INTERACTION

AND
INTERDEPENDENCE
 THE PRINCIPLES OF ECOSYSTEM
• Ecology - is the branch of science that deals with the
relationship and interactions between organisms and
their environment, including other organisms. Ecology
includes not only how living things interact with each
other, but how they interact with their physical
environment: things such as climate, water, and soil.
• Biodiversity - is the variety of all life forms on earth
- the different plants, animals and micro-organisms
and the ecosystems of which they are a part.
• Ecosystem - is a community of living organisms in
conjunction with the nonliving components of their
environment (things like air, water and mineral soil),
interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic
components are regarded as linked together through
nutrient cycles and energy flows. Ecosystems are
defined by the network of interactions among
organisms, and between organisms and their
environment, they can be of any size but usually
encompass specific, limited spaces.
Two primary types of ecosystems:
1. Natural Ecosystems -
may be terrestrial
(meaning desert, forest
, or meadow) or aquatic,
(pond ,river, or lake). A
natural ecosystem is a
biological environment
that is found in nature
(e.g. a forest) rather
than created or altered
by man.
2. Artificial Ecosystems
- Humans have
modified some
ecosystems for their
own benefit. These are
artificial ecosystems.
They can be terrestrial
(crop fields and
gardens) or aquatic
(aquariums, dams, and
manmade ponds).
Two main components that exist in
an ecosystem: Abiotic and Biotic
 Abiotic Components
• Abiotic components of an ecosystem consist of the
non-organic aspects of the environment that
determine what life forms can thrive.
 Biotic Components

• Biotic components of an ecosystem are the life forms

that inhabit it. The life forms of an ecosystem aid in
the transfer and cycle of energy. They are grouped
in terms of the means they use to get energy.
Ecosystems are controlled both by external
and internal factors :
• External factors - such as climate, the parent
material that forms the soil, and topography control
the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way
things work within it, but are not themselves
influenced by the ecosystem. Other external factors
include time and potential biota.
• Internal factors - not only control ecosystem
processes but are also controlled by them and are
often subject to feedback loops.
 Interaction
Biotic components and abiotic components of an
eco-system interact with and affect one another. If
the temperature of an area decreases, the life existing
there must adapt to it. Global warming, or the
worldwide increase in temperature due to the
greenhouse effect, will speed up the metabolism rates
of most organisms. Metabolic rate increases with
temperature because the nutrient molecules in the body
are more likely to contact and react with one another
when excited by heat.
 Accordingly, tropical ectothermic - cold-blooded-
organisms could experience increased metabolic rates
from an increase of as little as 5 oC because their
internal temperature is almost entirely dependent on
external temperature. To adapt to these circumstances,
cold-blooded life forms could reside in the shade and
not actively search for food during daylight hours when
the sun is at its brightest.
Different Types of Ecosystems
1. Terrestrial Ecosystems :
can be found anywhere
apart from heavily
saturated places. They
are broadly classed into:
The Forest Ecosystems
They are the ecosystems
in which an abundance of
flora, or plants, is seen so
they have a big number of
organisms which live in
relatively small space.
Different types of terrestrial ecosystems
are:
• Tropical evergreen forest :
These are tropical forests
that receive a mean rainfall
of 80 for every 400 inches
annually. The forests are
characterized by dense
vegetation which comprises
tall trees at different
heights. Each level is
shelter to different types
of animals.
• Tropical deciduous
forest : There, shrubs
and dense bushes rule
along with a broad
selection of trees. The
type of forest is
found in quite a few
parts of the world
while a large variety
of fauna and flora are
found there.
• Temperate evergreen
forest : Those have
quite a few number of
trees as mosses and
ferns make up for
them. Trees have
developed spiked
leaves in order to
minimize
transpiration.
• Temperate deciduous
forest : The forest
is located in the
moist temperate
places that have
sufficient rainfall.
Summers and winters
are clearly defined
and the trees shed
the leaves during the
winter months.
• Taiga : Situated just
before the arctic
regions, the taiga is
defined by evergreen
conifers. As the
temperature is below
zero for almost half a
year, the remainder of
the months, it buzzes
with migratory birds and
insects.
2. Desert Ecosystems : are
located in regions that
receive an annual rainfall less
than 25. They occupy about
17 percent of all the land on
our planet. Due to the
extremely high temperature,
low water availability and
intense sunlight, fauna and
flora are scarce and poorly
developed. The vegetation is
mainly shrubs, bushes, few
grasses and rare trees.
3. Grasslands Ecosystems : are
located in both the tropical and
temperate regions of the world
though the ecosystems vary
slightly. The area mainly
comprises grasses with a little
number of trees and shrubs.
The main vegetation includes
grasses, plants and legumes
that belong to the composite
family. A lot of grazing animals,
insectivores and herbivores
inhabit the grasslands.
The two main kinds of grasslands
ecosystems are:
1. Savanna : The tropical
grasslands are dry
seasonally and have few
individual trees. They
support a large number
of predators and
grazers.
2. Prairies : It is
temperate grassland,
completely devoid of
large shrubs and
trees. Prairies could
be categorized as
mixed grass, tall
grass and short grass
prairies.
4. Mountain Ecosystems :
Mountain land provides a
scattered and diverse array of
habitats where a large number
of animals and plants can be
found . At the higher altitudes,
the harsh environmental
conditions normally prevail, and
only the treeless alpine
vegetation can survive. The
animals that live there have
thick fur coats for prevention
from cold and hibernation in
the winter months
5. Aquatic Ecosystem : is
the ecosystem found in
a body of water. It
encompasses aquatic
flora, fauna and water
properties, as well.
There are two main
types of aquatic
ecosystem- Marine and
Freshwater.
6. Marine Ecosystems :
are the biggest
ecosystems, which
cover around 71% of
Earth's surface and
contain 97% of out
planet's water. Water
in Marine ecosystems
features in high
amounts minerals and
salts dissolved in them.
 The different divisions of the marine ecosystem are:
• Oceanic: A relatively shallow part of oceans which lies on the
continental shelf.
• Profundal: deep or bottom water.
• Benthic Bottom substrates.
• Inter-tidal: The place between low and high tides.
• Estuaries
• Coral reefs
• Salt marshes
• Hydrothermal vents where chemosynthetic bacteria make up the
food base. Many kinds of organisms live in marine ecosystems:
the brown algae, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms,
dinoflagellates and sharks.
7. Freshwater Ecosystem :
Contrary to the Marine
ecosystems, the
freshwater ecosystem
covers only 0.8% of
Earth's surface and
contains 0.009% of the
total water. Three basic
kinds of freshwater
ecosystems exist:
Three basic kinds of freshwater ecosystems
exist:

1. Lentic : Slow-moving or till water like pools, lakes or

ponds.
2. Lotic : Fast-moving water such as streams and
rivers.
3. Wetlands : Places in which the soil is inundated or
saturated for some lengthy period of time.
 BIOTIC POTENTIAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE
• Population - It is a group of organisms of the same
species living in an area at the same time. Birth rate
is the ratio of total live births to total population in a
specified community or area over a specified period
of time. The birthrate is often expressed as the
number of live births per 1,000 of the population per
year.
• Death rate - is the ratio of total deaths to total
population in a specified community or area over a
specified period of time. The death rate is often
expressed as the number of deaths per 1,000 of the
population per year. Also called fatality rate.
• Population Density - it is a measurement of population per
unit area or unit volume; it is a quantity of type number
density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and
most of the time to humans.

• Environmental Resistance - is the limiting effect of

environmental conditions on the numerical growth of a
population.
Environmental Resistance
Factors
• Food Supply - as the
population increases, the
food supply, or the supply of
another necessary resource ,
may decrease. When
necessary resources, such as
food , decrease, some
individuals will die. Overall,
the population cannot
reproduce at the same rate,
so the birth rates drop. This
will cause the population
growth rate to decrease.
• Competition - when
populations become
crowded, organisms
compete for food,
water, space, sunlight
and other essentials.
• Predation - populations
in nature are often
controlled by predation.
The regulation of a
population by predation
takes place within a
predator-prey
relationship, one of the
best known mechanism
of population control.
• Parasites and Disease
- can limit the growth
of a population. A
parasite lives in or on
another organism (the
host) and consequently
harms it.
• Natural Disasters -
such as droughts, floods,
hurricanes, and fires, can
all influence whatever
populations are in the area
at the time. Not only do
these occurrences kill
individuals in all
populations, they also
disrupt the availability of
resources for survivors.
 Biotic Potential
• The biotic potential of a population is how well a species is
able to survive. While environmental resistance acts like a hill
pushing back against population growth, biotic potential is
what urges a population to grow. Biotic potential has to do with
how well a species can survive, including how well adapted it is
to the environment and its rate of reproduction. Some species
produce a lot of young very often (while others produce fewer
babies less often), but invest a lot of energy raising and
protecting them. So while the biotic potential of a species
causes the population to increase, environmental resistance
keeps it from increasing relentlessly.
EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES TO THE
NATURAL ECOSYSTEM
 Introduction of Invasive Species

