XI.

Lateral Earth Pressure

Introduction

Lateral earth pressure is the force

exerted by the soil mass upon an
earth.
The magnitude and distribution of the
lateral pressure acting on retaining
structures or foundations are important
for the design of excavation bracing,
retaining walls, waterfront, and near
shore structures.
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

Introduction

There are two general types of lateral

earth pressure or force, the earth
pressure and environmental force.
Earth pressure is the major contribution
to overall lateral pressure, and it can
be divided into three scenarios such as
follows: active earth pressure, passive
earth pressure, and earth pressure at
rest.
XI. Lateral Earth Pressure
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

Characteristics of Lateral earth Pressure

1. Earth pressure at rest

The rigid wall may have two directions of
motion, into the bank or away from the
bank. The soil first undergoes first elastic
deformation, then elastic plastic
deformation, and finally uncontained
plastic flow. In simple terms, if no wall
movement occurs, the lateral earth
pressure is referred to as earth pressure
at rest.
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

2. Active earth pressure

The soil exerts a push against a wall by
virtue of its tendency to slip laterally and
seek its natural slope or angle of repose,
this making the wall to move slightly
away from the backfill soil mass. This kind
of pressure is known as the “active earth
pressure” of the soil.
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

3. Passive earth pressure

The retaining wall or the earth – retaining
structure is the actuating element and
soil provides the resistance with soil
develops in response to the movement
of the structure toward it is called the
“passive earth pressure”, or more
appropriately “passive earth resistance”
which may be very much greater than
the active earth pressure.
XI. Lateral Earth Pressure
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

Earth Pressures Coefficient

1. Active earth pressure coefficient (Ka) is the ratio

between the lateral and vertical principal effective
stresses when an earth retaining structure moves away
(by a small amount) from the retained soil.
2. Passive earth coefficient (Kp) is the ratio between the
lateral and vertical principal effective stresses when
an earth retaining structure is force against a soil mass.
3. Coefficient of earth pressure at rest (Ko) is the ratio of
the minor principal stress to the major principal stress.
This is applicable when the soil mass is in natural state
without having been permitted to yield or without
having been compressed.
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

Methods for Analysis of Lateral Earth Pressure

There are two basic approaches for estimating lateral

earth pressures, the theoretical and empirical approaches.

1. Theoretical approaches
Theoretical approaches for estimation of lateral earth
pressure include (a) Coulumb’s earth pressure theory, (b)
Rankine earth’s theory, (c) limit analysis, and (d) elasticity
theory.

2. Empirical approaches
Empirical approaches are for the design of indeterminate
foundation structures such as bracing excavation and
anchored bulkhead.
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

Retaining Walls

A retaining wall may be defined as a structure

whose primary purpose is to prevent lateral
movement of earth or some other material. For
some special cases, as in basement walls or bridge
abutments, a retaining wall may also have function
of supporting vertical loads.
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure
Types of Retaining Walls

1. Gravity retaining wall is a massive concrete wall relying on its mass to resist the
lateral forces from the retained soil mass.
2. Semi – gravity wall is in essence of gravity wall that has been given a wider base
(a toe or heel or both) to increase its stability. Some reinforcement is usually
necessary for this type of wall.
3. Flexible retaining wall or a sheet pile wall is a long slender wall relying on passive
resistance and anchors or props for its stability.
4. Mechanical stabilized earth is a gravity type retaining wall in which the soil is
reinforced by thin reinforcing elements (steel, fabric, fibers, etc.).
5. T – Shaped wall is perhaps the most common cantilever wall. For this type of wall,
the weight of the earth in the back of the stem (the backfill) contributes to its
stability.
6. L – Shaped wall is frequently used when properly line restrictions forbid the use of T
– Shaped wall. On the other hand, when it is not feasible (due to construction
limitation) to excavate for a heel, a reversed L – Shape may serve the need.
7. Counterfort retaining wall consists of three main components: base, stem and
intermittent vertical ribs called counterforts, which tie the base and the stem
together. These ribs, which act as tension ties, transform the stem and heel into
continuous slabs supported on three sides – at two adjacent counterforts and at
the base stem.
8. Buttressed wall is constructed by placing the ribs on the front face of the stem
where they act in compression.
9. Bridge abutment is a retaining wall, generally short and typically accompanied by
wing walls.
XI. Lateral Earth Pressure
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

Basic Concepts on Lateral Earth Pressures

• The earth retaining wall is vertical.

