CH 7 Cognition

Chapter 7
cognition
psychology
fourth edition
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright ©2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives
7.1 How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking?
7.2 What are the methods people use to solve problems and make decisions?
7.3 Why does problem solving sometimes fail, and what is meant by creative
thinking?
7.4 How do psychologists define intelligence, and how do various theories of
intelligence differ?
Psychology, Third Edition Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Thinking and Mental Images
LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking
• Thinking (cognition): mental activity that

goes on in the brain when a person is
processing information
– processing includes organizing,
understanding, and communicating
information to others
Islamic Overview
• In ìlm al-mantiq (logic) man is defined as
“natiq” animal. Natiq can mean rational
(thinking) and speaking (language).
• Therefore, man is a unique creation
because of its ability to think and ability to
produce language
Al-Baqarah 2:164
• “Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and
earth, and the alternation of the night and the
day, and the [great] ships which sail through the
sea with that which benefits people, and what
Allah has sent down from the heavens of rain,
giving life thereby to the earth after its
lifelessness and dispersing therein every [kind
of] moving creature, and [His] directing of the
winds and the clouds controlled between the
heaven and the earth are signs for a people who
use reason (àql).”
• In addition, for the purpose of becoming a
khalifah, man (Adam AS and his children)
is the most intelligent creature compared
to animals and plants (and even angels) to
perform that duty.
• Our intelligence and abilities to think and
speak make us suitable to receive hidayah
in fulfilling the roles of ìbadah and khilafah
in this world
Thinking and Mental Images
• Mental images: mental representations

that stand for objects or events and have a
picture-like quality
Concepts
• Concepts: ideas that represent a class or

category of objects, events, or activities
• Formal concepts: concepts that are defined
by specific rules or features
• Natural concepts: concepts people form as
a result of their experiences in the real
world
– a platypus is a “fuzzy” natural concept (a
mammal that lays eggs and has bird-like
webbed feet)
Concepts
• Prototype: a concept that closely matches

the defining characteristics of that concept
– prototypes develop according to the exposure
a person has to objects in that category
LO 8.2 Nature of a concept
Menu
Problem Solving
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
• Problem solving: occurs when a goal must

be reached by thinking and behaving in
certain ways
• Decision making: identifying, evaluating,
and choosing between alternatives
Problem Solving
• Trial and error (mechanical solution):

problem-solving method in which one
possible solution after another is tried until
a successful one is found
• Algorithms: very specific, step-by-step
procedures for solving certain types of
problems
– will always result in a correct solution if one
exists to be found
 e.g., mathematical formulas
Problem Solving
• Heuristic: educated guess based on prior

experiences that helps narrow down the
possible solutions for a problem; also
known as a “rule of thumb”
– representative heuristic: assumption that any
object (or person) sharing characteristics with
the members of a particular category is also a
member of that category
Problem Solving
• Heuristics (cont’d)
– availability heuristic: estimating the frequency
or likelihood of an event based on how easy it
is to recall relevant information from memory
or how easy it is to think of related examples
– working backward from the goal is a useful
heuristic
– break a goal down into subgoals, so that as
each subgoal is achieved, the final solution is
that much closer
Problem Solving
• Insight: sudden perception of a solution to

a problem
– “aha!” moment
– problem may be recognized as similar to
another previously solved, for example
Problem-Solving Barriers
LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
• Functional fixedness: a block to problem

solving that comes from thinking about
objects only in terms of their typical
functions
• Mental set: the tendency for people to
persist in using problem-solving patterns
that have worked for them in the past
Problem-Solving Barriers
• Confirmation bias: the tendency to search

for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while
ignoring any evidence that does not fit
those beliefs
Functional Fixedness
Can you use these
supplies to mount the
candle on the wall so
that it can be lit in a
normal way without
toppling over?
• To overcome
functional fixedness,
you must think of the
matchbox, tacks, and
candle all functioning
in new ways.
LO 8.5 Barriers to solving problems
Menu
LO 8.5 Barriers to solving problems
Menu
Mental Sets
• Using no more than
four lines, can you
connect all nine dots
without lifting your
pencil from the paper?
• To overcome
mental sets
you must
“think outside
the box”—
literally!
Figure 7.3 (continued) Solution to the Dot Problem
When people try to solve this problem, a mental set causes them to think of the dots as representing a box, and they try
to draw the line while staying in the box. The only way to connect all nine dots without lifting the pencil from the paper is
to draw the lines so they extend out of the box of dots—literally “thinking outside the box.”
Creativity
• Creativity: the process of solving problems

