By

Dr.N.S.Balaji
Faculty-Production Engineering Dept.
NIT-Trichy
 Strength of Materials :
• Strength of materials, also called Mechanics of
materials, is a subject which deals with the behavior of
solid objects subject to stresses and strains.

• The study of strength of materials often refers to various

methods of calculating the stresses and strains in
structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts.
• A rigid body i s defined as a body on which
the distance between two points never
changes whatever be the force applied on it.

Practically, there is no rigid body.

A deformable body is defined as a body on which
the distance between two points changes under
action of some forces when applied on it.
Axial loading occurs when an object is loaded
so that the force is normal to the axis that is
fixed.
Insafety Nets, Tension acts in both
X & Y directions.
Water’s weight is distributed uniformlyall
over the dams.
The thermal load applied on the rails
continuously.
The loads in the strings of suspension bridge
varies uniformly.
Ironing !
 Ductility is a solid material's
ability to deform under tensile
stress.

Copper wires
• A material is brittle if, when subjected to
stress, it breaks without insignificant
deformation.
Glass is a good
example.
Archery
Destruction of buildings
Stiffness is the rigidity of an object the extent to
which it resists deformation in response to an
applied force

Golf bats have high stiffness

 STRESS STRAIN AND
DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS
DEFORMABLE SOLID BODY
• A solid body which change its linear or angular dimensions or deform
under certain conditions.
• The studies of deformable solid bodies is called as ‘strength of
materials’ or ‘mechanics of solids’

STRENGTH
• It is the property of greatest stress that the material can withstand prior
to failure.
STRESS:
• The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against
deformation is known as stress.
• Stress = Applied Force (P)
CrossSectionalArea (A)

The normal stresses are generally denoted by a Greek letter ( σ )

• Units: Usually N/m2 (Pa), N/mm2, MN/m2, GN/m2 or

N/cm2
• Note: 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 = 1 MPa
Types of stress
Stresses are three types Normal Stress (tensile,
compressive) and shear stress.

e.g. Bending stress is a combination of tensile and

compressive stress.
Torsional stress,as encountered in twisting of
a shaft is a shearing stress

Compression

Tension

Direct stress may be tensile, σt or compressive, σc and

result from forces acting perpendicular to the plane of
the cross-section
 Tensile stress:
• Is the stress state leading to expansion; that is, the
length of a material tends to increase in the tensile
direction.

This is an example
of tensile stress tester
(Universal Testing
Machine)
 Compressive stress:
• A force that attempts to squeeze or compress a material.

• Here, the Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is testing a

concrete block.
Skating
Mathematically stress is written as,

P σ - Stress in N/sq mm
σ = ---- P - Load in N
A A- Area of the section where the
load is applied.
SHEAR STRESS
 Mathematically stress is written as,

P σ - Stress in N/sq mm
σ = ---- P - Load in N
A A- Area of the section where the
load is applied.
STRAIN:
Strain is nothing but deformation (change in length, breadth,
height, diameter, therefore area or volume) of the body or material
due to load. Therefore strain is change in dimension to the original
dimension. It may be length or volume.
δL
ε = ------ δL – Change in length
L L – Original length
 TYPES OF STRAINS
 Linear Strain
Linear strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the
change in length of the body due to the deformation to its original
length in the direction of the force. If l is the original length and δl the
change in length occurred due to the deformation, the linear strain e
induced is given by
e=δl/l.

P P

L δL

Linear strain may be a tensile strain , et or a compressive strain ec

according as δl refers to an increase in length or a decrease in length of
the body. If we consider one of these as +ve then the other should be
considered as –ve, as these are opposite in nature.
 Lateral Strain
Lateral strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the
change in length (breadth of a rectangular bar or diameter of a circular
bar) of the body due to the deformation to its original length (breadth
of a rectangular bar or diameter of a circular bar) in the direction
perpendicular to the force.
 Volumetric Strain
Volumetric strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the
change in volume of the body to the deformation to its original volume.
If V is the original volume and δV the change in volume occurred due to
the deformation, the volumetric strain ev induced is given by ev =δV/V
V = lbd
δV = δl bd + δb ld + δd lb
δV /V = (δl / l) + (δb / b) + (δd / d)
ev = ex +ey +ez
This means that volumetric strain of a deformed body is
the sum of the linear strains in three mutually perpendicular
directions.
 Shear Strain
Shear strain is defined as the strain accompanying a shearing action.
It is the angle in radian measure through which the body gets distorted
when subjected to an external shearing action. It is denoted by Ф.
D Q D’ C C’