• The interface between the wall and soil is
frictionless.
• The soil surface is horizontal and no shear
acts on horizontal and vertical
boundaries.
• The wall is rigid and extends to an infinite
depth in a dry, homogenous, isotropic soil
mass.
• The soil is loose and initially in an at-rest
state.
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

Earth Pressure at Rest

If a retaining structure does not move either

to the right or to the left of its initial position, the soil
mass will be in a state of elastic equilibrium,
meaning, the horizontal strain is zero. The ratio of
the horizontal stress to the vertical stress is called
the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, Ko.

σh
Ko = = 1 − sin∅
σv
Where ∅ is the drained friction angle
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure
Earth Pressure at Rest
1. For dense sand backfill:
d
K o = 1 − sin ∅ + − 1 5.5
dmin

Where:
d = actual compacted dry unit weight of the sand behind
the wall
dmin = dry unit weight of the sand in the loosest state

2. For fine – grained normally consolidated soils:

PI%
K o = 0.44 + 0.42
100

3. For Overconsolidated clays:

K o(overconsolidated) = K o(normally consolidated) OCR

Preconsolidated pressure
OCR =
Present effective overburden pressure
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

Rankine Earth Pressure Theory

Principles and Assumptions
Rankine in 1857 proposed a procedure for
cohesionless soils based on the Coulumb’s
method for horizontal ground surface, dry
cohesionless soils, and smooth walls. The
assumptions for Rankine’s theory are virtually the
same as those noted in Coulumb’s theory with
the exception that wall friction is neglected. As
such, the resultant of the normal and shear
forces are assumed to act parallel to the ground
surface. The theory was later extended by Resal
(1910) and Bell (1915) to be applicable to
cohesive soils.
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

The followings are the important assumptions in

Rankine’s theory

* The soil mass is semi – infinite, homogeneous,

dry and cohesionless.

* The ground surface is a plane which may be

horizontal or inclined.

* The face of the wall in contact with the backfill

is vertical and smooth. In other words, the friction
between the wall and the backfill is neglected
(this amount to ignoring the presence of the
wall).
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

* The wall yields about the base sufficiently for

the active pressure conditions to develop; if it is
the passive case that is under consideration, the
wall is taken to be pushed sufficiently towards
the fill for the passive resistances to be fully
mobilized. (Alternatively, it is taken that the soil
mass is stretched or gets compressed
adequately for attaining these states,
respectively.

* Friction between the wall and fill is supposed to

reduce the active earth pressure on the wall
and increase the passive resistance of the soil.
Similar is the effect of cohesion of the fill soil).
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure

Thus it is seen that, by neglecting

wall friction as also cohesion of the
backfill, the geotechnical engineer errs
on the safe side in the computation of
both the active pressure and passive
resistance.

Also, the fill is usually of cohesionless soil,

wherever possible, from the point of view
of providing proper drainage.
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure
The followings are the important
assumptions in Rankine’s theory

B. Coefficient of passive Pressure

cos α + cos2 α − cos2 ∅

K p = cos α
cosα − cos 2 α − cos 2 ∅
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure
The followings are the important
assumptions in Rankine’s theory
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure
Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory or Wedge Theory
Principles and Assumptions
The earliest analytical solution was the Coulumb method developed in 1776. It is also
called the wedge theory. Assumptions of the wedge theory include (a) backfill material is
cohesionless soil, (b) the failure surface and applied pressure surface are planes, (c) friction
exists between the wall and the soil, (d) the failure wedge may be treated as a rigid body,
(e) failure is two – dimensional, and (f) the soil is isotropic and homogeneous.

1. Active pressure coefficient

cos2 ∅ − 
Ka = 2
sin ∅ + δ sin(∅ − α)
cos2 cos  + δ 1+
cos  + δ cos( − α)
2. Passive pressure coefficient
cos2 ∅ + 
Kp = 2
sin ∅ + δ sin(∅ + α)
cos2 cos  − δ 1−
cos  − δ cos( − α)
Where:  = angle at the back face inclined with the horizontal
δ = wall friction angle
∅ = angle of internal friction
 XI. Lateral Earth Pressure
Factors of Safety

The structural elements of the wall should be so proportioned that the

following safety factors are realized:

1. Factor of safety against sliding:

Resisting forces
FSs =
Active forces
For granular backfill, FSs ≥ 1. 5
For cohesive backfill, FSs ≥ 2. 0

2. Factor of safety against overturning about the toe:

Stabilizing moments
FSo =
Overturning moments
For granular backfill, FSo ≥ 1. 5
For cohesive backfill, FSo ≥ 2. 0

