Chapter 3

 Agile Development
Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e
by Roger S. Pressman
use.

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The Manifesto for
Agile Software Development
“We are uncovering better ways of developing
software by doing it and helping others do it.
Through this work we have come to value:
•Individuals and interactions over processes
and tools
•Working software over comprehensive
documentation
•Customer collaboration over contract
negotiation
•Responding to change over following a plan
That is, while there is value in the items on the
right, we value the items on the left more.”

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 What is “Agility”?
 Effective (rapid and adaptive) response to change
 Effective communication among all stakeholders
 Drawing the customer onto the team
 Organizing a team so that it is in control of the work
performed
Yielding …
 Rapid, incremental delivery of software

 The agility encourages team structures and attitudes that make communication (among team
members, between technologists and business people, between software engineers and their
managers).
 It emphasizes rapid delivery of operational software
 it adopts the customer as a part of the development team and works to eliminate the “us and them”
attitude that continues to pervade many software projects;

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Agility and the Cost of Change

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(McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 4
 `
 In software development the cost of change increases nonlinearly as
a project progresses (Figure 3.1, solid black curve).
 It is relatively easy to accommodate a change when a software team is
gathering requirements (early in a project). A usage scenario might have to
be modified, a list of functions may be extended, or a written specification
can be edited. The costs of doing this work are minimal, and the time
required will not adversely affect the outcome of the project.
 But what if we fast-forward a number of months? The team is in the middle
of validation testing, and an important stakeholder is requesting a major
functional change. The change requires a modification, Costs go up quickly,
and the time and cost required to ensure that the change is made without
unintended side effects is nontrivial.

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 Proponents of agility argue that a well-designed agile process “flattens” the
cost of change curve (Figure 3.1, shaded, solid curve), allowing a software
team to accommodate changes late in a software project without dramatic
cost and time impact.
 The agile process encompasses incremental delivery. When incremental
delivery is coupled with other agile practices such as continuous unit testing
and pair programming (discussed later in this chapter), the cost of making a
change is attenuated.
 Although debate about the degree to which the cost curve flattens is
ongoing, there is evidence to suggest that a significant reduction in the cost
of change can be achieved.

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(McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 6
 An Agile Process
 Is driven by customer descriptions of what is required
(scenarios). Some assumptions:
 Recognizes that plans are short-lived (some requirements will persist, some
will change. Customer priorities will change)
 Develops software iteratively with a heavy emphasis on construction
activities (design and construction are interleaved, hard to say how much design is
necessary before construction. Design models are proven as they are created. )
 Analysis, design, construction and testing are not predictable.

 An incremental development strategy should be instituted. Software increments must be

delivered in short time periods so that adaptation keeps pace with change (unpredictability).
 This iterative approach enables the customer to evaluate the software increment regularly,
provide necessary feedback to the software team , and influence the process adaptations
that are made to accommodate the feedback.

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Agility Principles - I
1. Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and
continuous delivery of valuable software.
2. Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile
processes harness change for the customer's competitive
advantage.
3. Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a
couple of months, with a preference to the shorter timescale.
4. Business people and developers must work together daily
throughout the project.
5. Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the
environment and support they need, and trust them to get the job
done.
6. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information
to and within a development team is face–to–face conversation.

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 Agility Principles - II
7. Working software is the primary measure of progress.
8. Agile processes promote sustainable development. The
sponsors, developers, and users should be able to maintain a
constant pace indefinitely.
9. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design
enhances agility.
10. Simplicity – the art of maximizing the amount of work not done
– is essential.
11. The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge
from self–organizing teams.
12. At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more
effective, then tunes and adjusts its behavior accordingly.

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 Human Factors

 the process molds to the needs of the people and team, not
the other way around
 key traits must exist among the people on an agile team and
the team itself:
 Competence. ( talent, skills, knowledge)
 Common focus. ( deliver a working software increment )
 Collaboration. ( peers and stakeholders)
 Decision-making ability. ( freedom to control its own destiny)
 Fuzzy problem-solving ability.(ambiguity and constant changes, today
problem may not be tomorrow’s problem)
 Mutual trust and respect.
 Self-organization. ( themselves for the work done, process for its local
environment, the work schedule)
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 Extreme Programming (XP)
In order to illustrate an agile process in a bit more detail, an overview of Extreme
Programming (XP) is given, the most widely used approach to agile software
development. Although early work on the ideas and methods associated with XP
occurred during the late 1980s, the seminal work on the subject has been written by
Kent Beck

1. XP Values
 Beck defines a set of five values that establish a foundation for all work performed
as part of XP—communication, simplicity , feedback, courage, and respect.
Each of these values is used as a driver for specific XP activities, actions, and tasks.

