GERAK SATU DIMENSI

Terminology
• Mechanics = Study of objects in motion.
– 2 parts to mechanics.
• Kinematics = Description of HOW objects move.

• Dynamics = WHY objects move.

 Topics
• Kerangka Acun dan Perpindahan
• Kecepatan rata-rata
• Kecepatan Sesaat
• Percepatan
• Gerak dengan percepatan tetap ( GLBB)
• Solving Problems
• Gerak jatuh bebas
 Kerangka acuan dan Perpindahan
• Setiapa gerak di ukur dan suatu rkerangka acuan
biasanya kecepatan relatif terhadap bumi

• Sebagai contoh seseorang yang berjalan kearah depan kereta api akn
melihat kecepatannya akan bertambah cepat terhadap stasiun/tanah
• Jika ia berjalan dengan kecematan 5 km/janm terhadap lantai
kereta dan kereta berjalan dengan kecepatan 80 km/jam maka
kecepatan orang itu terhadap stasiun/tanah menjadi 85 km/jam
 Displacement & Distance
• Distance traveled by an object
 displacement of the object!

• Displacement = change in position of object.

• Displacement is a vector (magnitude & direction).
Distance is a scalar (magnitude).
• Figure: distance = 100 m, displacement = 40 m East
 Displacement
t1 t2  times
 

The arrow represents the displacement (in meters).

x1 = 10 m, x2 = 30 m
Displacement  ∆x = x2 - x1 = 20 m
∆  Greek letter “delta” meaning “change in”
 x1 = 30 m, x2 = 10 m
Displacement  ∆x = x2 - x1 = - 20 m
Displacement is a VECTOR
 Average Velocity
Scalar→Average Speed  (Distance traveled)/(Time taken)
Vector→Average Velocity  (Displacement)/(Time taken)

• Velocity: Both magnitude & direction

describing how fast an object is moving. A
VECTOR. (Similar to displacement).
• Speed: Magnitude only describing how fast an
object is moving. A SCALAR. (Similar to distance).
• Units: distance/time = m/s
 Average Velocity, Average Speed
• Displacement from before. Walk for 70 s.

• Average Speed = (100 m)/(70 s) = 1.4 m/s

• Average velocity = (40 m)/(70 s) = 0.57 m/s
 • In general:

t1 t2  times
 

∆x = x2 - x1 = displacement
∆t = t2 - t1 = elapsed time
Average Velocity:
= (x2 - x1)/(t2 - t1)
Bar denotes average
 Example 2-1
• Person runs from x1 = 50.0 m to x2 = 30.5 m
in ∆t = 3.0 s. ∆x = -19.5 m

Average velocity = (∆x)/(∆t)

= -(19.5 m)/(3.0 s) = -6.5 m/s. Negative sign
indicates DIRECTION, (negative x direction)
 Sect. 2-3: Instantaneous Velocity
 velocity at any instant of time
 average velocity over an infinitesimally short time
• Mathematically, instantaneous velocity:

 ratio considered as a whole for smaller & smaller ∆t. As

you should know, mathematicians call this a derivative.

 Instantaneous velocity
v ≡ time derivative of displacement x
 instantaneous velocity =
These graphs show average velocity

(a) constant velocity  

and

instantaneous velocity
 average velocity

(b) varying velocity 

The instantaneous velocity is the average
velocity in the limit as the time interval
becomes infinitesimally short.

Ideally, a speedometer would

measure instantaneous velocity; in
fact, it measures average velocity,
but over a very short time interval.
 On a graph of a particle’s position vs. time, the
instantaneous velocity is the slope of the tangent to
the curve at any point.
 Example 2-3: Given x as a function of t.
A jet engine moves along a
experimental track (called the x axis)
as shown. Treat the engine as if it
were a particle. Its position as a
function of time is given by the
equation x = At2 + B, where A =
2.10 m/s2 & B = 2.80 m.
(a) Find the displacement of the
engine during the time interval from t1
= 3.00 s to t2 = 5.00 s.
(b) Find the average velocity during
this time interval.
(c) Determine the magnitude of the Work on the board!
instantaneous velocity at t = 500 s.
 Sect. 2-4: Acceleration
• Velocity can change with time. An object with
velocity that is changing with time is said to be
accelerating.
• Definition: Average acceleration = ratio of
change in velocity to elapsed time.
a = (v2 - v1)/(t2 - t1)
– Acceleration is a vector.
• Instantaneous acceleration

• Units: velocity/time = distance/(time)2 = m/s2

Example 2-4: Average Acceleration
A car accelerates along a straight road
from rest to 90 km/h in 5.0 s. Find the
magnitude of its average acceleration.
Note: 90 km/h = 25 m/s
a= = (25 m/s – 0 m/s)/5 s = 5 m/s2
 Conceptual Question
1. Velocity & acceleration are both vectors.
Are the velocity and the acceleration
always in the same direction?
NO!!