The horizontal components of the lateral forces tend to force the wall to
slide along its base. The resisting force is provided by the horizontal forces
composed of friction and adhesion, and by passive resistance of soil in
front of the wall. The passive resistance is not to be counted on if there is
a chance that the soil in front of the wall may be eroded or excavated
during the life of the wall.
 PROBLEMS
1. A vertical retaining wall having a height of 6 m supporting a horizontal ground level at the
top and the soil beneath the ground surface has a unit weight of 15. 74 kN/m3 and an angle
of internal friction of 30o. Compute the Rankine active force per unit length of wall.
2. A retaining wall having a smooth vertical back is to retained a drained cohesionless soil with
a horizontal surface to a depth of 9 m. The soil has an angle of internal friction of 30o and a
unit weight of 19. 8 kN/m3. Determine the total active thrust acting on the wall when there is
a uniform surcharge on the soil surface of 50 kN/m2.
3. Determine the active pressure at the bottom of the wall 4 m high which retains soil having an
angle of internal friction of 30o and cohesion of 4 kN/m2. Unit weight of soil is 18 kN/m3.
Assume no tension cracks occur in the soil.
4. A vertical retaining wall has a height of 5 m and supports a horizontal backfill on level with
the top of the wall. The water table is located 2. 5 m below the top of the wall. The unit
weight of soil above the water table is 16. 5 kN/m3 with an angle of internal friction of 30o. The
saturated unit weight of soil below the water table is 19. 3 kN/m3 and an angle of internal
friction of 30o. Compute the lateral earth pressure at rest acting perpendicular to the wall.
5. A retaining wall is required to retain a soil mass having a depth of 10 m. Determine the
Rankine active force per unit length of the wall. Angle of internal friction of dry sand is 30o.
Ground water table is located 4 m below the ground level surface. Dry unit weight of soil is
15. 60 kN/m3, the angle of internal friction for the layer sand below the water table is 35o with
a saturated unit weight of 17. 4 kN/m3.
6. A vertical retaining wall with a horizontal backfill has a height of 6 m and backfill having a
unit weight of 17. 5 kN/m3, an angle of internal friction of 35o, angle of wall friction is 10o.
Determine the passive force per unit length of wall using Coulomb’s theory.
7. A 6m cantilever wall retains soil that has the following properties: angle of internal friction 30o
and soil weighs 19. 2 kN/m3. The ground surface behind the wall is inclined at a slope of 3
horizontal to 1 vertical and the wall has moved sufficiently to develop the active condition.
Determine the normal force acting on the wall using Rankine’s theory.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

A. Introduction

The bearing capacity of soil is its ability to withstand an

applied loading condition. If the supporting power of ground is
greater than the structural load, then the condition is safe. This
supporting power used in geotechnical engineering is referred to
as the bearing capacity or the ultimate bearing capacity of
ground soil. The characteristics of the soil bearing capacity of soil
belongs to the multimedia energy field, because it is not only
controlled by the load applied, but also is influenced by local
environmental conditions such as soil types, location of ground
water table, frost penetration depth, and characteristics of
pollution intrusion. Current practice assesses the bearing capacity
in terms of the load or pressure which develops under a
foundation, relative to the maximum allowed. Bearing capacity
may be considered in terms of either shallow or deep foundations.
The shallow foundation is defined as the foundation width, B,
being larger than the depth of the foundation, D, such as footings
and mat foundations. Deep foundations may be defined as
elements in which the depth is larger than the width, such as
caissons and pile foundations.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

The subject of bearing capacity is perhaps the most important

of all the aspects of geotechnical engineering, loads from buildings
are transmitted to the foundation by columns, by load – bearing walls
or by such other load – bearing components of the structures.
Sometimes the material on which the foundation rests is ledge, very
hard soil or bed – rock, which is known to be much stronger than is
necessary to transmit the loads from the structure such as a ledge, or
rock, or other stiff material may not be available at reasonable depth
and it becomes invariably necessary to allow the structure to bear
directly on soil, which will furnish a satisfactory foundation, if the
bearing members are properly designed.

The lowest part of a structure is generally referred to as the foundation.

