2160710

Distributed Operating
System

Unit-1
Introduction to
Distributed Systems
Prof. Rekha K. Karangiya
9727747317
Rekha.karangiya@darshan.ac.in
Syllabus
Unit No. Unit Name % Weightage
1 Introduction to distributed Systems 15
2 Communication in distributed System 05
3 Synchronization in distributed systems 10
4 Processes and processors in distributed systems 10
5 Distributed File Systems 10
6 Distributed Shared Memory 15
7 Naming 10
8 Distributed Web-based Systems 10
9 Security 10
10 Case Study 05

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Reference Books
1. Distributed Operating Systems Concepts and Design, Pradeep K. Sinha, PHI
2. Distributed Operating Systems by Andrew S Tannebaum, Pearson

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Topics to be covered
 Introduction
 Operating System
 Basic Concepts of Distributed Operating System
 Definition and Goal
 Advantage
 Hardware and Software Concepts
 Design Issues

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What is Operating System?
• An operating system (OS) is system software that manages
computer hardware and software resources and provides common
services for computer programs.
• Example:

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What is Operating System?
• It is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of
programs.

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OS Example
Regular OS

 When you want to do your own thing without interacting with

others.
 Simple (No rules to follow).
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Evolution of Modern OS
 First Generation OS
• System:
• Centralized OS
• Characteristics:
• Process Management
• Memory Management
• I/O Management
• File Management
• Goals:
• Resource Management

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Centralized OS
Memory
T1 F1
P1

P2
F2
P3

T2 P4 D2 D3
D1

T3

Centralized OS

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 Evolution of Modern OS
 Second Generation OS
• System:
• Network OS(NOS)
• Characteristics:
• Remote access
• Information exchange
• Network browsing
• Goals:
• Interoperability-Sharing of resources between the systems.

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Network Operating System
File Server

Client-1 Client-2

Request

Reply

Network

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 NOS Example

 When you want to interact with others.

 Introduces Network.
 Hard compared to regular OS (have to follow rules E.g., traffic
rules).
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 NOS Example

Printer connected to a computer Print

Printer
Server
Print

× Print

Client-1 Client-2 Client-3 Client-4

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 Evolution of Modern OS
 Third Generation OS
• System:
• Distributed OS(DOS)
• Characteristics:
• Global View of Computational power, file system, name
space, etc.
• Goals:
• Single computer view of multiple heterogeneous computer
systems.

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 Distributed Operating System
 “A Distributed system is collection of independent computers
which are connected through network.”
Systems processors
are differ in size and
functions

Communication
Network

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 Distributed Operating System
Definition by Coulouris, Dollimore, Kindberg and Blair
 “A distributed system is defined as one in which components at
networked computers communicate and coordinate their actions
only by passing messages.”
 “A Distributed system is collection of independent computers
which are connected through network.”

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 Distributed Operating System
 A great example of distributed system is the web page of Darshan
college.
www.darshan.ac.in
User Internet

Web Server

Mechanical Computer
Department Department

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 Scenario-1:

Want to process Increase RAM

RAM: 4GB RAM: 8GB
500GB Data size to 8GB

Vertical Scaling

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 Scenario-2:
Want to process
RAM: 4GB
500GB Data

Add more
Processors/Systems
DOS

RAM: 4GB RAM: 4GB RAM: 4GB

Divide/Distribute the workload

Horizontal Scaling
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 Examples of Distributed Systems
 From the definition, Distributed Systems also looks the same as
single system.
 Let us say about Google Web Server, from users perspective while
they submit the searched query, they assume google web server
as a single system.
 Just visit google.com, then search.
 However, under the hood Google builds a lot of servers even
distributes in different geographical area to give you a search
result within few seconds.
 So the Distributed Systems does not make any sense for normal
users.

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 Examples of Distributed Systems
 Web Search Engines:
• Major growth industry in the last decade.
• 10 billion per month for global number of searches.
• e.g. Google distributed infrastructure

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 Examples of Distributed Systems
 Massively multiplayer online games:
• Large number of people interact through the Internet with a
virtual world.
• Challenges include fast response time, real-time propagation of
events.

