Electronic Commerce

Eighth Edition

Chapter 2
Technology Infrastructure: The Internet
and the World Wide Web
 Learning Objectives

In this chapter, you will learn about:

• The origin, growth, and current structure of the
Internet
• How packet-switched networks are combined to
form the Internet
• How Internet protocols and Internet addressing work
• The history and use of markup languages on the
Web, including SGML, HTML, and XML

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 Learning Objectives (cont’d.)

• How HTML tags and links work on the World Wide

Web
• The differences among internets, intranets, and
extranets
• Options for connecting to the Internet, including cost
and bandwidth factors
• Internet2 and the Semantic Web

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 The Internet and the World Wide Web
• Computer network
– Technology allowing people to connect computers
– Internet
• Interconnected global computer networks (large)
• Basic technology structure
– Computer networks and the Internet
– Underlies e-commerce
• World Wide Web (Web)
– Subset of Internet computers
• Contents easily accessible
– Includes easy-to-use interfaces
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 Origins of the Internet
• Early 1960s
– Defense Department nuclear attack concerns
– Used powerful computers (large mainframes)
– Used leased telephone company lines
• Single connection
– Single connection risk solution
• Communicate using multiple channels (packets)
• 1969 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
– Packet network connected four computers
• ARPANET: earliest network (became the Internet)
• Academic research use (1970s and 1980s)

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 New Uses for the Internet
• Defense Department network use was original goal
– Control weapons systems, transfer research files
• 1970s: other uses
– E-mail (1972)
– Networking technology
• Remote file transfer and computer access
– Mailing lists
• E-mail address forwards message to subscribed users
• 1979 Usenet (User’s News Network)
– Read and post articles
– Newsgroups (topic areas)
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 New Uses for the Internet (cont’d.)
• Game-playing software created
• Limited Internet use
– Research and academic communities
• 1979 – 1989
– Network applications improved and tested
– Defense Department’s networking software
• Gained wider academic and research institution use
• Common communications network benefit recognized
– Security problems recognized
• 1980s: personal computer use explosion
– Academic and research networks merged
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 Commercial Use of the Internet
• National Science Foundation (NSF)
– Provided funding
– Prohibited commercial network traffic
• Business turned to commercial e-mail providers
• Larger firms built networks (leased telephone lines)
• 1989: NSF permitted two commercial e-mail services
– MCI Mail and CompuServe
• Commercial enterprises could send e-mail
• Research, education communities sent e-mail directly to
MCI Mail and CompuServe

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 Growth of the Internet

• 1991
– Further easing of commercial Internet activity
restrictions
• 1995: privatization of the Internet
– Operations turned over to privately owned companies
• Internet based on four network access points (NAPs)
• Network access providers
– Sell Internet access rights directly to larger customers
– Use Internet service providers (ISPs)
• Sell to smaller firms and individuals

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 Growth of the Internet (cont’d.)

• Internet hosts: directly connected computers

• Internet growth
– Technological and social accomplishment
– Used by millions of people
– Thousands of different software packages
– Billions of dollars change hands yearly
– Led to World Wide Web

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 Emergence of the World Wide Web
• Web
– Software running on Internet-connected computers
– Generates Internet traffic
• Web software: largest single traffic category
• Outpaces: e-mail, file transfers, other data transmission
traffic
– New way of thinking about information storage and
retrieval
• Web history important innovations
– Hypertext
– Graphical user interfaces

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 Emergence of the World Wide Web
(cont’d.)
• The development of hypertext
– 1945: Vannevar Bush: The Atlantic Monthly article
• Visionary ideas: future technology uses (Memex)
– 1960s: Ted Nelson described hypertext
• Page-linking system
• Douglas Engelbart: experimental hypertext system
– 1987: Nelson published Literary Machines
• Outlined project Xanadu global system
• Online hypertext publishing and commerce

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 Emergence of the World Wide Web
(cont’d.)
• The development of hypertext (cont’d.)
– 1989: Tim Berners-Lee
• Proposed hypertext development project
• Provided data-sharing functionality
• Developed hypertext server program code
– Hypertext server
• Stores Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) files
• Computers connect and read files
– Web servers (today)
• Hypertext servers used on the Web

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 Emergence of the World Wide Web
(cont’d.)
• The development of hypertext (cont’d.)
– HTML
• Set of codes (tags) attached to text
• Describes relationships among text elements
– Hypertext link (hyperlink)
• Points to another location
• Same or another HTML document

