic Extrinsic
Motivators Motivators
Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory 目标设置理论
 Basic Premise:
– That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated
feedback, lead to higher performance
 Difficult Goals:
– Focus and direct attention
– Energize the person to work harder
– Difficulty increases persistence
– Force people to be more effective and efficient
 Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
– Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
– Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
– Culture
 Goal-Setting Theory
(Locke)

• Specificity • Commitment
• Challenge • Self-efficacy
• Feedback • Characteristics
• Participation • Culture
Implementation: Management by Objectives
 MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
 Goals must be:
– Tangible 明确的
– Verifiable 可检验的
– Measurable 可测量的
 Corporate goals are broken down into smaller,
more specific goals at each level of organization.
 Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
– Goal specificity 目标具体性
– Participative decision making 参与决策
– Explicit time period 明确的时间限定
– Performance feedback 绩效反馈
See E X H I B I T 7-5
Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory 自我效能感
 An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
– Higher efficacy is related to:
• Greater confidence
• Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
• Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
– Self-efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory

Increased Confidence

Given Hard Goal Higher Performance

Higher Self-Set Goal

See E X H I B I T 7-6
Increasing Self-Efficacy
 Enactive mastery 过去的成功经 验
– Most important source of efficacy
– Gaining relevant experience with task or job
– “Practice makes perfect”
 Vicarious modeling 替代榜样
– Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
– Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him-
or herself
 Verbal persuasion 口头说服
– Motivation through verbal conviction
– Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies
 Arousal 唤醒
– Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task
– Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task
Reinforcement Theory 强化理论
 Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a
behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one

– Behavior is environmentally caused

– Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important
• Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
– Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers
– Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of
behavior
– Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely
to be the sole cause
 Reinforcement Theory

Rewards

Consequences No Rewards Behavior

Punishment
 Analogous example

The general manager often encourages the employees to raise suggestions or advice to
their managers about the company at staff meetings.

 Manager A always praises those who knock in with some ideas and then financial
rewards would follow for those adopted ones.

 Manager B always announces after the staff meeting in the office if there is any
advice or suggestions there would be a meeting at Saturday morning. People hate
meeting as we know, so the employees respond simultaneously that everything is
perfect in their department and no suggestions or advice exist currently. Then the
meeting is cancelled.

 Manger C announces everyone must work out some suggestions or advice within
one week. Those who fail to do so would also fail to get the monthly bonus.
 Manager D never mentions this issue after the staff meeting at his department. He
only listened, nodded and never commented on those who knock in with some
suggestions. No other feedbacks would arise.
Explain what consequences would produce for these four managers.
2–34
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.

Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.

2–35
 Positive Negative
Reinforcement Reinforcement

Methods of
Shaping Behaviour

Punishment Extinction

2–36
Types of Reinforcement
 Positive reinforcement
– Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
 Negative reinforcement
– Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired
behavior occurs.
 Punishment
– Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an
undesirable behavior.
 Extinction
– Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its
cessation.

2–37
Adams’ Equity Theory 公平理论
 Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs
of relevant others.
– When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no
tension as the situation is considered fair
– When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
• Underrewarded states cause anger
• Overrewarded states cause guilt
– Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into
equity

See E X H I B I T 7-7
 Adams’ Equity Theory
YOU

INPUTS OUTCOMES
• Effort • Pay, benefits
• Skill • Status
• Education etc • Promotion etc

OTHER PERSON
 Equity Theory
Ratio Employee’s
Comparison* Perception
Outcomes A < Outcomes B Inequity (Under-Rewarded)
Inputs A Inputs B
Outcomes A = Outcomes B Equity
Inputs A Inputs B
Outcomes A > Outcomes B Inequity (Over-Rewarded)
Inputs A Inputs B

*Where A is the employee, and B is a relevant other or referent.

 Question:
If you feel you pay is less than your colleague, what
responses will you give?