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 The Top 20 Valuable Facebook Statistics
(Zephoria, Updated Dec., 2017)

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 Why Distributed Operating System?
 Facebook, currently, has 1.5 billion active monthly users.
 Google performs at least 1 trillion searches per year.
 About 48 hours of video is uploaded in Youtube every minute.
 A single system would be unable to handle the processing. Thus,
comes the need for Distributed Systems.
 The main answer is to cope with the extremely higher demand of
users in both processing power and data storage.
 With this extremely demand, single system could not achieve it.
 There are many reasons that make distributed systems is viable
such as high availability, scalability, resistant to failure, etc.

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 Why Distributed Operating System?
 It is Challenging/Interesting.
 Partial Failures
• Network
• Node failures
 Concurrency
• Nodes execute in parallel.
• Messages travel asynchronously. Parallel Computing

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 Network OS vs Distributed OS
Network Operating System Distributed Operating System

A network operating system is A distributed operating system is

made up of software and an ordinary centralized operating
associated protocols that allow a system but runs on multiple
set of computer network to be independent CPUs.
used together.

Environment users are aware of Environment users are not aware

multiplicity of machines. of multiplicity of machines.

Control over file placement is It can be done automatically by

done manually by the user. the system itself.

No implicit sharing of loads. Sharing of loads between

nodes(load balancing).

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 Network OS vs Distributed OS
Network Operating System Distributed Operating System

Performance is badly affected if It is more reliable or fault tolerant

certain part of the hardware i.e. distributed operating system
starts malfunctioning. performs even if certain part of
the hardware starts
malfunctioning.

Remote resources are accessed Users access remote resources in

by either logging into the desired the same manner as they access
remote machine or transferring local resources.
data from the remote machine to
user's own machines.

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 Distributed Operating System Architecture

 A distributed system organized as Middleware.

 The middleware layer runs on all machines, and offers a uniform
interface to the system.

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 Middleware (MW)
 Software that manages and supports the different components of
a distributed system. In essence, it sits in the middle of the system.
 It enables multiple systems to communicate with each other
across different platforms.
 Examples:
• Transaction processing monitors
• Data converters
• Communication controllers

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 Role of Middleware (MW)
 In some early systems:
• Middleware tried to provide the illusion that a collection of
separate machines was a single computer.
 Today:
• Clustering software allows independent computers to work
together closely.
• Middleware also supports seamless access to remote services,
doesn’t try to look like a general-purpose OS.

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 Role of Middleware (MW)
 Other Middleware Examples
• CORBA (Common Object Request Broker Architecture)
• DCOM (Distributed Component Object Management) – being
replaced by .NET
• Sun’s ONC RPC (Remote Procedure Call)
• RMI (Remote Method Invocation)
• SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol)

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 Distributed System Goals
The following are the main goals of distributed systems:
 The relative simplicity of the software - Each processor has a
dedicated function.
 Incremental growth - If we need 10 percent more computing
power, we just add 10 percent more processors.

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 Distributed System Goals
 Reliability and availability - A few parts of the system can be
down without disturbing people using the other parts.
 Openness: Multiple computers of different types, operating
systems and manufacturers can interact together in a simple
system.

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 Advantages of Distributed Systems over Centralized Systems
 Economics: A collection of microprocessors offer a better
price/performance than mainframes. It is an cost effective way to
increase computing power.

 Speed: A distributed system may have more total computing

power than a mainframe.

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 Advantages of Distributed Systems over Centralized Systems
 Inherent distribution: Some applications are inherently
distributed. Ex. a supermarket chain, Banking, Airline reservation.
 Reliability: If one machine crashes, the system as a whole can still
survive. Higher availability and improved reliability.
 Ex. control of nuclear reactors or aircraft.

