Synchronous Machines

Synchronous Machines

• Synchronous generators or alternators are used to convert

mechanical power derived from steam, gas, or hydraulic-turbine
to ac electric power
• Synchronous generators are the primary source of electrical
energy we consume today
• Large ac power networks rely almost exclusively on synchronous
generators
• Synchronous motors are built in large units compare to induction
motors (Induction motors are cheaper for smaller ratings) and
used for constant speed industrial drives
 Construction

 Basic parts of a synchronous generator:

• Rotor - dc excited winding
• Stator - 3-phase winding in which the ac emf is generated

 The manner in which the active parts of a synchronous

machine are cooled determines its overall physical size and
structure
 Various Types

 Salient-pole synchronous machine

 Cylindrical or round-rotor synchronous machine

 Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator
1. Most hydraulic turbines have to turn at low speeds
(between 50 and 300 r/min)
2. A large number of poles are required on the rotor
d-axis

N Non-uniform
air-gap
D  10 m

q-axis S S

Turbine
N
Hydro (water)

Hydrogenerator
Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator

Stator
 Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator

Turbine D1m

L  10 m
Steam d-axis
Stator winding

 High speed N
Uniform air-gap
 3600 r/min  2-pole
Stator
 1800 r/min  4-pole
q-axis Rotor winding
 Direct-conductor cooling (using
hydrogen or water as coolant) Rotor

 Rating up to 2000 MVA

S

Turbogenerator
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator

Stator

Cylindrical rotor
 Operation Principle

The rotor of the generator is driven by a prime-mover

A dc current is flowing in the rotor winding which

produces a rotating magnetic field within the machine

The rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase

voltage in the stator winding of the generator
 Electrical Frequency

Electrical frequency produced is locked or synchronized to

the mechanical speed of rotation of a synchronous
generator:

P nm
fe 
120

where fe = electrical frequency in Hz

P = number of poles
nm= mechanical speed of the rotor, in r/min
 Generated Voltage
The generated voltage of a synchronous generator is given by

E  K c f fe

where f = flux in the machine (function of If)

fe = electrical frequency
Kc= synchronous machine constant
E

If
Saturation characteristic of a synchronous generator.
 Voltage Regulation
A convenient way to compare the voltage behaviour of two
generators is by their voltage regulation (VR). The VR of a
synchronous generator at a given load, power factor, and at rated
speed is defined as

E nl  V fl
VR   100%
V fl

Where Vfl is the full-load terminal voltage, and Enl (equal to Ef)
is the no-load terminal voltage (internal voltage) at rated speed
when the load is removed without changing the field current.
For lagging power factor (PF), VR is fairly positive, for unity
PF, VR is small positive and for leading PF, VR is negative.
 Equivalent Circuit_1

o The internal voltage Ef produced in a machine is not usually the

voltage that appears at the terminals of the generator.
o The only time Ef is same as the output voltage of a phase is
when there is no armature current flowing in the machine.
o There are a number of factors that cause the difference between
Ef and Vt:

– The distortion of the air-gap magnetic field by the current flowing

in the stator, called the armature reaction

– The self-inductance of the armature coils.

– The resistance of the armature coils.

– The effect of salient-pole rotor shapes.

 Equivalent Circuit_2

motor
Ia
jX jXl Ra
+
+
Ia
+ generator

Ef Eres Vt

Equivalent circuit of a cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine

 Phasor Diagram

Phasor diagram of a cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator,

for the case of lagging power factor

Lagging PF: |Vt|<|Ef| for overexcited condition

Leading PF: |Vt|>|Ef| for underexcited condition
Three-phase equivalent circuit of a cylindrical-rotor
synchronous machine

The voltages and currents of the three phases are 120o apart in angle,
but otherwise the three phases are identical.
+

VL-L
Vt
Ef1
+ jXs Ra

Ia1

VL-L =3Vt
 Determination of the parameters of the equivalent
circuit from test data
• The equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator that has been
derived contains three quantities that must be determined in order
to completely describe the behaviour of a real synchronous
generator:
– The saturation characteristic: relationship between If and f (and
therefore between If and Ef)
– The synchronous reactance, Xs
– The armature resistance, Ra
•

• The above three quantities could be determined by performing the

following three tests:
– Open-circuit test
– Short-circuit test
– DC test
 Open-circuit test
• The generator is turned at the rated speed
• The terminals are disconnected from all loads, and the field current
is set to zero.
• Then the field current is gradually increased in steps, and the
terminal voltage is measured at each step along the way.
• It is thus possible to obtain an open-circuit characteristic of a
generator (Ef or Vt versus If) from this information

If
+
Vdc Vt
 Short-circuit test

• Adjust the field current to zero and short-circuit the terminals of

the generator through a set of ammeters.
• Record the armature current Isc as the field current is increased.
• Such a plot is called short-circuit characteristic.