Its function is to transfer the load of the structure to the soil on which it is
resting. A properly designed foundation transfers the load throughout
the soil without overstressing the soil. Overstressing the soil can result in
either excessive settlement or shear failure of the soil, both of which
cause damage to the structure. Thus geotechnical and structural
engineers who design foundations must evaluate the bearing capacity
of soils.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity
B. Definition of Terms:
1. Foundation is a structure that transmits loads to the underlying soils.
2. Foundation soil or bed is the soil or bed to which loads are
transmitted from the base of the structure.
3. Footing is a foundation consisting of a small slab for transmitting the
structural load to under lying soil.
4. Shallow foundation is one in which the ratio of the embedment
depth to the minimum plan dimension, which is usually the width, is
(Df/B) < 2. 5.
5. Embedment depth (Df) is the depth below the ground surface
where the base of the foundation rests.
6. Bearing capacity is the load carrying capacity of foundation soil or
rock which enables it to bear and transmit loads from a structure.
7. Ultimate bearing capacity is the maximum pressure that the soil can
support or is the maximum pressure which a foundation can
withstand without the occurrence of shear failure of the foundation.
8. Ultimate net bearing capacity (qult) is the maximum pressure that
the soil can support above its current overburden pressure.
9. Gross bearing capacity is the bearing capacity inclusive of the
pressure exerted by the weight of the soil standing on the
foundation, or the “surcharge” pressure, as it is sometimes called.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

10. Net bearing capacity is gross bearing capacity minus the original overburden
pressure or surcharge pressure at the foundation level; obviously, this will be the
same as the gross capacity when the depth of foundation is zero, i. e., the
structure is founded at ground level.
11. Allowable bearing capacity or Safe bearing capacity (qa) is the ultimate bearing
capacity divided by the factor of safety. The factor of safety in foundation may
range from 2 to 5, depending upon the importance of the structure, and the soil
profile at the site. This factor of safety should be applied to the net ultimate
bearing capacity and the surcharge pressure due to depth of the foundation
should then be added to get the safe bearing capacity or is the working
pressure that would ensure a margin of safety against collapse of the structure
from shear failure. The allowable bearing capacity is usually a fraction of the
ultimate net bearing capacity.
It is thus the maximum intensity of loading which can be transmitted to the
soil without the risk of shear failure, irrespective of the settlement that may occur.
12. Factor of safety or safety factor (FS) is the ratio of the ultimate net bearing
capacity to the allowable bearing capacity or to the applied maximum vertical
stress. In the geotechnical engineering, a factor of safety between 1. 5 and 5 is
used to calculate the allowable bearing capacity.
13. Ultimate limit state defines a limiting shear stress that should not be exceeded by
any conceivable or anticipated loading during the design life of a foundation or
any geotechnical system
14. Serviceability limit state defines a limiting deformation or settlement of a
foundation, which, if exceeded, will impair the function of the structure that it
supports.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

C. Bearing Capacity
The conventional design of a foundation is based on the concept of
bearing capacity or allowable bearing pressure.
Criteria for the Determination of Bearing Capacity

The criteria for the determination of bearing capacity of a foundation

are based on the requirements for the stability of the foundation. These are stated
as follows:

1. Shear failure of the foundation or bearing capacity failure, as it is sometimes

called, shall not occur. (This is associated with plastic flow of the soil material
underneath the foundation and lateral expulsion of the soil from underneath
the footing of the foundation); and
2. The probable settlements, differential or well as total, of the foundation must be
limited to safe, tolerable or acceptable magnitudes.

In other words, the anticipated settlement under the applied pressure on

the foundation should not be detrimental to the stability of the structure.

These two criteria are known as the shear strength criterion, and
settlement criterion, respectively. These are independent criteria and hence
require independent investigation. The design value of the safe bearing capacity,
obviously, would be the smaller of the two values, obtained from these two criteria.
This has already been defined as the allowable bearing pressure.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

D. Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity is governed by a number of factors. The
following are some of the more important ones which affect bearing
capacity.

1. Nature of soil and its physical and engineering properties.

2. Nature of the foundation and other details such as size, shape,
depth below the ground surface and rigidity of the structure.
3. Total and differential settlements that the structure can
withstand without functional failure.
4. Location of the ground water table relative to the level of the
foundation; and
5. Initial stresses, if any.

In view of the wide variety of factors that affect bearing

capacity, a systematic study of the factors involved in a logical
sequence is necessary for proper understanding.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity
E. Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity

The following methods are available for the determination of bearing capacity of a
foundation:
1. Bearing capacity tables in various building codes
Bearing capacity tables have been evolved by certain agencies and incorporated in
building codes. They are mostly based on past experience and some investigations.

2. Analytical methods
A number of analytical approaches, based on the work of Rankine, Fellenius, Housel,
Prandtl, Terzaghi, Meyerhof, Skempton, Hansen and Bella may be used. Some of these
would be dealt with in later sections.

3. Plate bearing tests

Plate bearing tests are load tests conducted in the field on a plate. These involve effort
and expense. There are also certain limitations to their use.

4. Penetration tests
Penetration tests are conducted with devices known as “Penetrometers”, which measure
the resistance of soil to penetration. This is correlated to bearing capacity.