If the object is slowing down, the

acceleration vector is in the opposite
direction of the velocity vector!
 Example 2-6: Car Slowing Down
A car moves to the right on
a straight highway (positive
x-axis). The driver puts on
the brakes. If the initial
velocity (when the driver hits
the brakes) is v1 = 15.0 m/s.
It takes 5.0 s to slow down
to v2 = 5.0 m/s. Calculate the
car’s average acceleration.

a= = (v2 – v1)/(t2 – t1) = (5 m/s – 15 m/s)/(5s – 0s)

a = - 2.0 m/s2
 Deceleration
The same car is moving
to the left instead of to
the right. Still assume
positive x is to the right.
The car is decelerating
& the initial & final
velocities are the same
as before. Calculate the
average acceleration
now.

• “Deceleration”: A word which means “slowing down”.

We try to avoid using it in physics. Instead (in one
dimension), we talk about positive & negative acceleration.
• This is because (for one dimensional motion) deceleration does
not necessarily mean the acceleration is negative!
Examples
As already noted, the instantaneous acceleration is
the average acceleration in the limit as the time
interval becomes infinitesimally short.

The instantaneous slope of

the velocity versus time
curve is the instantaneous
acceleration.
Example 2-7: Acceleration given x(t). A particle moves in a straight line
so that its position is given by x = (2.10 m/s2)t2 + (2.80 m). Calculate: (a) its
average acceleration during the time interval from t1 = 3 s to t2 = 5 s, & (b) its
instantaneous acceleration as a function of time.
In this case, position vs Velocity vs time curve is a Acceleration is constant
time curve is a parabola straight line here!
 

position vs time curve velocity vs time curve acceleration vs time curve

Velocity v(t) = time derivative of position x(t): v(t) = = (4.2)t. Accleration a(t) = time
derivative of velocity v(t): a(t) = = 4.2 m/s2 . So, answer to part (b): 4.2 m/s2 . (Note: The
acceleration is the 2nd derivative of the position!) Solution (a): At t1 = 3 s , v1 = (4.2)(3) =
12.6 m/s. At t2 = 5 s , v2 = (4.2)(5) = 21 m/s. So, average acceleration
a= = (21 m/s – 12.6 m/s)/(5 s – 3 s) = 4.2 m/s2. It makes sense that the average
& instantaneous accelerations are the same, because the acceleration is constant!
Conceptual Example 2-8: Analyzing with graphs: The figure
shows the velocity v(t) as a function of time for 2 cars, both accelerating from
0 to 100 km/h in a time 10.0 s. Compare (a) the average acceleration; (b) the
instantaneous acceleration; & (c) the total distance traveled for the 2 cars.
Solution: (a) Ave. acceleration:
a = Both have the same ∆v & the
same ∆t so a is the same for both.

(b) Instantaneous acceleration:

a= = slope of tangent to v vs t
curve. For about the first 4 s, curve A
is steeper than curve B, so car A has
greater a than car B for times t = 0 to
t = 4 s. Curve B is steeper than curve
A, so car B has greater a than car A
for times t greater than about t = 4 s.