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6-41

 Reducing Inequity

. Change inputs

. Change outcomes

. Distort perceptions of self

. Distort perceptions of others

. Choose different comparative person

. Leave the field

Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”

 Can be four different situations:

– Self-Inside
• The person’s experience in a different job in the same
organization
– Self-Outside
• The person’s experience in a different job in a different
organization
– Other-Inside
• Another individual or group within the organization
– Other-Outside
• Another individual or group outside of the organization
 Reactions to Inequity
 Employee behaviors to create equity:
– Change inputs (slack off)
– Change outcomes (increase output)
– Distort/change perceptions of self
– Distort/change perceptions of others
– Choose a different referent person
– Leave the field (quit the job)
 Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
– Paid by time:
• Overrewarded employees produce more
• Underrewarded employees produce less with low quality
– Paid by quality:
• Overrewarded employees give higher quality
• Underrewarded employees make more of low quality
Justice and Equity Theory
Procedural
Justice 程序公平
• Fairness of outcome
process
Distributive Interactional
Justice分配公平 Justice 互动公平
• Fairness of outcome
• Being treated with
dignity and respect

Organizational
Justice Overall perception
of what is fair in the
workplace.
See E X H I B I T 7-8
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory 期望理论
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Expectancy of Instrumentality Valuation of the
performance of success in reward in
success getting reward employee’s eyes

See E X H I B I T 7-9
 Expectancy Theory

Individual 1 Individual 2 Organizational

Effort Performance Rewards

1. Effort-performance relationship
Personal
2. Performance-rewards relationship
Goals
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
Effort to performance linkage (Expectancy)

 Is the work assigned interesting & challenging for

employee?
 Are goals realistic and attainable?
 Does employee feel able to complete task? Is more
training/education/experience needed?
 Does employee have sufficient self-confidence?
 Are there agreed/accepted performance standards?
 Does the work provide the employee with positive
feelings of usefulness, competence, etc?
Performance – outcome linkage
(Instrumentality)
 Do my employees trust me to deliver on promises? Do I
keep promises? Do I avoid making excuses and lies?
 Am I predictable and fair in assessing work
performance of employees? Are assessments perceived
to be fair and equitable? Am I consistent in
application?
Integrating Contemporary Motivation Theories
 Based on Expectancy Theory

See E X H I B I T 7-10
Summary and Managerial Implications
 Need Theories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland,
Herzberg)
– Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior
 Goal-Setting Theory
– While limited in scope, good predictor
 Reinforcement Theory
– Powerful predictor in many work areas
 Equity Theory
– Best known for research in organizational justice
 Expectancy Theory
– Good predictor of performance variables but shares many of
the assumptions as rational decision making
Case discussion:
I have one friend, he is a boss of an animal pharmaceutical Group Co.,
Ltd, at the same time, he is a professor in one university. His group
company has 11 subsidiaries. One night, he called me and told me what
happened in his company recently. The 11 general managers put forward
to resign their job at the same day. What they did surprised him, he felt
sad, then he didn’t know how to deal with those issues. So he called me
and asked for suggestions. Firstly, I recommended him to investigate
background of the 11 generals; second, investigate the reason why they
prefer to resign their job, what are the factors caused them unsatisfied
with their job? Third, let him investigate what they will do after
resignation. After two days, he talked to me about the information he had
investigated. As for these 11 general managers, all of them were his
students, who were excellent students he taught before, he selected them
and educated them, after they graduated, he recruited them in his
company, at beginning, all of them must work in the sales department,
according to their working behavior, he promoted them step by step,
finally, they were promoted to the current general manager. On the other
hand, he knew most of them would run their own company after leaving
his company, because the threshold of entering this industry was not too
high, if you had 500,000RMB, that was ok for you to run the new
company.

If you were this boss, think about how to deal with this problem.
Case : Motivation in the Hongkong Police Force

Questions
1. Would you be interested in working as a Hong Kong
police officer? Why or why not?
2. To how many examples in this case can you apply
motivation theories?
3. One may argue that the recipients of the honors and
awards are only a fraction of all police officers. Suggest
other effective ways to motivate the police officers.

6-53
Questions:
 1.What assumptions are held by a Theory Y manager?
 What assumptions are held by a Theory X manager?
 2. List and explain the three groups of core needs in ERG Theory.
 3. Discuss McClelland’s Theory of Needs.
 4. Explain cognitive evaluation theory.
 5. What is self-efficacy?
 6. Discuss distributive justice and procedural justice. Discuss how
managers can use this information.
 7. What are the three relationships in Vroom’s expectancy
theory?
Questions:
 8. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors.
 9. Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
 10. According to Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, how might a
manager promote job satisfaction among employees?
 11. How does ERG theory differ from Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs?
 12. Discuss goal-setting theory
 13. Discuss equity theory. Include the concepts of equity tension,
referent comparisons, and how employees might reduce perceived
inequity.
 14. Clarify the key relationships in expectancy theory.
Assignment
 Motivation at Norsk Petroleum

6-56
 Questions:
1. Explain the relationship and difference between
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and ERG theory.
2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, how might a manager
promote job satisfaction among employees?

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6-57