If

+ A

A
Vdc Isc
 DC Test
– The purpose of the DC test is to determine Ra. A variable DC voltage
source is connected between two stator terminals.
– The DC source is adjusted to provide approximately rated stator current,
and the resistance between the two stator leads is determined from the
voltmeter and ammeter readings

VDC
– then RDC 
I DC
– If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator resistance is
RDC
Ra 
2
– If the stator is delta-connected, the per phase stator resistance is
3
Ra  RDC
2
 Determination of Xs
• For a particular field current IfA, the internal voltage Ef (=VA) could
be found from the occ and the short-circuit current flow Isc,A could
be found from the scc.
• Then the synchronous reactance Xs could be obtained using

V A  E f 
Z s ,unsat  R  X
2
a
2
s ,unsat 
I scA
Ef or Vt (V) Air-gap line
OCC Isc (A) X s ,unsat  Z s2,unsat  Ra2
Vrated
SCC
: Ra is known from the DC test.

VA
Isc,B
Since Xs,unsat>>Ra,
Isc, A
Ef Vt , oc
IfA IfB
If (A) X s ,unsat  
I scA I scA
 Xs under saturated condition
Ef or Vt (V) Air-gap line
OCC Isc (A)
At V = Vrated, Vrated SCC

Vrated  E f  VA
Isc,B
Z s , sat  R  X
2
a
2
s ,sat  Isc, A
I scB If (A)
IfA IfB

X s , sat  Z s2, sat  Ra2: Ra is known from the DC test.

Equivalent circuit and phasor diagram under condition

jXs Ra
+ Vt=0 Ef
Ia
Ef +
Vt=0 jIaXs
Ia
IaRa
 Short-circuit Ratio
Another parameter used to describe synchronous generators is the
short-circuit ratio (SCR). The SCR of a generator defined as the
ratio of the field current required for the rated voltage at open
circuit to the field current required for the rated armature current
at short circuit. SCR is just the reciprocal of the per unit value of
the saturated synchronous reactance calculated by

Ef or Vt (V) Air-gap line

Isc (A)
OCC If _ Vrated
Vrated
SCC SCR 
If _ Iscrated
Isc,rated
1

X s _ sat in p.u .
If (A)
If_V rated If_Isc rated
 Example 1

A 200 kVA, 480-V, 60-Hz, 4-pole, Y-Connected synchronous

generator with a rated field current of 5 A was tested and the
following data was taken.
a) from OC test – terminal voltage = 540 V at rated field
current
b) from SC test – line current = 300A at rated field current
c) from Dc test – DC voltage of 10 V applied to two terminals,
a current of 25 A was measured.
1. Calculate the speed of rotation in r/min
2. Calculate the generated emf and saturated equivalent circuit
parameters (armature resistance and synchronous reactance)
 j1.02 0.2
Solution to Example 1
1. +
Ia
fe = electrical frequency = Pnm/120 +
Ef Vt
fe = 60Hz
P = number of poles = 4
nm = mechanical speed of rotation in r/min.
So, speed of rotation nm = 120 fe / P
= (120 x 60)/4 = 1800 r/min
2. In open-circuit test, Ia = 0 and Ef =Vt
Ef = 540/1.732
= 311.8 V (as the machine is Y-connected)
In short-circuit test, terminals are shorted, Vt = 0
Ef = IaZs or Zs = Ef /Ia =311.8/300=1.04 ohm
From the DC test, Ra=VDC/(2IDC)
= 10/(2X25) = 0.2 ohm

Synchronous reactance Z s, sat  Ra2  X s2,sat

X s, sat  Z s2, sat  Ra2  1.04 2  0.2 2  1.02
 Problem 1

A 480-V, 60-Hz, Y-Connected synchronous generator, having the

synchronous reactance of 1.04 ohm and negligible armature
resistance, is operating alone. The terminal voltage at rated field
current at open circuit condition is 480V.

1. Calculate the voltage regulation

1. If load current is 100A at 0.8 PF lagging
2. If load current is 100A at 0.8 PF leading
3. If load current is 100A at unity PF
2. Calculate the real and reactive power delivered in each case.
3. State and explain whether the voltage regulation will
improve or not if the load current is decreased to 50 A from
100 A at 0.8 PF lagging.
 Parallel operation of synchronous generators

There are several major advantages to operate generators in

parallel:

• Several generators can supply a bigger load than one machine

by itself.
• Having many generators increases the reliability of the power
system.
• It allows one or more generators to be removed for shutdown
or preventive maintenance.
 Synchronization
Before connecting a generator in parallel with another
generator, it must be synchronized. A generator is said to be
synchronized when it meets all the following conditions:
• The rms line voltages of the two generators must be
equal.
• The two generators must have the same phase sequence.
• The phase angles of the two a phases must be equal.
• The oncoming generator frequency is equal to the
running system frequency.
a