(c) Total distance traveled: Except for t = 0 & t = 10 s, car A is moving

faster than car B. So, car A will travel farther than car B in the same time.
Example (for you to work!) : Calculating Average Velocity & Speed
Problem: Use the figure & table to find the displacement & the average
velocity of the car between positions (A) & (F).
 Example (for you to work!) : Average & Instantaneous Velocity
Problem: A particle moves along the x axis. Its x coordinate varies with time as
x = -4t + 2t2. x is in meters & t is in seconds. The position-time graph for this
motion is in the figure.
a) Determine the displacement
of the particle in the time
intervals t = 0 to t = 1 s &
t = 1 s to t = 3 s (A to B & B to C)

b) Calculate the average velocity

in the time intervals t = 0 to
t = 1 s & t = 1 s to t = 3 s
(A to B & B to C)

c) Calculate the instantaneous

velocity of the particle at
t = 2.5 s (point C) .
 Example (for you to work!) : Graphical Relations between x, v, & a
Problem: The position of an object moving along the x axis varies with time as in the
figure. Graph the velocity versus time and acceleration versus time curves for the object.
Example (for you to work!) : Average & Instantaneous Acceleration
Problem: The velocity of a particle moving along the x axis varies in time
according to the expression v = (44 - 10t 2), where t is in seconds.

a) Find the average acceleration

in the time interval
t = 0 to t = 2.0 s.

b) Find the acceleration at t = 2.0 s.

Sect. 2-5: Motion at Constant Acceleration
 Constant Acceleration
• Many practical situations:
– The magnitude of the acceleration is
uniform (constant)
– The motion is in a straight line

• It’s useful to derive some equations which

apply in this case ONLY.
– The kinematic equations for constant
(uniform) acceleration in one dimension.
 Constant Acceleration
• Derivation is in the text. Also done in class. Also on next slide! Read on your own!

• In the derivation, its useful to change notation slightly

t1  0 = time when the problem begins
x1  x0 = initial position (at t1 = 0, often x0 = 0)
v1  v0 = initial velocity (at t1 = 0)
t2  t = time when we wish to know other quantities
x2  x = position at time t
v2  v = velocity at time t
a  acceleration = constant
(average & instantaneous accelerations are equal)
• By definition we have:

– Average velocity:
v = (x - x0)/t (1)
– Acceleration (average = instantaneous):
a = (v - v0)/t (2)
– Average velocity (another form):
v = (½)(v + v0) (3)
Derivation on the board!
 Constant Acceleration Equations
• Results (one-dimensional motion only!):
v = v0 + at (1)
x = x0 + v0 t + (½)a t2 (2)
v2 = (v0)2 + 2a (x - x0) (3)
v = (½) (v + v0) (4)

NOT VALID UNLESS a = CONSTANT!!!

Often, x0 = 0. Sometimes v0 = 0
 Physics and Equations
• IMPORTANT!!!
– Even though these equations & their applications
are important, Physics is not a collection of
formulas to memorize & blindly apply!
– Physics is a set of PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES.
– Blindly searching for the “equation which will
work for this problem” is DANGEROUS!!!!
– On exams, you get to have an 3´´  5´´ index card
with anything written on it (both sides) you wish.
On quizzes, I will give you relevant formulas.
All we need for 1 dimensional constant-acceleration problems:
NOT VALID UNLESS a = CONSTANT!!!
 Problem Solving Strategies
1. Read the whole problem. Make sure you understand it. Read it again.
2. Decide on the objects under study & what the time interval is.
3. Draw a diagram & choose coordinate axes.
4. Write down the known (given) quantities, & the unknown ones needed.
5. What physics applies? Plan an approach to a solution.
6. Which equations relate known & unknown quantities? Are they valid
in this situation? Solve algebraically for the unknown quantities, & check that your result
is sensible (correct dimensions).

7. Calculate the solution, round it to appropriate number of significant figures.

8. Look at the result - is it reasonable? Does it agree with a rough estimate?
9. Check the units again.
 Bottom Line:

THINK!

DO NOT BLINDLY

APPLY FORMULAS!!!!
 Example 2-9: Runway Design
You’re designing an airport. A plane that will use this airport must reach a speed
of vmin = 100 km/h (27.8 m/s). It can accelerate at a = 2 m/s2. (a) If the runway
is x = 150 m long, can this plane reach the speed of before it runs off the end of
the runway? (b) If not, what is the minimum length required for the runway?
Solutions Table of Knowns & Unknowns
(a) Use Eq. (3):
v2 = (v0)2 + 2a(x – x0)
v2 = 0 + 2(2.0)(150 – 0) = 600 m/s2
So v = (600)½ = 24.5 m/s
Note that this  means take the
square root! That matters!
(b) Use Eq. (3) again with
v = vmin = 27.8 m/s. Solve for (1)
x – x0 = [v2 – (v0)2]/(2a)
x = [(27.8)2 – 0]/[2(2.0)]
(2)
So x = 193 m. (3)
To be safe, make the runway
(4)
200 m long!
 Example 2-10: Acceleration of a Car
How long does it take a car to cross a 30 m wide intersection after
the light turns green if it accelerates at a constant 2.0 m/s2?