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 Emergence of the World Wide Web
(cont’d.)
• Graphical interfaces for hypertext
– Web browser
• Software interface
• Users read (browse) HTML documents
• Move from one HTML document to another
• Text formatted with hypertext link tags in file
– HTML document
• No specification of text element appearance
– Graphical user interface (GUI)
• Presents program control functions, output to users
• Pictures, icons, other graphical elements

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 Emergence of the World Wide Web
(cont’d.)
• The World Wide Web
– Berners-Lee’s system of hyperlinked HTML
documents
– Quick acceptance in scientific research community
– 1993: first GUI program (Mosaic)
• Read HTML
• Used HTML hyperlinks for page-to-page navigation
• First Web browser widely available for personal
computers

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 Emergence of the World Wide Web
(cont’d.)
• The World Wide Web (cont’d.)
– Easy way to access Internet information
• Provided by functional system of pages connected by
hypertext links
• Profit-making potential
– Netscape Communications founded in 1994
• Netscape Navigator Web browser (based on Mosaic)
• Microsoft: Internet Explorer (most widely used)
• Mozilla Firefox: Netscape Navigator descendant
– Number of Web sites
• More rapid growth than the Internet itself

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• Estimates
– More than 140 million Web sites
– More than 30 billion individual Web pages
• Commercial business Web use increasing
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 Packet-Switched Networks
• Local area network (LAN)
– Network of computers located close together
• Wide area networks (WANs)
– Networks of computers connected over greater
distances
• Circuit
– Combination of telephone lines and closed switches
that connect them to each other
• Circuit switching
– Centrally controlled, single-connection model
• Single electrical path between caller and receiver

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 Packet-Switched Networks (cont’d.)

• Circuit switching (cont’d.)

– Works well for telephone calls
– Does not work as well for:
• Sending data across large WAN, interconnected
network (Internet)
• Circuit-switched network problem
– Connected circuit failure
• Causes interrupted connection, data loss
• Solution
– Packet switching: move data between two points

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 Packet-Switched Networks (cont’d.)

• Packet-switched network
– Packets
• Small pieces labeled electronically (origin, sequence,
destination address)
• Travel along interconnected networks
• Can take different paths
• May arrive out of order
– Destination computer
• Collects packets
• Reassembles original file or e-mail message

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 Routing Packets

• Routing computers
– Decide how best to forward each packet
– Router computers, routers, gateway computers
• Gateway from LAN (WAN to the Internet)
– Border routers
• Between organization and the Internet
• Routing algorithms
– Programs on router computers
• Determine best path for packet

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 Routing Packets (cont’d.)

• Routing algorithms applied to routing table

information
• Routing tables (configuration tables)
– Contain lists of connections
– Contain rules that:
• Specify connection to use first
• Handle heavy packet traffic and network congestion
• Variety rules and standards for creating packets
– Must translate packets into standard format
• Routers perform translation function

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• Internet backbone
– Internet routers handle packet traffic along main
connecting points (backbone routers)
• Three billion packets per second
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 Internet Protocols
• ARPANET: Network Control Protocol (NCP)
• Protocol: collection of network data rules
– Includes transmission rules
– Computers must use same protocol
• Proprietary architecture (closed architecture)
– Manufacturer creates own protocol
• Open architecture (Internet core)
– Uses common protocol
– Four key message-handling rules
– Contributed to the Internet’s success

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 TCP/IP
• Internet protocols
– Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Controls message, file disassembly into packets before
Internet transmission
• Controls packet reassembly into original formats at
destinations
– Internet Protocol (IP)
• Specifies addressing details for each packet
• Labels packet with origination and destination
addresses
• TCP/IP refers to both protocols
– Used today (replaced ARPANET NCP)
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 IP Addressing
• Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
– Used for past 20 years
• IP address
– 32-bit number identifying computers
• Base 2 (binary) number system
– Computers use for internal calculations
– Digit: 0 or a 1 (on or off condition)
• Byte (8-bit number)
– Octet (networking applications)
• Binary values: 00000000 to 11111111
• Decimal equivalents: 0 to 255
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 IP Addressing (cont’d.)

• Dotted decimal notation

– IP numbers (addresses)
• Four numbers separated by periods
• Four parts range from 0 to 255
– IP addresses range: 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
• Three organizations assign IP addresses
• Whois server
– Returns IP address list owned by an organization

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 IP Addressing (cont’d.)

