Linux System Security &

Administration
Information Security Education &
Awareness (ISEA) Phase-II
Government Official Training (GOT)
Venue :
ISEA Lab,R.No 3013 A, IIIrd Floor ,DeitY,Electronics
Niketan,CGO Complex
New Delhi-110003
 Module-1
Introduction to CentOS Linux
The CentOS Linux File system, The CentOS
Shell, The CentOS Linux Utilities
 History
• In 80’s, Microsoft’s DOS was the dominated OS for PC
• Apple MAC was better, but expensive
• UNIX was much better, but much, much more expensive.
Only for minicomputer for commercial applications
• People was looking for a UNIX based system, which is
cheaper and can run on PC
• Both DOS, MAC and UNIX were proprietary, i.e., the source
code of their kernel is protected
• No modification is possible without paying high license
fees
 Unix
• Unix is a multitasking, multi-user computer operating system.
• The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in
1969 at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken
Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.
• First released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly
language as it was common practice at the time.
• Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in
the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie.
• The Unix operating system was first developed in assembly
language, but by 1973 had been almost entirely recoded in C
language , greatly facilitating its further development
and porting to other hardware
 What Is Linux?

• Linux is a free operating system that was

created by Linus Torvalds when he was a
student at the University of Helsinki in 1991.
Torvalds started Linux by writing a kernel —
the heart of the operating system — partly
from scratch and partly by using publicly
available software.
 GNU
• GNU is a Unix-like computer operating system
composed wholly of free software.
• The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, had the
goal of creating a "complete Unix-compatible software
system" composed entirely of free software
• GNU is a recursive acronym for "GNU's Not Unix!",chosen
because GNU's design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by
being free software and containing no Unix code. and was the
original focus of the Free Software Foundation (FSF).
• However, non-GNU kernels, most famously the Linux kernel,
can also be used with GNU software.[The combination of GNU
software and the Linux kernel is commonly known as Linux.
 GNU General Public License
• The GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or GPL) is the
most widely used free software license, which guarantees end
users(individuals, organizations, companies) the freedoms to
run, study, share (copy), and modify the software. Software
that allows these rights is called free software and, if the
software is copy lefted, requires those rights to be retained.
The GPL demands both.
• The license was originally written by Richard Stallman of
the Free Software Foundation (FSF) for the GNU project
 Beginning of Linux
Linux is a free Unix-type operating system originally created
by Linus Torvalds with the assistance of developers around
the world.
It originated in 1991 as a personal project of Linus Torvalds, a
Finnish graduate student.
The Kernel version 1.0 was released in 1994 and today the
most recent stable version is 2.6.9.
Developed under the GNU General Public License , the source
code for Linux is freely available to everyone

Linus Torvalds in 2002

 Features of Linux Operating System
• Portable: Linux operating system can work on different types of hardware as well as Linux
kernel supports the installation of any kind of hardware platform.
• Open Source: Source code of LINUX operating system is freely available and, to enhance
the ability of the LINUX operating system, many teams work in collaboration.
• Multiuser: Linux operating system is a multiuser system, which means, multiple users can
access the system resources like RAM, Memory or Application programs at the same
time.
• Multiprogramming: Linux operating system is a multiprogramming system, which means
multiple applications can run at the same time.
• Hierarchical File System: Linux operating system affords a standard file structure in which
system files or user files are arranged.
• Shell: Linux operating system offers a special interpreter program, that can be used to
execute commands of the OS. It can be used to do several types of operations like call
application programs, and so on.
• Security: Linux operating system offers user security systems using authentication
features like encryption of data or password protection or controlled access to particular
files.
Features of Linux Operating System
 Popular Linux Distributions

• Red Hat Linux

• SuSe Linux
• Caldera Linux
• Mandrake Linux
• Open Linux
• Aryabhat Linux
• CentOS Linux
• Ubuntu Linux
• Scientific Linux
 About Red Hat Linux

• Red Hat Linux, assembled by the company Red Hat,

was a popular Linux based operating system until its
discontinuation in 2004.
• In 2003, Red Hat discontinued the Red Hat Linux line
in favor of Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) for
enterprise environments. Fedora, developed by the
community-supported Fedora Project and sponsored
by Red Hat, is the free version best suited for home
use.
Version history
 Red Hat Linux

• Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) is a Linux

distribution developed by Red Hat and targeted
toward the commercial market.
• Red Hat Enterprise Linux is released in server
versions for x86, x86-64, Itanium, PowerPC and IBM
System z, and desktop versions for x86 and x86-64.
All of the Red Hat's official support and training,
together with the Red Hat Certification Program
 Introduction to CentOS
• The CentOS Project is a community-driven free software effort focused around
the goal of providing a rich base platform for open source communities to
build upon
• CentOS stands for Community Enterprise Operating System) .
• The CentOS Linux distribution is a stable, predictable, manageable and
reproducible platform derived from the sources of Red Hat Enterprise Linux
(RHEL).
• CentOS is a Linux distribution that attempts to provide a free, enterprise-class,
community-supported computing platform which aims to be functionally
compatible with its upstream source, Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL).
• In January 2014, CentOS announced the official joining with Red Hat while
staying independent from RHEL.
 CentOS Origins

• This distribution of Linux was called Red Hat Enterprise

Linux (RHEL). The company still gave away a regular version
called Fedora that was meant more for desktop or laptop
computers. People still wanted a free enterprise-class version,
though, and that is where CentOS originated.
• CentOS originated with Red Hat Software, the release of its
source code under the terms of the GNU General Public
License (GPL).
• The file system used in CentOS is same as Linux.
• CentOS Linux provides a free and open source computing platform to
anyone who wishes to use it. CentOS Linux releases are built from publicly
available open source source code provided by Red Hat, Inc for Red Hat
Enterprise Linux. This source code is available on the CentOS Git website.
• CentOS Linux is the Community Development Platform for the Red Hat
family of Linux distributions.
• CentOS conforms fully with Red Hat, Inc's redistribution policies and aims
to be functionally compatible with Red Hat Enterprise Linux. CentOS
mainly changes packages to remove trademarked vendor branding and
artwork.
• CentOS Linux does not contain Red Hat Enterprise Linux or Fedora Linux;
nor does it have any of their certifications, although it is built from the
same source code as the Red Hat Enterprise Linux.
 Benefits of Using CentOS

• Stability Feature
• Functional Compatibility
• Community Backing
• Cost Aspect
 Benefits of Using CentOS

• Stability Feature
• Functional Compatibility
• Community Backing
• Cost Aspect
 Getting Started

• The structure of a Linux System

• Kernel & Shell
• Login and Logout
• Basic Linux Commands
The Structure of Linux system
 Shell

• The shell is a Command-Line Interface (CLI).

• Shell is an command language interpreter that executes
commands read from the standard input device (keyboard) or
from a file.
• Shell is not part of system kernel, but uses the system kernel
to execute programs, create files etc
• A Unix shell is a command-line interpreter or shell that
provides a traditional user interface for the Unix operating
system and for Unix-like systems.
• Several shell available with Linux including:
 Shell

• The shell is a user program or it is an environment

provided for user interaction.
• It is a command language interpreter that executes
commands read from the standard input device such
as keyboard or from a file.
• The shell gets started when you log in or open a
console (terminal).
• Quick and dirty way to execute utilities.
• The shell is not part of system kernel, but uses the
system kernel to execute programs, create files etc.
Shell
 Kernel
• The kernel is heart of the Linux operating system. It manages the
resources of Linux.
Resources include:
• File management
• Multitasking
• Memory management
• I/O management
• Process management
• Device management
• Networking support including IPv4 and IPv6
• Advanced features such as virtual memory, shared libraries, demand
loading, shared copy-on-write executables etc
 Kernel

• The kernel decides who will use these

resources and for how long and when. It runs
your programs or sets up to execute binary
files.
• The kernel acts as an intermediary between
the computer hardware and various
applications.
• Hardware Devices :
The lower most layer is the hardware components (i.e.
physical components like your motherboard, hard disk drive,
floppy drive, memory, etc…)

• Kernel :
When your system is booted, the Linux kernel will be loaded
into the memory of your system and after that the kernel will
control the entire operating system.

• Shell :
Shell is an interpreter through which a user can interact with
kernel.
 Types of Shell

• Bourn Shell
• C-Shell
• TC-Shell
• Korn Shell
• Bourne Again SHell (bash)
 Bourne shell
• The Bourne shell, called "sh," is one of the original shells, developed for Unix
computers by Stephen Bourne at AT&T's Bell Labs in 1977. Its long history of use
means many software developers are familiar with it. It offers features such as input
and output redirection, shell scripting with string and integer variables, and
condition testing and looping
 C shell
• C Shell : C shell was created by Bill Joy, while he was studying at University of
California, Berkeley. He released it under BSD license, the syntax of C shell is
similar to C programming language hence the name C shell. It is known as "csh."
 TC shell
• TC Shell: An improved version of C shell, provides some additional features like
command line completion and editing. In most of Linux systems /bin/csh is linked
to /bin/tcsh and it alternatives, so when you try to start the C shell, TC shell gets
started. It is known as “tcsh."
 Korn Shell
• Korn Shell (ksh): Korn shell was developed by David Korn at AT&T Bell
Laboratories. It contains may features of C shell and Bourne shell. It is known as
"ksh."
Structure of LINUX file system
 Structure of LINUX file system