Obviously, it 
starts from rest!!

Known: x0 = 0, x = 30 m, v0 = 0, a = 2.0 m/s2

Wanted: t. Use: x = x0 + v0t + (½)at2 = 0 + 0 + (½)at2
 t = (2x/a)½ = 5.48 s
NOTE! The square root matters!
 Example 2-11: Air Bags
You need to design an air bag system that can protect the driver at a
speed of 100 km/h = 28 m/s (60 mph) if the car hits a brick wall.
Estimate how fast the air bag must inflate to effectively protect the
driver. How does the use of a seat belt help the driver?
Known: x0 = v0 = 28 m/s v=0
Car obviously stops when crash ends! 
Wanted unknown: t.
But we don’t know acceleration a or
distance x either! Estimate x = 1.0 m
This has to be a 2 step problem! First, use
(2) to solve for a: 0 = (v0)2 + 2a(x – 0) so
a = - (v0)2∕(2x) = - (28)2 ∕(2) = - 390 m/s2 (1)
This is a HUGE acceleration!! (2)
Now, use (1) to solve for t: 0 = v0 + at so (3)
t = - (v0) ∕a = 0.07 s !!!
(4)
 Example 2-12: Estimate Breaking Distances

 2
v = v0 = constant = 14 m/s a = - 6.0 m/s , x0 = 7 m
t = 0.50 s, a = 0, x = v0t = 7 m v decreases from 14 m/s to zero
v0 = 14 m/s, v = 0
Note: The 2nd time interval is the v2 = (v0)2 + 2a(x – x0)
actual braking period when the car  x = x0 + [v2 - (v0)2]/(2a)
slows down & comes to a stop. x = 7 m + 16 m = 23 m
Stopping distance depends on 1)
driver’s reaction time, 2) car’s
initial speed, 3) car’s acceleration.
 Example 2-12: Braking distances continued
v = const.

v = v0 + at
Plots for this case: 

Velocity vs time v(t) v(t)

x = x0 + v0t + (½)at2

Position vs time x(t) x(t)

x = v0t
 Example: Fastball

Known: x0 = 0, x = 3.5 m, v0 = 0, v = 44 m/s

Wanted: a Use: v2 = (v0)2 + 2a (x - x0)
 a = (½)[v2 - (v0)2]/(x - x0) = 280 m/s2 !
 Example: Carrier Landing

Problem:
A jet lands on an aircraft carrier at 140 mi/h (63 m/s).

a) Calculate the acceleration (assumed constant) if it

stops in t = 2.0 s due to the arresting cable that
snags the airplane & stops it.

b) If the plane touches down at position x0 = 0,

calculate it’s final position.
Example 2-13: 2 Moving Objects: Police & Speeder
A car, speeding at v0S = 150 km/h (42 m/s) passes a still police car (v0P = 0)
which immediately takes off (accelerates!) in hot pursuit. Using simple
assumptions, such as that the speeder continues at constant speed
v0S = 42 m/s (& also for the acceleration aP of the police car!), ESTIMATE how
long it takes the police car to overtake the speeder. Then ESTIMATE the police
car’s speed at that moment & decide if the assumptions were reasonable.

Note! Before working this problem, we need to work another problem, which
will give us an ESTIMATE of the acceleration aP of the police car. In order to
do this, we take numbers from ads for the type of car the police drive. These
claim that this car can accelerate from rest to 100 km/h (28 m/s) in 5.0 s. Using
v = v0 + aPt with these numbers gives 28 = 0 + aP(5) or aP = 5.6 m/s2. So, to
solve this problem of the police car catching up to the speeder, we use this
ESTIMATE for the acceleration aP
Problem is: A car, speeding at v0S = 150 km/h (42 m/s) passes a still
police car (v0P = 0) which immediately takes off (accelerates!) in hot
pursuit. Assume that the speeder continues at constant speed v0S = 42
m/s & that aP = 5.6 m/s2. ESTIMATE how long it takes the police car to
overtake the speeder. Then ESTIMATE the police car’s speed at that
time & decide if the assumptions were reasonable.