1.Invasive species - are brought on by transporting species

either intentionally or accidentally from other areas of the
world. This can be devastating to existing species as invasive
species are introduced on a time scale much more quickly
than typically would happen with evolution over longer time
periods. This can include outcompeting native species in the
ecosystem, leading to the decline or extinction of local
species, and overpopulation as these invasive species may not
have any predators in this new ecosystem.
2.Overexploitation - is a
major threat to
ecosystems and
therefore
sustainability. It is the
consumption of a
natural resource at a
rate greater than that
natural resource can
maintain itself.
• Overhunting - when humans
overhunt key predators such as
lions, tigers and bears, they
remove the very animals that
keep plant consumers in balance
and prevent overgrazing. A
healthy ecosystem has a
balance of predators and prey
that naturally cycle through
life and death sequences. Over-
hunting often results in
ecosystem species imbalance
and environmental stress.
• Overfishing - humans also
practice commercial overfishing ,
where massive fishing nets result
in “bycatch,” in which unwanted
fish are caught in nets and then
thrown away. Bycatch results in
the death of one million sharks
annually. Large weights and heavy
metal rollers that are used with
the commercial fishing nets also
drag along the bottom of the
ocean, destroying anything in
their path including fragile coral
reefs.
• Overgrazing – it occurs
when plants are exposed to
intensive grazing for
extended periods of time ,
or without sufficient
recovery periods. It
reduces the usefulness,
productivity, and
biodiversity of the land and
is one cause of
desertification and erosion.
• Illegal Logging -
contributes to
deforestation, degrades
forest environments,
reduces biodiversity, and
contributes to green gas
emissions.
• Continuous cropping -
refers to a system in which
certain crops are
‘‘replanted” in soils that
had previously supported
the same or similar plant
species.
3. Pollution : Vehicles, trains and planes emit toxic gases that
include carcinogenic particles and irritants, creating air
pollution. Humans have also dumped large amounts of
pesticides, such as organophosphates, onto crops that
migrate into groundwater and bodies of water, poisoning
ecosystems. Plants and animals die from exposure to
pollutants such as excess nutrients from chemical
fertilizers and other harmful chemicals. Pollution is
increasing around the world and results in loss of
biodiversity causing severe damage to self-sustaining
ecosystems.
4.Habitat destruction
• Deforestation - humans have
always cut down trees
throughout history. The
world’s rainforests are being
destroyed resulting in
vegetation degradation,
nutrient imbalance, flooding
and animal displacement. Trees
act as a natural air filter in
the carbon cycle by taking in
carbon dioxide and releasing
oxygen, so deforestation
contributes to global warming.
• Kaingin system - is the
cutting down and burning of
trees and plant growth in an
area for cultivation
purposes. Kaingin is a
Filipino word that means
clearing. Known as swidden
farming in other countries,
it is a traditional but
destructive agricultural
system practiced in many
parts of the globe.
• Land Conversion - through urban development, the
continued rapid construction of road systems and
buildings has changed the Earth's natural surface,
removing soil nutrients, surface vegetation and trees that
filter the air and equalize the carbon cycle. Urbanization
also displaces animals and increases environmental
pollution from vehicles and factories. A system of
highways also causes migratory obstacles for animals and
replaces native plants with impermeable concrete,
resulting in habitat destruction.
THE EARTH SAVERS TEN COMMANDMENTS
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
1. Thou shalt not throw garbage along canals, creeks or
rivers.
2. Thou shalt not resort to destructive and illegal
methods of fishing.
3. Thou shalt not resort to open burning methods to
dispose your drug waste.
4. Thou shalt improve and maintain your care and
vehicles in good running.
5. Thou shalt not smoke cigars and cigarettes.
6. Thou shalt minimize if not put to stop the use of CFC
products.
7. Thou shalt not waste energy and water.
8. Thou shalt plant more trees and nurture them.
9. Thou shalt protect endangered species of plants and
animals.
10.Thou shalt minimize if not totally stop the use of
farm chemicals.
Reporters:

• Kylle Roco

• Celine Katrina L. Balulao

• Kristian Jay C. Paculanan