Generator 1
b Load
c
Switch
a/

Generator 2 b/

c/
 Synchronization

Generator Load

Rest of the
power system

Xs1
Ef1

Xs2
Generator Ef2

G
Xsn Infinite bus
Efn V, f are constant
Xs eq = 0
 Concept of the infinite bus

When a synchronous generator is connected to a power system,

the power system is often so large that nothing the operator of the
generator does will have much of an effect on the power system.
An example of this situation is the connection of a single
generator to the Canadian power grid. Our Canadian power grid
is so large that no reasonable action on the part of one generator
can cause an observable change in overall grid frequency. This
idea is idealized in the concept of an infinite bus. An infinite bus
is a power system so large that its voltage and frequency do not
vary regardless of how much real or reactive power is drawn
from or supplied to it.
 Active and reactive power-angle characteristics

Pm
Pe, Qe

Vt
Fig. Synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus.

• P>0: generator operation

• P<0: motor operation
• Positive Q: delivering inductive vars for a generator action or
receiving inductive vars for a motor action
• Negaive Q: delivering capacitive vars for a generator action or
receiving capacitive vars for a motor action
 Active and reactive power-angle characteristics

Pm
Pe, Qe
Vt

• The real and reactive power delivered by a synchronous

generator or consumed by a synchronous motor can be
expressed in terms of the terminal voltage Vt, generated voltage
Ef, synchronous impedance Zs, and the power angle or torque
angle d.
• Referring to Fig. 8, it is convenient to adopt a convention that
makes positive real power P and positive reactive power Q
delivered by an overexcited generator.
• The generator action corresponds to positive value of d, while
the motor action corresponds to negative value of d.
 Active and reactive power-angle characteristics

Pm
Pe, Qe
The complex power output of the generator in volt- Vt

amperes per phase is given by

_
S  P  jQ  V t I *a
where:
Vt = terminal voltage per phase
Ia* = complex conjugate of the armature current per phase

Taking the terminal voltage as reference

_
V t  Vt  j 0

the excitation or the generated voltage,

_
E f  E f cos d  j sin d 
 Active and reactive power-angle characteristics
and the armature current,
E cos d  Vt   jE f sin d
_ _ Pm
_
E f V t Pe, Qe
Ia  
f
Vt
jX s jX s

where Xs is the synchronous reactance per phase.

_ _  
 E f cos d  Vt  jE f sin d 
S  P  jQ  V t I a  Vt
*
 
  jX s 
Vt E f sin d Vt E f cos d  Vt2
 j
Xs Xs

Vt E f sin d
 P &
Xs
Vt E f cos d  Vt2
Q
Xs
 Active and reactive power-angle characteristics

Pm
Pe, Qe
Vt

Vt E f sin d Vt E f cos d  Vt2

 P & Q
Xs Xs

• The above two equations for active and reactive powers hold
good for cylindrical-rotor synchronous machines for negligible
resistance
• To obtain the total power for a three-phase generator, the above
equations should be multiplied by 3 when the voltages are line-to-
neutral
• If the line-to-line magnitudes are used for the voltages, however,
these equations give the total three-phase power
Steady-state power-angle or torque-angle characteristic of a
cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine (with negligible
armature resistance).
Real power or torque

Pull-out torque
as a generator

generator

p p/2
d d
0 p/2 p

motor

Pull-out torque
as a motor
 Steady-state stability limit
3Vt E f
Total three-phase power: P  sin d
Xs

The above equation shows that the power produced by a synchronous

generator depends on the angle d between the Vt and Ef. The maximum
power that the generator can supply occurs when d=90o.

3Vt E f
P
Xs
The maximum power indicated by this equation is called steady-state stability
limit of the generator. If we try to exceed this limit (such as by admitting
more steam to the turbine), the rotor will accelerate and lose synchronism
with the infinite bus. In practice, this condition is never reached because the
circuit breakers trip as soon as synchronism is lost. We have to resynchronize
the generator before it can again pick up the load. Normally, real generators
never even come close to the limit. Full-load torque angle of 15o to 20o are
more typical of real machines.
 Pull-out torque
The maximum torque or pull-out torque per phase that a two-pole
round-rotor synchronous motor can develop is
Pm ax Pm ax
Tm ax  
m 2p s 
n
 60 
where ns is the synchronous speed of the motor in rpm