× Load Transfer

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 Advantages of Distributed Systems over Independent PCs
• Data sharing: Allow many users to access to a common database.
• Resource Sharing: Expensive peripherals such as color laser
printers, photo-type setters and massive archival storage devices
are also among the few things that should be sharable.

• Communication: Enhance human-to-human communication, e.g.,

email, chat.
• Flexibility: Spread the workload over the available machines

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 Disadvantages of Distributed Systems over Centralized System

 Software:
• Would be complex.
 Network problem:
• Network saturation.
• Malfunctioning of network.
 Security:
• Possibility of security violation since the private data are
visible to others over the network.

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 Classification of Distributed System

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 Classification based on Hardware
 Even though all distributed system consist of multiple CPUs, there
are several different ways the hardware can be organized, specially
in terms of how they are interconnected and communicate.

Parallel & Distributed

Computers

Tightly Coupled Loosely Coupled

Multiprocessor Multicomputer
(Shared Memory) (Private Memory)

Bus based Switched Bus based Switched

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 Tightly-Coupled OS(Shared Memory)
 Shared Memory Machine: The n processors shares physical
address space. Communication can be done through shared
memory.

P P P P

Interconnect (Bus Line)

Shared Memory

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 Tightly-Coupled OS(Shared Memory)
 Shared Memory Machine: The n processors shares physical
address space. Communication can be done through shared
memory.
A=10+10
A=A+10
A=20 Read
A=20A

P P P P

Interconnect (Bus Line)

A=10
A=20
10
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 Loosely-Coupled OS(Private Memory)
 Private Memory Machine: Each processors has its own local
memory. Communication can be done through Message passing.

M M M M

P P P P

Interconnect (Bus Line)

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 Loosely-Coupled OS(Private Memory)
 Private Memory Machine: Each processors has its own local
memory. Communication can be done through Message passing.

M M M M

A=10A
Read P P P P A=20A
Read

Read
A=20A

Interconnect (Bus Line)

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 Classification based on Hardware
Loosely-Coupled OS Tightly-Coupled OS

Each processors has its own local The n processors shares physical
memory. address space.
Communication can be done Communication can be done
through Message passing. through shared memory.

Manages heterogeneous Manages multiprocessors &

multicomputer Distributed homogeneous multicomputer.
Systems.

Similar to “local access feel” as a Provides local services to remote

non-distributed, standalone OS. clients via remote logging

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 Classification based on Hardware
Loosely-Coupled OS Tightly-Coupled OS

Data migration or computation Data transfer from remote OS to

migration modes (entire process local OS via FTP (File Transfer
or threads) Protocols)

Distributed Operating System Network Operating System (NOS)

(DOS)

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 Classification based on Instruction & DataStream
 According to Flynn’s classification can be done based on the
number of instruction streams and number of data streams.

Flynn’s
Classification

SISD SIMD MISD MIMD

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 Classification based on Instruction & DataStream
 Single instruction stream single data stream (SISD)
• One Program counter and one path to data memory.
• A computer is capable of executing one instruction at a time
operating on one piece of data.
• An ordinary (Sequential) computer.

Instruction Pool +
Data Stream

A B
PU

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 Classification based on Instruction & DataStream
 Single instruction stream, multiple data streams (SIMD)
• One Program counter and multiple paths to data memory.
• A computer is capable of executing one instruction at a time,
but operating on different pieces of data.

Instruction Pool +

A B +
PU
Data Stream

C D +
PU

E F
PU

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 Classification based on Instruction & DataStream
 Multiple instruction streams, single data stream (MISD)
• No more computers fit this model.
• Uncommon architecture which is generally used for fault
tolerance.

+ Instruction Pool *

A B A B
Data Stream

PU PU

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 Classification based on Instruction & DataStream
 Multiple instruction streams, Multiple data stream (MIMD)
• A group of independent computers, each with its own program
counter, program, and data.
• A computer that can run multiple processes or threads that are
cooperating towards a common objective.