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 In order to achieve effective communication between software engineers
and other stakeholders (e.g., to establish required features and functions
for the software),XP emphasizes close, yet informal (verbal) collaboration
between customers and developers, the establishment of effective
metaphors for communicating important concepts, continuous feedback,
and the avoidance of voluminous documentation as a communication
medium.(a metaphor is “a story that everyone—customers, programmers, and managers can
tell about how the system works)
 To achieve simplicity, XP restricts developers to design only for immediate
needs, rather than consider future needs.
 Feedback is derived from three sources: the implemented software itself,
the customer, and other software team members. By designing and
implementing an effective testing strategy, the software (via test results)
provides the agile team with feedback. XP makes use of the unit test as its
primary test
 the agile team inculcates respect among it members, between other
stakeholders and team members, and indirectly, for the software itself. 12
 Extreme Programming (XP)
 The XP Process
The most widely used agile process, originally proposed by Kent Beck in 2004. It uses
an object-oriented approach.
XP Planning
 Begins with the listening, leads to creation of “user stories” that describes
required output, features, and functionality. Customer assigns a value(i.e., a
priority) to each story.
 Agile team assesses each story and assigns a cost (development weeks. If more
than 3 weeks, customer asked to split into smaller stories)
 Working together, stories are grouped for a deliverable increment next release.
 A commitment (stories to be included, delivery date and other project matters)
is made. Three ways: 1. Either all stories will be implemented in a few weeks, 2. high
priority stories first, or 3. the riskiest stories will be implemented first.
 After the first increment “project velocity”, namely number of stories
implemented during the first release is used to help define subsequent delivery
dates for other increments. Customers can add stories, delete existing stories,
change values of an existing story, split stories as development work proceeds.
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 Extreme Programming (XP)

 XP Design ( occurs both before and after coding as refactoring is encouraged)

 Follows the KIS principle (keep it simple) Nothing more nothing less than the story.
 Encourage the use of CRC (class-responsibility-collaborator) cards in an object-oriented
context. The only design work product of XP. They identify and organize the classes that
are relevant to the current software increment. (see Chapter 8)
 For difficult design problems, XP recommends the immediate creation of an operational
prototype of that portion of the design called “spike solutions”—a design prototype for that
portion is implemented and evaluated.
 Encourages “refactoring”—an iterative refinement of the internal program design. Does
not alter the external behavior yet improve the internal structure. Minimize chances of
bugs. More efficient, easy to read.

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 XP Coding
 The team develops a series of unit tests. Once the unit test has been created,
the developer is better able to focus on what must be implemented to pass the
test. Once the code is complete, it can be unit-tested immediately, thereby
providing instantaneous feedback to the developers.
 A key concept during the coding activity is pair programming. XP recommends
that two people work together. This provides a mechanism for realtime problem
solving and real-time quality assurance. In practice, each person takes on a
slightly different role. For Example, one person might think about the coding
details of a particular portion of The design while the other ensures that coding
standards are Being followed or that the code for the story will satisfy the unit
test.
 As pair programmers complete their work, the code they develop is integrated
with the work of others. In some cases this is performed on a daily basis by an
integration team. In other cases, the pair programmers have integration
responsibility

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 XP Testing
 All unit tests are executed daily and ideally should
be automated. Regression tests are conducted to
test current and previous components.
 “Acceptance tests” are defined by the customer
and executed to assess customer visible
functionality

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Extreme Programming (XP)
spike solut ions
simple design
prot ot ypes
CRC cards
user st ories
values
accept ance t est crit eria
it erat ion plan

refact oring

pair
programming

Release
sof t ware increment
unit t est
project velocit y comput ed cont inuous int egrat ion

accept ance t est ing

These slides are designed to accompany Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e
(McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 17
 The XP Debate
 Requirements volatility: customer is an active member of XP team,
changes to requirements are requested informally and frequently. As a
consequences the scope of the project can change and earlier work may have
to be modified to accommodate current needs.
 Conflicting customer needs: different customers' needs need to be assimilated.
Different vision or beyond their authority.
 Requirements are expressed informally: Use stories and acceptance tests are
the only explicit manifestation of requirements. Formal models may avoid
inconsistencies and errors before the system is built. Changing nature makes
such models obsolete as soon as they are developed.
 Lack of formal design: XP deemphasizes the need for architectural design.
Complex systems need overall structure to exhibit quality and maintainability.
The incremental nature limits complexity as simplicity is a core value.