• The Linux file system is the structure in which

all the information on your computer is
stored.
• Files are organized within a hierarchy of
directories. Each directory can contain files, as
well as other directories
Structure of LINUX file system
Structure of LINUX file system
Structure of LINUX file system
 Structure of LINUX file system
• /root - The home directory for the root user
• /home - Contains the user's home directories along with directories for services
– ftp
– HTTP
– samba
• /bin - Commands needed during bootup that might be needed by normal users
• /sbin - Like bin but commands are not intended for normal users. Commands run by LINUX.
• /proc - This file system is not on a disk. It is a virtual file system that exists in the kernels
imagination which is memory.
– A directory with info about process number 1. Each process has a directory below proc.
• /usr - Contains all commands, libraries, man pages, games and static files for normal operation.
– /bin - Almost all user commands. some commands are in /bin or /usr/local/bin.
– /sbin - System admin commands not needed on the root filesystem. e.g., most server programs.
– /include - Header files for the C programming language. Should be below /user/lib for
consistency.
– /lib - Unchanging data files for programs and subsystems
– /local - The place for locally installed software and other files.
– /man - Manual pages
– /info - Info documents
– /doc - Documentation
– /tmp
– /X11R6 - The X windows system files. There is a directory similar to usr below this directory.
– /X386 - Like X11R6 but for X11 release 5
 Structure of LINUX file system
• /boot - Files used by the bootstrap loader, LILO. Kernel images are often kept here.
• /lib - Shared libraries needed by the programs on the root filesystem
• /dev - Device files
• /etc - Configuration files specific to the machine.
• /skel - When a home directory is created it is initialized with files from this directory
• /sysconfig - Files that configure the linux system for devices.
• / var - Contains files that change for mail, news, printers log files, man pages, temp files
• /lib - Files that change while the system is running normally
• /local - Variable data for programs installed in /usr/local.
• /lock - Lock files. Used by a program to indicate it is using a particular device or file
• /log - Log files from programs such as login and syslog which logs all logins and logouts.
• /spool - Directories for mail, printer spools, news and other spooled work.
• /tmp - Temporary files that are large or need to exist for longer than they should in /tmp.
• /mnt - Mount points for temporary mounts by the system administrator.
• /tmp - Temporary files. Programs running after bootup should use /var/tmp.
 File system
• A file system is the way in which files are named and
placed logically to store, retrieve and update the data
and also used to manage space on the available
devices.
 LINUX file system
• The following types of file systems are available in
Linux:
• Ext2
• Ext3
• Ext4
 Ext2

• Ext2 stands for second extended file system.

• It was introduced in 1993. Developed by Rémy Card.
• This was developed to overcome the limitation of the original
ext file system.
• Ext2 does not have journaling feature means backup.
• It supports on flash drives, usb drives.
• Maximum individual file size can be from 16 GB to 2 TB
• Overall ext2 file system size can be from 2 TB to 32 TB
 Ext3

• Ext3 stands for third extended file system.

• It was introduced in 2001 and Developed by Stephen
Tweedie.
• Starting from Linux Kernel 2.4.15 ext3 was available.
• The main benefit of ext3 is that it allows journaling.
• Maximum individual file size can be from 16 GB to 2 TB
• Overall ext3 file system size can be from 2 TB to 32 TB.
• The ext2 file system can be converted to ext3 file system
directly (without backup/restore).
 Ext4
• Ext4 stands for fourth extended file system. It was introduced in 2008. Starting
from Linux Kernel 2.6.19 ext4 was available.
• Maximum individual file size can be from 16 GB to 16 TB Overall maximum ext4
file system size is 1 EB (exabyte). 1 EB = 1024 PB (petabyte). 1 PB = 1024 TB
(terabyte).
• In ext4, you also have the option of turning the journaling feature “off”.
 Mount point

• A mount point is a directory in the currently accessible file

system on which an additional file system is logically attached.
The mount point makes a physical disk, disk partition, or tape
accessible to a computer's file system.
• File system is related to mount point.
• The default mount points are the directories in which file
systems would be mounted automatically when the computer
is booted.