+ Instruction Pool *

A B A +B *
PU PU
Data Stream

C D C D
PU PU

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 Classification based on Instruction & DataStream
 All distributed systems are MIMD, We divide all MIMD computers
into two groups:
• Have shared memory, usually called multiprocessors.
• Do not have shared memory, called multicomputer.

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 Distributed Computing System Models
 Distributed Computing system models can be broadly classified
into five categories.

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 Minicomputer Model
 Extension of Time sharing system
• User must log on his/her home minicomputer.
• Thereafter, he/she can log on a remote machine by telnet.
 Resource sharing
• Database T
Mini-
• High-performance devices Computer
T
 Example:
• ARPAnet
T T
Mini- Communication Mini-
Computer Network Computer
T T

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 Workstation Model
 Process migration
• Users first log on his/her personal workstation.
• If there are idle remote workstations, a heavy job may migrate to
one of them.
 Problems:
• What if a user log on the remote machine
• How to find an idle workstation Workstation
• How to migrate a job
Workstation Communication Workstation
Network

Workstation Workstation

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 Workstation-Server Model
Workstation

Workstation Workstation

Communication
Workstation Workstation
Network

Mini Mini
Computer Mini Computer
Used as a Computer Used as a
File Server Used as a Print Server
database
Server
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 Workstation-Server Model
Client workstations
• Diskless
• Graphic/interactive applications processed in local.
• All file, Print, http and even cycle computation requests are sent to servers.
Server minicomputers
• Each minicomputer is dedicated to one or more different types of services.
Client-Server model of communication
• RPC (Remote Procedure Call)
• RMI (Remote Method Invocation)
• A Client process calls a server process function.
• No process migration invoked

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 Processor-Pool Model
Terminals

Terminals Terminals

Communication
Terminals Terminals
Network

Run File
Server ---------- Server

Pool of processors
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 Processor-Pool Model
 Clients:
• They log in one of terminals (diskless workstations)
• All services are dispatched to servers.
 Servers:
• Necessary number of processors are allocated to each user
from the pool.
 Better utilization of resources.
 Example:
• Web Search Engines

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 Hybrid Model
 Advantages of the workstation-server and processor-pool models
are combined to build a hybrid model.
 It is built on the workstation-server model with a pool of
processors.
 Processors in the pool can be allocated dynamically for large
computations, that cannot be handled by the workstations, and
require several computers running concurrently for efficient
execution.
 This model is more expensive to implement than the hybrid or the
processor-pool model.

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 Issues in Designing a Distributed System

Transparency Reliability Flexibility

Performance Scalability Heterogeneity

Security

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 Transparency
 Main goal of Distributed system is to make the existence of
multiple computers invisible (transparent) and provide single
system image to user.
 A transparency is some aspect of the distributed system that is
hidden from the user (programmer, system developer,
application).
 While users hit search in google.com, They never notice that their
query goes through a complex process before google shows them
a result.

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 Types of Transparency
• Local and remote objects should be accessed in a
uniform way.
• User should not find any difference in accessing local or
Access remote objects.
Transparency • Hide differences in data representation & resource
access (enables interoperability).
• Example : Navigation in the Web

• Objects are referred by logical names which hide the

physical location of the objects.
• Resource should be independent of the physical
Location connectivity or topology of the system or the current
Transparency location of the resources.
• Hide location of resource (can use resource without
knowing its location).
• Example: Pages in the Web

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 Types of Transparency
• The provision of create replicas (additional copies) of
files and other resources on different node of the
Replication distributed system.
Transparency • Hide the possibility that multiple copies of the resource
exist (for reliability and/or availability).
• Replica of the files and data are transparent to the user.

• It deals with the masking from the users partial failures

in the system, such as a communication link failure, a
Failure
machine failure, or a storage device crash.
Transparency • Hide failure and recovery of the resource.
• Example: Database Management System.

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 Types of Transparency
• Resource object is to be moved from one place to
another automatically by the system.
Migration • Hide possibility that a system may change location of
Transparency resource (no effect on access).
• Load balancing is one among many reason for
migration of objects.