by combining ideas or behavior in new
ways
Creativity
• Creativity (cont’d)
– convergent thinking: a problem is seen as
having only one answer, and all lines of
thinking will eventually lead to (converge on)
that single answer, using previous knowledge
and logic
– divergent thinking: a person starts from one
point and comes up with many different ideas
or possibilities based on that point (a kind of
creativity)
Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
• Intelligence: the ability to learn from one’s

experiences, acquire knowledge, and use
resources effectively in adapting to new
situations or solving problems
Theories of Intelligence
• Spearman’s Theory
– g factor: the ability to reason and solve
problems; general intelligence
– s factor: the ability to excel in certain areas;
specific intelligence
• Gardner’s Theory
– Multiple intelligences - ranging from verbal,
linguistic, and mathematical to interpersonal
and intrapersonal intelligence.
Spearman’s g
Menu
• Gardner’s multiple intelligences
Gardner’s Theory
• According to Gardner, what kind of

intelligence is being shown here?
Movement
Gardner’s Theory

Albert
Einstein
Logical/Mathematical
Gardner’s Theory

Visual/Spatial
Gardner’s Theory

Musical
• Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence:

there are three kinds of intelligences
1.analytical,
2.creative
3.practical
• Triarchic theory of intelligence (cont’d)

– analytical intelligence: the ability to break
problems down into component parts, or
analysis, for problem solving
– creative intelligence: the ability to deal with
new and different concepts and to come up
with new ways of solving problems
– practical intelligence: the ability to use
information to get along in life and become
successful; “street smarts”
IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
• Intelligence quotient (IQ): a number

representing a measure of intelligence,
resulting from the division of one’s mental
age by one’s chronological age and then
multiplying that quotient by 100
– Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales yield an IQ
score
– allows testers to compare intelligence levels
of people from different age groups
END OF CHAPTER 7
Exercises
LO 7.1
Which of the following is most likely to be a prototype for

the concept "furniture?“
1. Throne
2. Chair
3. Pew
4. Settee
44
LO 7.1
Which of the following is most likely to be a prototype for

the concept "furniture?“
1. Throne
2. Chair (p. 265)
3. Pew
4. Settee
45
LO 7.1
_________________ are concepts that people form not

as a result of the application of strict rules, but as the result
of their experiences with concepts in the real world.
1. Super-ordinate concepts
2. Basic level type concepts
3. Formal concepts
4. Natural concepts
5. Prototypes
46
LO 7.1
_________________ are concepts that people form not

as a result of the application of strict rules, but as the result
of their experiences with concepts in the real world.
1. Super-ordinate concepts
2. Basic level type concepts
3. Formal concepts
4. Natural concepts (p. 265)
5. Prototypes
47
LO 7.2
A man doesn’t know where he has left his car keys, so he

systematically goes through every drawer in the house. His
approach is best described as a(n):
1. Heuristic.
2. Algorithm.
3. Means-end-analysis.
4. Analogy.
48
LO 7.2
A man doesn’t know where he has left his car keys, so he

systematically goes through every drawer in the house. His
approach is best described as a(n):
1. Heuristic.
2. Algorithm. (p. 267)
3. Means-end-analysis.
4. Analogy.
49
LO 7.2
____________ are the method of problem solving in which

a person uses a “rule of thumb” or a simple rule or
principle to solve a problem that they may apply to many
situations.
1.Mechanical solutions
2.Algorithms
3.Insights
4.Means-ends analyses
5.Heuristics
50
LO 7.2
____________ are the method of problem solving in which

a person uses a “rule of thumb” or a simple rule or
principle to solve a problem that they may apply to many
situations.
1.Mechanical solutions
2.Algorithms
3.Insights
4.Means-ends analyses
5.Heuristics (p. 267)
51
LO 7.3
What problem-solving "blind spot" have you overcome if

you pull a dime out of your pocket and use it to tighten a
screw on a faucet handle?
1. The anchoring effect

2. The framing effect
3. Belief perseverance
4. Functional fixedness
52
LO 7.3
What problem-solving "blind spot" have you overcome if

you pull a dime out of your pocket and use it to tighten a
screw on a faucet handle?
1. The anchoring effect

2. The framing effect
3. Belief perseverance
4. Functional fixedness (p. 270)
53
LO 7.3
A person is looking for a key to open up a door, but in the

process overlooks the fact that there are several other
objects (e.g., a pin) that can help to unlock the door. This
is an example of ______________________.
1. functional fixedness
2. confirmation bias
3. divergent thinking
4. convergent thinking
5. mechanical solution
54
LO 7.3
A person is looking for a key to open up a door, but in the

process overlooks the fact that there are several other
objects (e.g., a pin) that can help to unlock the door. This
is an example of ______________________.
1. functional fixedness (p. 270)