Solution: The speeder moves at constant speed v0S = 42 m/s so, at

some time t later it has moved a distance xS = v0St
In that same time t the police car has moved a distance xP = (½)aPt2
When the police car catches the speeder, the two distances must be the
same. So, we equate them and solve for t: xS = v0St = xP = (½)aPt2.
This is a quadratic equation for t, which has solutions; t = 0 & t = 15 s.
The Problem also asks: ESTIMATE the police car’s speed at that time
(t = 15 s) & decide if the assumptions were reasonable.
Use : vP = v0P + aPt
Gives: vP = 84 m/s (300 km/h ≈ 190 mph!)
Not only unreasonable, but also very dangerous!
For the assumptions we’ve made, the x versus

t & v versus t curves are: 

More reasonable v versus t
curves are: 
Sect. 2-7: Freely Falling Objects
 Freely Falling Objects
• Important & common special case of uniformly
accelerated motion:

“FREE FALL”

Objects falling in Earth’s gravity. Neglect air resistance.

Use one dimensional uniform acceleration equations
(with some changes in notation, as we will see)
Near the surface of the Earth, all objects experience
approximately the same acceleration due to gravity.

This is one of the most common

examples of motion with constant
acceleration.
In the absence of air resistance,
all objects fall with the same
acceleration, although this may
be tricky to tell by testing in an
environment where there is air
resistance.
 Falling Objects
• Experiment:
– Ball & light piece of paper dropped at the same
time. Repeated with wadded up paper.
• Experiment:
– Rock & feather dropped at the same time in air.
Repeated in vacuum.
The acceleration due to gravity at
the Earth’s surface is
Approximately 9.80 m/s2.
At a given location on the Earth & in
the absence of air resistance, all objects
fall with the same constant
acceleration.
• Experiment finds that the acceleration of
falling objects (neglecting air resistance) is
always (approximately) the same, no matter
how light or heavy the object.

• Acceleration due to gravity, a  g

g = 9.8 m/s2 (approximately!)
• The acceleration of falling objects is always
the same, no matter how light or heavy.
• Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2
• First proven by Galileo Galilei

Legend: Dropped
objects off of the
leaning tower of Pisa.
• Acceleration due to gravity
g = 9.8 m/s2 (approximately)
– Depends on location on Earth, latitude, & altitude:
A COMMON MISCONCEPTION!
• Note: My treatment is slightly different than the book’s, but it
is, of course, equivalent!
• To treat motion of falling objects, use the same
equations we already have, but change notation
slightly:
Replace a by g = 9.8 m/s2
– But in the equations it could have a + or a - sign
in front of it! Discuss this next!
• Usually, we consider vertical motion to be in the y
direction, so replace xf by yf and xi by yi (often y0i = 0)
 NOTE!!!
Whenever I (or the author!) write the
symbol g, it ALWAYS means the
POSITIVE numerical value 9.8 m/s2!
It NEVER is negative!!! The sign (+
or -) of the gravitational acceleration
is taken into account in the equations
we now discuss!
 Sign of g in 1d Equations
• Magnitude (size) of g = 9.8 m/s2 (POSITIVE!)
– But, acceleration is a vector (1 dimensional), with 2
possible directions.
– Call these + and -.
– However, which way is + and which way is - is
ARBITRARY & UP TO US!
– May seem “natural” for “up” to be + y and “down”
to be - y, but we could also choose (we sometimes
will!) “down” to be + y and “up” to be - y
– So, in equations g could have a + or a - sign in
front of it, depending on our choice!
 Directions of Velocity & Acceleration
• Objects in free fall ALWAYS have downward
acceleration.
• Still use the same equations for objects thrown
upward with some initial velocity vi
• An object goes up until it stops at some point
& then it falls back down. Acceleration is
always g in the downward direction. For the
first half of flight, the velocity is UPWARD.
 For the first part of the flight, velocity &
acceleration are in opposite directions!
VELOCITY & ACCELERATION

ARE NOT NECESSARILY IN

THE SAME DIRECTION!