• High demand for IP addresses

• Subnetting
– Use reserved private IP LAN (WAN) addresses
• Provide additional address space
• Private IP addresses
– IP numbers not permitted on Internet packets
• Network Address Translation (NAT) device
– Converts private IP addresses into normal IP
addresses

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 IP Addressing (cont’d.)
• Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)
– Replace IPv4 (future)
• Not directly compatible
– Advantages
• 128-bit number for addresses
• (228): 34 followed by 37 zeros
• Packet format change eliminates unnecessary fields
• Adds fields for security, other optional information
– Shorthand notation system for expressing addresses
(complex eight groups of 16 bits)
• Group expressed as four hexadecimal digits separated
by colons
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 Domain Names
• Dotted decimal notation difficult to remember
• Domain names
– Sets of words assigned to specific IP addresses
– Example: www.sandiego.edu
• Contains three parts separated by periods
• Top-level domain (TLD): rightmost part
• Generic top-level domains (gTLDs)
• Sponsored top-level domains (sTLD)
– Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN)
• Responsibility: managing non-sTLD

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 Web Page Request and Delivery
Protocols
• Web client computers
– Web client software (Web browser software)
• Sends Web page file requests to other computers (Web
servers)
• Web server computer
– Web server software
• Receives requests from many different Web clients
• Client/server architecture
– Combination: client computers, server computers

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 Web Page Request and Delivery
Protocols (cont’d.)
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
– Internet Web page file delivery rules
• Web page request using Web browser
– Type of protocol name followed by “//:” before domain
name
– Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
• Combination: protocol name, domain name
• Locate resource (Web page) on another computer
(Web server)

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 Electronic Mail Protocols
• Electronic mail (e-mail)
– Formatted according to common set of rules
– Client/server structure
• E-mail server
– Computer devoted to e-mail handling
– Stores, forwards e-mail messages
• E-mail client software
– Read and send e-mail
– Communicates with e-mail server software
• Standardization and rules very important

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 Electronic Mail Protocols (cont’d.)

• Two common protocols

– Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Specifies mail message format
• Describes mail administration e-mail server
• Describes mail transmission on the Internet
– Post Office Protocol (POP)
• Sends mail to user’s computer, deletes from server
• Sends mail to user’s computer, does not delete
• Asks if new mail arrived

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 Electronic Mail Protocols (cont’d.)

• Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)

– Set of rules for handling binary files
• Interactive Mail Access Protocol (IMAP)
– Newer e-mail protocol
• Same basic POP functions
• Includes additional features

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 Unsolicited Commercial E-Mail
(UCE, Spam)
• Spam
– Unsolicited commercial e-mail (UCE)
– Bulk mail
– Electronic junk mail
• Wastes people’s time and computer disk space
• Consumes large amounts of Internet capacity
• Distracts employees

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 Markup Languages and the Web
• Text markup language
– Specifies tag set inserted into text
• Markup tags (tags)
– Formatting instructions Web client understands
• HTML
– Web markup language
• Most commonly used
– Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML)
subset
• Older, more complex text markup language
• Meta language: used to define other languages

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 Markup Languages and the Web
(cont’d.)
• Extensible Markup Language (XML)
– Derived from SGML
– Mark up shared information
– Meta language
• Creates markup elements extending XML usefulness
• World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
– Maintains Web standards
• Extensible Hypertext Markup Language (XHTML)
– HTML version 4.0 reformulation as XML application

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 Standard Generalized Markup
Language
• Generalized Markup Language (GML)
– Creates standard electronic document formatting
styles
• International Organization for Standardization
(ISO)
– Adopted version of GML (SGML)
• System of marking up documents
• Software application independent
• Nonproprietary, platform independent
• Offers user-defined tags
• Not suited to rapid Web page development

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 Hypertext Markup Language

• Hypertext elements
– Text elements related to each other
• HTML
– Prevalent markup language to create Web documents
– W3C HTML Working Group page
• Detailed HTML versions, related topic information
• HTML extensions
– Features that work in specific Web browsers

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 Hypertext Markup Language (cont’d.)
• HTML tags
– Interpreted by Web browser
– Format text display
– Enclosed in angle brackets (<>)
• Opening tag and closing tag
– Format text between them
• Closing tag
– Preceded by slash within angle brackets (</>)
• User may customize tag interpretations
• Tags: lowercase or uppercase letters

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 Hypertext Markup Language (cont’d.)

• One-sided tags
– Require opening tag only
• Two-sided tags
– Optional closing tag
– Closing tag position very important
• Opening tag may contain one or more property
modifiers
– Further refine tag operation
• Other frequently used HTML tags
– Graphics and tables
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 Hypertext Markup Language (cont’d.)