A Q B

Consider a cube ABCD subjected to equal and opposite forces Q

across the top and bottom forces AB and CD. If the bottom face is taken
fixed, the cube gets distorted through angle  to the shape ABC’D’. Now
strain or deformation per unit length is
Shear strain of cube = CC’ / CD = CC’ / BC =  radian
There are the formulas for calculating Change in
length values
PL
• δL = -------
AE
uniformly varying circular section
4PL
• δL = -----------
П Ed(1)d(2)
uniformly varying rectangular section a>b
PL
(iii) δL = ---------- loge(a/b)
Et(a-b)
Where ,
P=load, L = length, A =Area, E= Young's modulus
D = diameter,
 Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that stress is proportional to strain upto elastic
limit. If I is the stress induced in a material and e the corresponding
strain, then according to Hooke’s law,
p / e = E, a constant.
This constant E is called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s
Modulus, (named after the English scientist Thomas Young).
E
. lastic Constants
Elastic constants are used to express the relationship between stresses
and strains. Hooke’s law , is stress/strain = a constant, within a certain
limit. This means that any stress/corresponding strain = a constant,
within certain limit.
Poisson’s ratio
It is ratio of the lateral strain to the linear (axial strain),within the
elastic limit.
It is denoted by µ or 1/m.
It varies from 0.25-0.33
 POISSON’S RATIO
• When body subjected to axial tensile force, it elongates
and contracts laterally
Similarly, it will contract and its sides
expand laterally when subjected to an axial
compressive force.
When a material is compressed in one direction, it usually tends to
expand in the other two directions perpendicular to the direction
of compression.
This phenomenon is called the Poisson Effect.
 (i)Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (E)
Modulus of Elasticity is the ratio of direct stress to corresponding
linear strain within elastic limit. If p is any direct stress below the
elastic limit and e the corresponding linear strain, then E = p / e.

(ii)Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)

Modulus of Rigidity is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain within
elastic limit. It is denoted by N,C or G. if q is the shear stress within
elastic limit and  the corresponding shear strain, then G = q / .
(iii) Bulk Modulus (K)
Bulk Modulus is the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain
within the elastic limit. If pv is the volumetric stress within elastic limit
and ev the corresponding volumetric strain, we have K = pv / ev.
 STRESS- STRAIN CURVE

The stress–strain curve is a graphical

representation of the relationship between stress,
derived from measuring the load applied on the
sample, and strain, derived from measuring
the deformation of the sample,
Ultimate Stress (determined while testing) the highest point
in stress strain curve before fracture.
Elastic Range: Range on the stress strain curve up to the
elastic or proportional limit.
Elastic Limit-Proportional Limit: point on the stress strain
curve up to which if load is removed the material will return
back to its original length and shape

Yield Point: the point on the stress strain curve after which
the specimen/material will not return to its original length and
shape. The crystal structure of the specimen/material begins
to change up to plastic limit.

Plastic-Strain hardening Range: Range between Yield and

Ultimate Stress.
Toughness: Measure of how much force is required to deform
the material to breaking point. The area under the stress strain
diagram.

Hardness: Resistance of the material to penetration.

Resilience: The ability of the material to absorb energy
Fatigue: Materials response and failure in form of fracture
under constant repeated loading.
S-N Curve for fatigue- Stress vs. Number of Cycles of applied
load.
 CLASS WORK
1.A rod of 150 cm long and diameter 2.0 cm is subjected
to an axial pull of 20 KN. If the modulus of elasticity of
the material of the rod is 2x 105 N/mm2 Determine
1.Stress
2. Strain 3. the elongation of the rod.
2.The extension in a rectangular steel bar of length 400mm
and thickness 10mm is found to 0.21mm .The bar tapers
uniformly in width from 100 mm to 50 mm. If E for the
bar is 2x105 N/mm2 ,Determine the axial load on the bar.
3. Find the young’s modulus of a rod of diameter 30mm
and of length 300 mm which is subjected to a tensile
load of 60 KN and the extension of the rod is equal to 0.4
mm .
Limits 0 to L
PL
Therefore total expansion = ---------- loge(a/b)
Et(a-b)
ANALYSIS OF BARS OF COMPOSITE SECTIONS
 ELASTIC CONSTA NTS

Young’s modulus, Bulk modulus, and Rigidity modulus of any elastic solid
are together called as Elastic constants.
When a deforming force is acting on a solid. It results in the change in its
original dimension. In such cases, we can use the relation between elastic
constants to understand the magnitude of deformation.
Elastic constant formula

Where,
K is the Bulk modulus
G is shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.
E is Young’s modulus or modulus of Elasticity.

Individually Young’s modulus and bulk modulus and modulus of rigidity are related as