 Equations for Bodies in Free Fall
• Written taking “up” as + y!
v = v0 - g t (1)
y = y0 + v0t – (½)gt2 (2)
(v)2 = (v)2 - 2g(y - y0) (3)
vavg = (½)(v + v0) (4)
g = 9.8 m/s2

Often, y0 = 0. Sometimes v0 = 0
 Equations for Bodies in Free Fall
• Written taking “down” as + y!
v = v0 + g t (1)
y = y0 + v0t + (½)gt2 (2)
(v)2 = (v0)2 + 2g(y - y0) (3)
vavg = (½)(v + v0) (4)
g = 9.8 m/s2

Often, y0 = 0. Sometimes v0 = 0
Free Fall Examples
 Example 2-14
v1 = (9.8)(1) Falling from a tower
= 9.8 m/s

v2 = (9.8)(2)
= 19.6 m/s
Note: y is positive
v3 = (9.8)(3) DOWNWARD!
= 29.4 m/s
v = at
y = (½) at2
a = g = 9.8 m/s2
 Example 2-15: Thrown Down From a Tower
Suppose a ball is thrown downward with an initial
velocity of 3.0 m/s, instead of being dropped.
(a) What then would be its position after 1.0 s & 2.0 s?

(b) What would its speed be after 1.0 s & 2.0 s?

Compare with the speeds of a dropped ball.
 Examples 2-16, 2-18, 2-19
v = 0 here
A person throws a ball up into the air with
but still have
initial velocity v0 = 15.0 m/s. Questions:
a = -g
a. Time the top? b. Round trip time?
c. Maximum height? d. Velocity when
Time to the top it comes back to the start?
= (½) round trip e. Times when height y = 8.0 m?
time!

vC = -vA
(= -v0)

vA = v0 = 15 m/s
choose y as positive upward
 a = -g
Example 2-19: Ball thrown upward; the quadratic formula.
For a ball thrown upward at an initial speed of v0 = 15.0 m/s,
calculate the times t the ball passes a point y = 8.0 m above the
person’s hand.
Example 2-20: Ball thrown upward at the edge of a cliff.

A ball is thrown up with initial

velocity v0 = 15.0 m/s, by a
person standing on the edge of a
cliff, so that it can fall to the
base of the cliff 50.0 m below.
Calculate:
a. The time it takes the ball to
reach the base of the cliff.
b. The total distance traveled by
the ball.
Example: Not a bad throw for a rookie!
Problem: A stone is thrown at point (A) from
the top of a building with an initial velocity of v0
= 19.2 m/s straight upward. The building is H =
49.8 m high, and the stone just misses the edge of
the roof on its way down, as in the figure.
Answer these questions:

a) Calculate the time at which the stone

reaches its maximum height.
b) Calculate the maximum height of the stone
above the rooftop.
c) Calculate the time at which the stone returns to
the level of the thrower
d) Calculate the velocity of the stone at this instant.

e) Calculate the velocity & position of the stone

at time t = 5 s
Ch. 4, Motion & Force: DYNAMICS
 Force
Force: “A push or a pull”. F is a VECTOR!

Need vector
addition to
add Forces!
 Classes of Forces “Pushing”
force
“Contact” forces: “Pulling” forces

“Field” forces (Physics II):

 Classes of Forces
• Contact forces involve physical contact
between two objects
– Examples (in pictures): spring force, pulling force,
pushing force
• Field forces act through empty space.
– No physical contact is required.
– Examples (in pictures): gravitation, electrostatic,
magnetic
 Fundamental Forces of Nature
• Gravitational Forces
– Between objects
• Electromagnetic Forces
– Between electric charges
• Nuclear Weak Forces
– Arise in certain radioactive decay processes
• Nuclear Strong Forces
– Between subatomic particles
• Note: These are all field forces!
 Newton’s Laws
• Galileo laid the ground work for Newton’s
Laws.

• Newton: Built on Galileo’s work

• Newton’s 3 Laws: One at a time
 Newton’s First Law

Newton was
born the same
year Galileo
died!

• Newton’s First Law (“Law of Inertia”):

“Every object continues in a state of rest or
uniform motion (constant velocity) in a straight
line unless acted on by a net force.”
 Newton’s First Law of Motion

Inertial Reference frames

Newton’s 1st law doesn’t hold in every reference frame,
such as a reference frame that is accelerating or rotating.
An inertial reference frame is one in which Newton’s
first law is valid. Excludes rotating & accelerating frames.
How can we tell if we are in an inertial reference frame?
By checking to see if Newton’s first law holds!
• Newton’s 1st Law: First stated by Galileo!
 Newton’s First Law

Mathematical Statement of Newton’s 1st Law:

If v = constant, ∑F = 0 OR if v ≠ constant, ∑F ≠ 0
Conceptual Example 4-1: Newton’s first law.