• HTML links
– Hyperlinks form interlinked pages that form a “web”
• Linear hyperlink structure
– Read Web page in serial fashion
– Good for when customer fills out form
• Hierarchical hyperlink structure
– Introductory page (home page, start page) links to
other pages
– Leads customers from general to specific topics
• Hybrid designs combine linear and hierarchical
structures
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 Hypertext Markup Language (cont’d.)
• Scripting languages and style sheets
• HTML version released (after 1997)
– Object tag
• Embeds scripting language code on HTML pages
• Client-side scripting
– Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
• More control over displayed page format
– Style sheet
• Instructions stored in separate file
• Referenced using HTML style tag
• May be included in Web page’s HTML file

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 Extensible Markup Language (XML)

• Web design tool

– Web pages contain large amounts of data, lists
• Includes data-management capabilities
– HTML cannot provide
• See Figures 2-10 and 2-11
– Illustrate HTML shortcomings in presenting lists
• XML different from HTML
– XML is not a markup language with defined tags
– XML tags do not specify text appearance on page

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• Figures 2-12 and 2-13
– Advantages of XML list presentation
• More effectively communicate the meaning of data
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 Extensible Markup Language (XML)
(cont’d.)
• Strength of XML
– Allows users to define their own tags (weakness as
well)
• Solution to user tag definitions
– Common XML tags standards
• Data-type definitions (DTDs) or XML schemas
– 2001: W3C released set of rules for XML documents
• XML files not intended to display in browser
– Extensible Stylesheet Language (XSL)
• Contains formatting instructions
– XML parsers: format XML file for device screen
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 HTML and XML Editors

• HTML document creation

– General-purpose text editor or word processor
– Special-purpose HTML editors
• Freeware, shareware, commercial
– Web site design tools
• Create and manage complete Web sites
• Upload entire site from PC to Web server
• Example: Adobe Dreamweaver
• XML files
– Created with text editor or programs

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 Intranets and Extranets
• internets (small “i”)
– Interconnected networks
– Do not extend beyond organizational boundaries
• Intranet
– Interconnected network (or internet)
• Uses TCP/IP protocol set
• Does not extend beyond creating organization
• Extranet
– Intranet extended
• Includes specific entities outside organization
boundaries

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 Intranets

• Distribute internal corporate information

– Low-cost, efficient
• Client/server model-based
– Requests work same way as on the Internet
• Web browsers, Internet-based protocols used
• Reduces software maintenance, update costs
– Employees’ computer workstations
• Script used to update workstations automatically

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 Extranets

• Connects company with suppliers, business

partners, other authorized users
– Database access, files, other information
• Set up through the Internet or separate network
• Some extranets start as intranets
– Select Internet users’ data access
– Example: FedEx package-tracking software

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 Public and Private Networks

• Public network
– Public availability
• Private network
– Private, leased-line connection
– Physically connects intranets to one another
• Leased line
– Permanent telephone connection between two points
– Advantage: security
– Drawback: costs
• Scaling problem: adding companies
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 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

• Extranet using public networks and protocols

– Sends sensitive data
– Uses IP tunneling (encapsulation) system
• Private passageway through public Internet
• Secure transmission: one computer to another
– Encapsulation
– Process of creating virtual passageway VPN software
• Encrypts packet content, places inside another packet
• IP wrapper: outer packet
– VPN software installed on both computers

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• Leased lines not required
• Infrastructure required outside company’s intranet
• Extranets sometimes confused with VPNs
– VPN is an extranet
– Extranet not necessarily a VPN
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 Internet Connection Options

• Internet
– Set of interconnected networks
• Organizations connect computers using a network
• Internet access providers (IAPs) or ISPs
– Provide Internet access to:
• Individuals, businesses, other organizations
– Offer several connection options

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 Connectivity Overview
• Common connection options
– Voice-grade telephone lines, various types of
broadband connections, leased lines, wireless
• Distinguishing factor
– Bandwidth
• Amount of data traveling through communication line
per unit of time
• Net bandwidth
– Actual speed information travels
• Symmetric connections
– Provide same bandwidth in both directions
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 Connectivity Overview (cont’d.)