P or Q

d
Fig. Active and reactive power as a function of the internal angle
 Problem 2

A 208-V, 45-kVA, 0.8-PF leading, -connected, 60-Hz

synchronous machine having 1.04 ohm synchronous
reactance and negligible armature resistance is supplying a
load of 12 kW at 0.8 power factor leading. Find the armature
current and generated voltage and power factor if the load is
increased to 20 KW. Neglect all other losses.
 Example 5-2 (pp291)
A 480 V, 60 Hz, -connected, four pole synchronous generator has the OCC
shown below. This generator has a synchronous reactance of 0.1 ohm and
armature resistance of 0.015 ohm. At full load, the machine supplies 1200 A
and 0.8 pf lagging. Under full-load conditions, the friction and windage
losses are 40 kW, and the core losses are 30 kW. Ignore field circuit losses.
a) What is the speed of rotation of the generator?
b) How much field current must be supplied to the generator to make the
terminal voltage 480 V at no load?
c) If the generator is now connected to a load and the load draws 1200 A at 0.8
pf lagging, how much field current will be required to keep the terminal
voltage equal to 480 V?
d) How much power is the generator now supplying? How much power is
supplied to the generator by the prime-mover? 600
What is the machine’s overall efficiency? 500
e) If the generator’s load were suddenly disconnected 400
from the line, what would happen to its terminal voltage? 300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
 Synchronous Motors
P, Q
Motor
Vt

• A synchronous motor is the same physical machine as a

generator, except that the direction of real power flow is
reversed
• Synchronous motors are used to convert electric power to
mechanical power
• Most synchronous motors are rated between 150 kW (200
hp) and 15 MW (20,000 hp) and turn at speed ranging from
150 to 1800 r/min. Consequently, these machines are used in
heavy industry
• At the other end of the power spectrum, we find tiny single-
phase synchronous motors used in control devices and
electric clocks
 Operation Principle
• The field current of a synchronous motor produces a steady-
state magnetic field BR
• A three-phase set of voltages is applied to the stator windings of
the motor, which produces a three-phase current flow in the
windings. This three-phase set of currents in the armature
winding produces a uniform rotating magnetic field of Bs
• Therefore, there are two magnetic fields present in the machine,
and the rotor field will tend to line up with the stator field, just
as two bar magnets will tend to line up if placed near each other.
• Since the stator magnetic field is rotating, the rotor magnetic
field (and the rotor itself) will try to catch up
• The larger the angle between the two magnetic fields (up to
certain maximum), the greater the torque on the rotor of the
machine
 Vector Diagram

• The equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor is exactly same as

the equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator, except that the
reference direction of Ia is reversed.
• The basic difference between motor and generator operation in
synchronous machines can be seen either in the magnetic field
diagram or in the phasor diagram.
• In a generator, Ef lies ahead of Vt, and BR lies ahead of Bnet. In a
motor, Ef lies behind Vt, and BR lies behind Bnet.
• In a motor the induced torque is in the direction of motion, and in a
generator the induced torque is a countertorque opposing the
direction of motion
 Vector Diagram
Ia Bs
Vt
d jIa Xs
Bnet
sync
d

Ef BR

Fig. The phasor diagram (leading PF: overexcited and |Vt|<|Ef|) and
the corresponding magnetic field diagram of a synchronous motor.

Vt
d jIa Xs

Ia Ef

Fig. The phasor diagram of an underexcited synchronous

motor (lagging PF and |Vt|>|Ef|).
 Application of Synchronous Motors

Synchronous motors are usually used in large sizes because in small sizes
they are costlier as compared with induction machines. The principal
advantages of using synchronous machine are as follows:

– Power factor of synchronous machine can be controlled very easily

by controlling the field current.
– It has very high operating efficiency and constant speed.
– For operating speed less than about 500 rpm and for high-power
requirements (above 600KW) synchronous motor is cheaper than
induction motor.

In view of these advantages, synchronous motors are preferred for driving

the loads requiring high power at low speed; e.g; reciprocating pumps and
compressor, crushers, rolling mills, pulp grinders etc.
 Problem 5-22 (pp.343)

A 100-MVA, 12.5-kV, 0.85 power lagging, 50 Hz, two-

pole, Y-connected, synchronous generator has a pu
synchronous reactance of 1.1 and pu armature resistance
of 0.012.

a) What are its synchronous reactance and armature

resistance in ohms?
b) What is the magnitude of the internal voltage Ef at the
rated conditions? What is its load angle d at these
conditions?
c) Ignoring losses in the generator, what torque must be
applied to its shaft by the prime-mover at full load?
 Problem 5-23 (pp.343)

A three-phase, Y-connected synchronous generator is

rated 120 MVA, 13.2 kV, 0.8 power lagging, and 60 Hz.
Its synchronous reactance is 0.9 ohm and its armature
resistance may be ignored.

a) What is its voltage regulation at rated load?

b) What would the voltage and apparent power rating of this
generator be if it were operated at 50 Hz with the same
armature and field losses as it had at 60 Hz?
c) What would the voltage regulation of the generator be at
50 Hz?