• Each user has the feeling that he or she is the sole user
of the system and other user do not exists in the
Concurrency system.
Transparency • Hide the possibility that the resource may be shared
concurrently.
• Example: Automatic teller machine network, DBMS

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 Types of Transparency
Performance • It allow the system to be automatically reconfigured to
improve performance, as load vary dynamically in the
Transparency system.

• It allows the system to expand in scale without

Scaling
disrupting the activities of the users.
Transparency • Example: World-Wide-Web

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 Reliability
 Distributed systems are expected to be more reliable than
centralized systems due to the existence of multiple instances of
resources.
 System failure are of two types:
• Fail-stop: The system stop functioning after detecting the
failure.
• Byzantine failure: The system continues to function but gives
wrong results.
 The fault-handling mechanism must be designed properly to avoid
faults, to tolerate faults and to detect and recover from faults.

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 Reliability
 Fault avoidance
 Fault tolerance:
• Redundancy technique: To avoid single point of failure.
• Distributed control: To avoid simultaneous functioning of the
servers.
 Fault detection and recovery
• Atomic transaction.
• Stateless server.
• Acknowledgment and timeout-based retransmissions of
messages.

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 Flexibility
 The design of Distributed operating system should be flexible due
to following reasons:
 Ease of Modification: It should be easy to incorporate changes in
the system in a user transparent manner or with minimum
interruption caused to the users.
 Ease of Enhancement: New functionality should be added from
time to time to make it more powerful and easy to use.
 A group of users should be able to add or change the services as
per the comfortability of their use.

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 Performance
 A performance should be better than or at least equal to that of
running the same application on a single-processor system.
 Some design principles considered useful for better performance
are as below:
• Batch if possible: Batching often helps in improving
performance.
• Cache whenever possible: Caching of data at clients side
frequently improves over all system performance.
• Minimize copying of data: Data copying overhead involves a
substantial CPU cost of many operations.
• Minimize network traffic: It can be improved by reducing
internode communication costs.

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 Scalability
 Distributed systems must be scalable as the number of user increases.
A system is said to be scalable if it can handle the addition of
users and resources without suffering a noticeable loss of
performance or increase in administrative complexity.
 Scalability has 3 dimensions:
• Size: Number of users and resources to be processed. Problem
associated is overloading.
• Geography: Distance between users and resources. Problem
associated is communication reliability.
• Administration: As the size of distributed systems increases,
many of the system needs to be controlled. Problem associated
is administrative mess.

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 Scalability
 Guiding principles for designing scalable distributed systems:
• Avoid centralized entities.
• Avoid centralized algorithms.
• Perform most operations on client workstations.

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 Heterogeneity
 This term means the diversity of the distributed systems in terms
of hardware, software, platform, etc.
 Modern distributed systems will likely span different:
• Hardware devices: computers, tablets, mobile phones,
embedded devices, etc.
• Operating System: Ms Windows, Linux, Mac, Unix, etc.
• Network: Local network, the Internet, wireless network,
satellite links, etc.
• Programming languages: Java, C/C++, Python, PHP, etc.
• Different roles of software developers, designers, system
managers.

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 Security
 System must be protected against destruction and
unauthorized access.
 Enforcement of security in a distributed system has the
following additional requirements as compared to
centralized system:
• Sender of the message should know that message was
received by the intended receiver.
• Receiver of the message should know that the message
was sent by genuine sender.
• Both sender and receiver should be guaranteed that the
content of message were not changed while it is in
transfer.

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 Brief (Issues in Designing a Distributed System)

Transparency Provide a single system image to its user.

Reliability Degree of Fault tolerance should be low.

Flexibility Ease of Modification and Enhancement.

Performance Performance should be better than Centralized system.

Scalability Capability of a system to adopt increased service load.

Heterogeneity It consist of dissimilar hardware or software systems.

Must be protected against destruction and unauthorized

Security
access.

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 End of Unit-1

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