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 Other Agile Process Models
 The most widely used of all agile process models is
Extreme Programming (XP). But many other agile
process models have been proposed and are in use
across the industry. Among the most common are.
 Adaptive Software Development (ASD)
 Scrum
 Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM)
 Crystal
 Feature Drive Development (FDD)
 Lean Software Development (LSD)
 Agile Modeling (AM)
 Agile Unified Process (AUP)

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Adaptive Software Development
(ASD)
 Originally proposed by Jim Highsmith (2000)focusing
on human collaboration and team self-organization as
a technique to build complex software and system.
 ASD — distinguishing features
 Mission-driven planning
 Component-based focus
 Uses “time-boxing” (See Chapter 24)
 Explicit consideration of risks
 Emphasizes collaboration for requirements gathering
 Emphasizes “learning” throughout the process

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 Three Phases of ASD
1. Speculation:
 project is initiated and adaptive cycle planning is conducted.
 Adaptive cycle planning uses project initiation information- the
customer’s mission statement, project constraints (e.g. delivery
date), and basic requirements to define the set of release
cycles (increments) that will be required for the project.
 Based on the information obtained at the completion of the first
cycle, the plan is reviewed and adjusted so that planned work
better fits the reality.

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7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 21
 Three Phases of ASD
2. Collaborations are used to multiply their talent and creative output
beyond absolute number . It encompasses communication and
teamwork, but it also emphasizes individualism, because individual
creativity plays an important role in collaborative thinking.
 It is a matter of trust.
 criticize without animosity,
 assist without resentments,
 work as hard as or harder than they do.
 have the skill set to contribute to the work at hand
 communicate problems or concerns in a way that leas to effective action.

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3. Learning:
 As members of ASD team begin to develop the
components, the emphasis is on “learning”.
 Highsmith argues that software developers often
overestimate their own understanding of the
technology, the process, and the project and that
learning will help them to improve their level of real
understanding. Three ways:
 focus groups,
 technical reviews
 project postmortems.

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Adaptive Software Development
adapt ive cycle planning Requirement s gat hering
uses mission st at ement JAD
project const raint s mini-specs
basic requirement s
t ime-boxed release plan

Release
sof t ware increment
adjust ment s f or subsequent cycles
component s implement ed/ t est ed
focus groups for feedback
formal t echnical reviews
post mort ems

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 Scrum
 A software development method Originally proposed by Schwaber
and Beedle in early 1990.
 Scrum—distinguishing features
 Development work is partitioned into “packets”
 Testing and documentation are on-going as the product is constructed
 Work units occurs in “sprints” and is derived from a “backlog” of existing
changing prioritized requirements
 Changes are not introduced in sprints (short term but stable) but in
backlog.
 Meetings are very short (15 minutes daily) and sometimes conducted
without chairs ( what did you do since last meeting? What obstacles are
you encountering? What do you plan to accomplish by next meeting?)
 “demos” are delivered to the customer with the time-box allocated. May
not contain all functionalities. So customers can evaluate and give
feedbacks.

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Scrum

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7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 26
Scrum Process Flow (used wit h permission)
 Dynamic Systems Development Method
 It is an agile software development approach that provides a
framework for building and maintaining systems which meet tight time
constraints through the use of incremental prototyping in a controlled
project environment.
 Promoted by the DSDM Consortium (www.dsdm.org)
 DSDM—distinguishing features
 Similar in most respects to XP and/or ASD
 Nine guiding principles
• Active user involvement is imperative.
• DSDM teams must be empowered to make decisions.
• The focus is on frequent delivery of products.
• Fitness for business purpose is the essential criterion for acceptance of deliverables.
• Iterative and incremental development is necessary to converge on an accurate business solution.
• All changes during development are reversible.
• Requirements are baselined at a high level
• Testing is integrated throughout the life-cycle.
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7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 27
Dynamic Systems Development Method

DSDM Life Cycle (with permission of the DSDM consortium)

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7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 28
Crystal
 Proposed by Cockburn and Highsmith
 Crystal—distinguishing features
 Actually a family of process models that allow
“maneuverability” based on problem characteristics
 Face-to-face communication is emphasized
 Suggests the use of “reflection workshops” to
review the work habits of the team

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7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 29
 Feature Driven Development
 Originally proposed by Peter Coad et al as a object-oriented
software engineering process model.
 FDD—distinguishing features
 Emphasis is on defining “features” which can be organized
hierarchically.
• a feature “is a client-valued function that can be implemented in two weeks
or less.”
 Uses a feature template
• <action> the <result> <by | for | of | to> a(n) <object>
• E.g. Add the product to shopping cart.
• Display the technical-specifications of the product.
• Store the shipping-information for the customer.
 A features list is created and “plan by feature” is conducted
 Design and construction merge in FDD

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7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 30
Feature Driven Development

Reprinted with permission of Peter Coad

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7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 31
Agile Modeling
 Originally proposed by Scott Ambler
 Suggests a set of agile modeling principles
 Model with a purpose
 Use multiple models
 Travel light
 Content is more important than representation
 Know the models and the tools you use to create them
 Adapt locally

These slides are designed to accompany Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach,

7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by Roger Pressman. 32