2. confirmation bias
3. divergent thinking
4. convergent thinking
5. mechanical solution
55
LO 7.3
A mechanic doesn't bother to check other possible causes

of a noise coming from a car because he thinks that itis
probably a failing transmission. This is an example of:
1. Confirmation bias.
2. The anchoring effect.
3. Functional fixedness.
4. The illusion of control.
56
LO 7.3
A mechanic doesn't bother to check other possible causes

of a noise coming from a car because he thinks that it is
probably a failing transmission. This is an example of:
1. Confirmation bias. (p. 270)

2. The anchoring effect.
3. Functional fixedness.
4. The illusion of control.
57
LO 7.4
According to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences,

____________ intelligence consists of the ability to see the
“big picture” of the word by asking questions about life,
death, and other major issues.
1.naturalistic
2.logical/mathematical
3.interpersonal
4.intrapersonal
5.existentialist
58
LO 7.4
According to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences,

____________ intelligence consists of the ability to see the
“big picture” of the word by asking questions about life,
death, and other major issues.
1.naturalistic
2.logical/mathematical
3.interpersonal
4.intrapersonal
5.existentialist (p. 275, Table 7.2)
59
LO 7.4
_________________ intelligence refers to the ability to

break down problems into their component parts for
problem solving.
1. Practical
2. Analytical
3. Creative
4. “S factor”
5. “G factor”
60
LO 7.4
_________________ intelligence refers to the ability to

break down problems into their component parts for
problem solving.
1. Practical
2. Analytical (p. 276)
3. Creative
4. “S factor”
5. “G factor”
61
LO 7.5
According to the Stanford-Binet test, the intelligence

quotient (IQ) is measured using the equation:
1. IQ = (mental age/chronological age) *100

2. IQ = (mental age)
3. IQ = (chronological age/mental age) * 100
4. IQ = (mental age * chronological age)
5. IQ = (mental age * chronological age) * 100
62
LO 7.5
According to the Stanford-Binet test, the intelligence

quotient (IQ) is measured using the equation:
1. IQ = (mental age/chronological age) *100 (p. 277)

2. IQ = (mental age)
3. IQ = (chronological age/mental age) * 100
4. IQ = (mental age * chronological age)
5. IQ = (mental age * chronological age) * 100
63
LO 7.5
A feature of the intelligence test designed by __________

is that it yields both a verbal score and a nonverbal
performance score.
1. Wechsler
2. Binet
3. Galton
4. Terman
64
LO 7.5
A feature of the intelligence test designed by __________

is that it yields both a verbal score and a nonverbal
performance score.
1. Wechsler (p. 278)

2. Binet
3. Galton
4. Terman
65

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Chapter 7

• Thinking (cognition): mental activity that

• Mental images: mental representations

• Concepts: ideas that represent a class or

• Prototype: a concept that closely matches

• Problem solving: occurs when a goal must

• Trial and error (mechanical solution):

• Heuristic: educated guess based on prior

• Insight: sudden perception of a solution to

• Functional fixedness: a block to problem

• Confirmation bias: the tendency to search

• Creativity: the process of solving problems

• Intelligence: the ability to learn from one’s

• Gardner’s multiple intelligences

• According to Gardner, what kind of

• According to Gardner, what kind of

• According to Gardner, what kind of

• According to Gardner, what kind of

• Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence:

• Triarchic theory of intelligence (cont’d)

• Intelligence quotient (IQ): a number

Which of the following is most likely to be a prototype for

Which of the following is most likely to be a prototype for

_________________ are concepts that people form not

_________________ are concepts that people form not

A man doesn’t know where he has left his car keys, so he

A man doesn’t know where he has left his car keys, so he

____________ are the method of problem solving in which

____________ are the method of problem solving in which

What problem-solving "blind spot" have you overcome if

1. The anchoring effect

What problem-solving "blind spot" have you overcome if

1. The anchoring effect

A person is looking for a key to open up a door, but in the

A person is looking for a key to open up a door, but in the

1. functional fixedness (p. 270)

A mechanic doesn't bother to check other possible causes

A mechanic doesn't bother to check other possible causes

1. Confirmation bias. (p. 270)

According to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences,

According to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences,

_________________ intelligence refers to the ability to

_________________ intelligence refers to the ability to

According to the Stanford-Binet test, the intelligence

1. IQ = (mental age/chronological age) *100

According to the Stanford-Binet test, the intelligence

1. IQ = (mental age/chronological age) *100 (p. 277)

A feature of the intelligence test designed by __________

A feature of the intelligence test designed by __________

1. Wechsler (p. 278)

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