• Asymmetric connections
– Provide different bandwidths for each direction
• Upstream bandwidth (upload bandwidth)
– Amount of information from user to the Internet in a
given amount of time
• Downstream bandwidth (download, downlink
bandwidth)
– Amount of information from the Internet to user in a
given amount of time

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 Voice-Grade Telephone Connections

• Local telephone service provider

– Most common way for an individual to connect to ISP
• Plain old telephone service (POTS)
– Uses existing telephone lines, analog modem
• Bandwidth between 28 and 56 Kbps
• Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) protocol
– Higher grade
– Use DSL modem
• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
– First technology developed using DSL protocol suite
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 Broadband Connections
• Connection speeds greater than 200 Kbps
– Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL)
• DSL protocol providing broadband range service
– High-speed DSL (HDSL)
• More than 768 Kbps symmetric bandwidth
– Cable modems
• Transmission speeds: 300 Kbps to 1 Mbps
• Connection bandwidths vary
• Subscribers compete for shared resource
– DSL: Private line with no competing traffic
• Rural connection option issues
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 Leased-Line Connections

• More expensive technologies

– Classified by equivalent number of telephone lines
included
• DS0 (digital signal zero)
– Carries one digital signal (56 Kbps)
• T1 line (DS1)
– Carries 24 DS0 lines (1.544 Mbps)
• Fractional T1
– 128 Kbps and upward in 128-Kbps increments
• T3 (DS3): 44.736 Mbps
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 Leased-Line Connections (cont’d.)

• NAPs and Internet backbone use:

– Frame relay
– Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
– Optical fiber (instead of copper wire)
• Bandwidth determined by fiber-optic cable class
• OC3 (optical carrier 3): 156 Mbps
• OC12: 622 Mbps
• OC48: 2.5 Gbps
• OC192: 10 Gbps

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 Wireless Connections

• Satellite sent microwave transmissions

– Download speeds (500 Kbps)
– Upload handled by POTS modem connection
• Today, companies use microwave transmitter (150
Kbps)
– Costs, accuracy improving
– POTS modem upload connection not required
• Wireless devices
– 34 percent of Internet users use wireless devices

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 Wireless Connections (cont’d.)

• Bluetooth and Ultra Wideband (UWB)

• Bluetooth design for use over short distances
– Low-bandwidth technology (722 Kbps)
– Personal area networks (PANs) or piconets
• Small Bluetooth networks
– Advantage: consumes very little power
• Ultra Wideband (UWB)
– 480 Mbps
– Connections over short distances (30 to 100 feet)
– Future personal area networking applications
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 Wireless Connections (cont’d.)

• Wireless Ethernet (Wi-Fi)

– Wi-Fi (wireless Ethernet, 802.11b)
– Wireless access point (WAP)
• Transmits packets between Wi-Fi-equipped computers
and other devices within range
– 802.11b (11 Mbps): range of about 300 feet
– 802.11a (54 Mbps): not 802.11b compatible
– 802.11g (54 Mbps): 802.11b compatible

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 Wireless Connections (cont’d.)

• Wireless Ethernet (Wi-Fi) (cont’d.)

– 802.11n: “Draft-N” (300 to 450 Mbps range)
• Small office home office (SOHO) market
• Finalized specification: 2009 or 2010
– Roaming
• Shifting from one WAP to another
• No user intervention
– Hot spots
• WAPs open to public

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 Wireless Connections (cont’d.)

• Fixed-point wireless
– System of repeaters
• Forward radio signal from ISP to customers
– Repeaters
• Transmitter-receiver devices (transceivers)
– Uses mesh routing
• Directly transmits Wi-Fi packets through short-range
transceivers (hundreds or thousands)
• Located close to each other

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 Wireless Connections (cont’d.)

• Cellular telephone networks

– Broadcast signals to (receive signals from) antennas
• Three miles apart in grid
– Original design
• Voice communications
– Third-generation (3G) cell phones
• Combine latest technologies available today
– Short message service (SMS) protocol
• Send and receive short text messages
– Cell phones may include tiny Web browsers
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 Internet2 and the Semantic Web

• Internet2
– Replacement for original ARPANET laboratory
– Experimental networking technologies test bed
– High end of the bandwidth spectrum (10 GB)
– Universities, medical schools, CERN
– Focus
• Mainly technology development

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 Internet2 and the Semantic Web
(cont’d.)
• Semantic Web project (next-generation Web)
– Focus
• Blending technologies and information
– Uses software agents (intelligent programs)
• Read XML tags
• Determine meaning of words in their contexts
– Resource description framework (RDF)
• Set of XML syntax standards
– Development of Semantic Web will take many years
• Start with ontologies for specific subjects

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 Summary

• In this chapter, you were introduced to:

– History of the Internet and Web
– Hardware and software technology
• Make electronic commerce possible
– How the Internet and World Wide Web work
– Technologies supporting the Internet, the Web,
electronic commerce
• Protocols, programs, languages, architectures
• TCP/IP
• HTML, SGML, XML

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 Summary (cont’d.)
– Networking technologies
• Internets, intranets, and extranets
– Types of Internet connections
– Internet2
– Semantic Web project

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