3 Reference and Inference

Reference and
Inference
1
Reference
An act in which a speaker, or writer,
uses linguistic forms to enable a
listener, or reader, to identify something
 tied to the speaker’s goals and the

speaker’s belief in the use of language
2
Noun Phrases (definite
Proper nouns
 the author, the
(Shakespeare, Hawaii)
singer),
Referring
expressions
(indefinite  a man, a
Pronouns
beautiful place)
choice  based on what the speaker assumes the listener already knows
3
Mister Aftershave is late today
• Referring expression
• The speaker is relying on the listener’s ability to infer what referent
we have in mind
• For successful reference to occur, we must recognize the role of
inference
Mister Aftershave is late today
Let’s start with the first set of slides
• Not all referring expressions have identifiable physical referents
• There’s a man waiting for you. ( a man  indefinite noun phrase)
• He wants to marry a woman with lots of money. (a woman with lots
of money  entity that is known to the speaker only in terms of its
descriptive properties)  the word “a” can be replaced by “any”
• We’d love to find a nine-foot tall basketball player. (nine-foot tall
basketball player : entities that do not exist)
• There was no sign of the killer
• The speaker does not know for sure if there is a person who could be
the referent of the definite expression
• Attributive us ( whoever fits the description)
• If there has been a killer…
• Referential use  having a person in mind, and instead of using her
name od some other description, we choose the expression
• Can I borrow your Shakespeare?
• Yes, it is over there on the table.
• Referent?  a book
• Where’s the cheese sandwich sitting?
• He’s over there by the window
• Referent ? A person
• There is a convention that certain referring expressions will be used
to identify certain entities on a regular basis. This appears to work
between all members of a community who share a common language
and culture
• Shakespeare takes up the whole bottom shelf
• Referent? Books
• We’re going to see Shakespeare in London
• Referent? A play
• I hated Shakespeare at school
• Referent? Reading his plays
• There seems to be a pragmatic connection between proper nouns and

objects that will be conventionally associated, within a socio-culturally
defined community, with those names.
• The nature of reference interpretation is also what allows the readers
to make sense of newspaper headlines using names of countries
• Brazil wins world cup
• Referring expression  co-text (co-text limits the range of possible
interpretations)
• Provides a range of reference, that is, a number of possible referents
• Context  the physical environment
• It has a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be
interpreted
• The cheese sandwich is made with white board
• The cheese sandwich left without paying
• Context : a restaurant
• The different co-texts lead to a different type of interpretation in each
case
• The heart-attack mustn’t be moved
• Context?  a hospital
• Your ten-thirty just cancelled
• Context?  a dentist’s office
• A couple of rooms have complained about the heat
• Context?  a hotel reception
• In the film, a man and woman were trying to wash a cat. The man was
holding the cat while the woman poured water on it. He said
something to her and they started laughing.
• Antecedent?  a man and a woman were trying to wash a cat
• Often indefinite
• Anaphor?  the man was holding the cat while the woman poured
water on it. He said something to her and they started laughing.
• Makes reference to already introduced references
• I turned the corner and almost stepped on it. There was a large snake
in the middle of the path.
•  it is difficult to interpret until the full noun phrase is presented in
the next line
• CATAPHORA  less common than anaphora

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Reference and

 tied to the speaker’s goals and the

• There seems to be a pragmatic connection between proper nouns and

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