A school bus comes to a sudden stop, and all of

the backpacks on the floor start to slide forward.
What force causes them to do that?
 Newton’s First Law
Alternative Statement
• In the absence of external forces, when
viewed from an inertial reference frame, an
object at rest remains at rest & an object in motion
continues in motion with a constant velocity
– Newton’s 1st Law describes what happens in the
absence of a net force
– Also tells us that when no force acts on an object,
the acceleration of the object is zero
 Inertia & Mass
• Inertia  The tendency of an object to
maintain its state of rest or motion.
• MASS: A measure of the inertia of an object
– Quantity of matter in a body
– Quantify mass by having a standard mass =
Standard Kilogram (kg) (Similar to standards for
length & time).
– SI Unit of Mass = Kilogram (kg)
• cgs unit = gram (g) = 10-3 kg
• Weight: (NOT the same as mass!)
– The force of gravity on an object (later in the chapter).
 Newton’s Second Law (Lab)
• 1st Law: If no net force acts, object remains at rest or
in uniform motion in straight line.
• What if a net force acts? Do Experiments.
• Find, if the net force ∑F  0  The velocity v
changes (in magnitude, in direction or both).
• A change in the velocity v (Δv)
 There is an acceleration a = (Δv/Δt)
OR
A net force acting on a body produces an acceleration!
∑F  a
 Newton’s 2nd Law
• Experiment: The net force ∑F on a body and
the acceleration a of that body are related.
• HOW? Answer by EXPERIMENTS!
– Thousands of experiments over hundreds of years
find (object of mass m):
a  ∑F/m (proportionality)
• We choose the units of force so that this is not just a
proportionality but an equation:
a  ∑F/m
OR: (total!) ∑F = ma
• Newton’s 2nd Law: ∑F = ma
∑F = the net (TOTAL!) force acting on mass m
m = the mass (inertia) of the object.
a = acceleration of object. Description of the
effect of ∑F. ∑F is the cause of a.
• To emphasize that the F in Newton’s 2nd
Law is the TOTAL (net) force on the mass
m, your text writes: Vector
Sum of all
∑F = ma Forces!

∑ = a math symbol meaning sum (capital sigma)

 Based on experiment!
• Newton’s 2nd Law: Not derivable
∑F = ma mathematically!!

A VECTOR equation!! Holds

component by component.
∑Fx = max, ∑Fy = may, ∑Fz = maz

ONE OF THE MOST

FUNDAMENTAL & IMPORTANT
LAWS OF CLASSICAL PHYSICS!!!
 Summary

Newton’s 2nd law is the relation between

acceleration & force. Acceleration is proportional
to force and inversely proportional to mass.
It takes a force to change either the direction of
motion or the speed of an object. More force
means more acceleration; the same force exerted on
a more massive object will yield less acceleration.
Now, a more precise definition of force:
Force = an action capable of accelerating an object.
Force is a vector & is true along each coordinate axis.

The SI unit of force is the Newton (N)

∑F = ma, unit = kg m/s2
 1N = 1 kg m/s2
Note
The pound is a unit of force, not of
mass, & can therefore be equated to
Newtons but not to kilograms.
 Laws or Definitions
• When is an eqtn a “Law”, when is it just an eqtn?
• Compare: One dimen. constant acceleration
equations: v = v0 + at, x = x0 + v0t + (½)at2,
v2 = (v0)2 + 2a (x - x0) NOT Laws!
Nothing general or profound. Constant a only.
Obtained from the definitions of a & v!
• With: ∑F = ma. Based on EXPERIMENT.
NOT derived mathematically from any other
expression! Has profound physical content! Very
general.  A LAW!! Based on experiment!
Not on math!!
– Or definition of force!
 Examples
Example 4-2: Estimate the net force needed to accelerate
(a) a 1000-kg car at (½)g (b) a 200-g apple at the same rate.
Example 4-3: Force to stop a car.
What average net force is required to bring a 1500-kg car to rest
from a speed of 100 km/h (27.8 m/s) within a distance of 55 m?