5. Model tests and prototype tests

Model and prototype tests are very cumbersome and costly and are not usually
practicable. Housel’s approach is based on model tests.

6. Laboratory tests
Laboratory tests which are simple may be useful in arriving at bearing capacity,
especially of pure clays.
 Safe Bearing Capacity (IS: 1904 – 1986 Revised)
XII. Soil Bearing Capacity
Safe Bearing
Types of Rock or Soil Capacity Remarks
kN/m2 (t/m2)
I. Rocks

1. Rocks without laminations and defects – 3240 (330)

e.g., granite, trap, diorite

1. Laminated rocks, e.g., sand – stone and 1620 (165)

limestone, in sound condition

1. Residual deposits of shattered and broken 880 (90)

bed rock and hard shale, cemented
material

1. Soft rock 440 (45)

I. Cohesionless Soils

1. Gravel, sand and gravel, compact and 440 (45) See note 2
offering high resistance to penetration
when excavated by tools

1. Coarse sand, compact and dry

440 (45) Dry means that the GWL is at a depth not less than
width of the foundation below the base of the
1. Medium sand, compact and dry foundation.
245 (25)
1. Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily pulverized
by fingers) 150 (15)

1. Loose gravel or sand – gravel mixture;

loose coarse to medium sand, dry 245 (25) See note 2

1. Fine sand, loose and dry

100 (10)
Safe Bearing Capacity (IS: 1904 – 1986 Revised)
XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

I. Cohesive Soils

1. Soft shale, hard or stiff clay, dry 440 (45) Susceptible to long – term consolidation
settlement
1. Medium clay, readily indented 245 (25)
with a thumb nail

1. Moist clay and sand – clay 150 (15)

mixture which can be indented
with strong thumb pressure

1. Soft – clay indented with 100 (10)

moderate thumb pressure

1. Very soft clay which can be 50 (5)

penetrated easily with the thumb

1. Black cotton soil or other - See note 3. To be determined after

shrinkable or expansive clay in investigation
dry condition (50% saturation)
I. Peat

1. Peat - See note 3 and note 4. To be determined

after investigation
I. Made – Up Ground

1. Fills or made – up ground - See note 2 and note 4. To be determined

after investigation
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

Note 1: Values listed in the table are from shear consideration only.

Note 2: Values are very much rough for the following reasons:
Effect of characteristics of foundations (that is, effect of depth,
width, shape, roughness, etc…) has not been considered.
Effect of range of soil properties (that is, angle of internal friction,
cohesion, water table, density, etc.) has not been considered.
Effect of eccentricity and inclination of loads has not been
considered.

Note 3: For non – cohesive soils, the values listed in the table shall
be reduced by 50%, if the water table is above or near the base of
footing.

Note 4: Compactness or looseness of non – cohesive soils may be

determined by driving the cone of 65 mm diameter and 60o apex
angle by a hammer of 65 kg falling from 75 cm. If corrected
number of blows (N) for 30 cm penetration is less than 10, the soil is
called loose, if N lies between 10 and 30, it is medium, if more than
30, and the soil is called dense.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

F. Limitations of Bearing Capacity Values for Building Codes

The following are the limitations of the bearing capacity values

specified in building codes:

1. By specifying a value or a range for bearing capacity, the

concept is unduly oversimplified.
2. The codes tacitly assume that the allowable bearing
capacity is dependent only on the soil type.
3. The effects of many soil characteristics which are likely to
influence the bearing capacity are ignored.
4. The codes do not indicate the method used to obtain the
bearing capacity values.
5. The codes assume that the bearing capacity is
dependent of the size, shape and depth of foundation.
All these factors are known to have significant bearing on
the values.
6. Building codes are usually not – up – to date.

However, the values given in codes are used in

preliminary design foundations.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

G. Analytical Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity

The following analytical approaches are available:

1. The theory of elasticity – Schleicher’s Method

2. The classified earth pressure theory – Rankine’s Method, Pauker’s
Method and Bell’s Method
3. The theory of plasticity – Fellenius’ Method, Prandtl’s Method, Terzaghi’s
Method, Meyerhof’s Method, Skempton’s Method, Hansen’s Method
and Bella’s Method

Types of Footings

A footing is that part of a structure which serves to transmit the weight of the
structure to the natural deposits.

1. Isolated footing or Spread footing is a footing that supports a single column.

2. Combine footing is the one that supports a group of columns.
3. Continuous or Strip footing is the one that supports a wall.
4. Mat foundation is an entire structure over a concrete pad.
5. Pile and drilled shaft foundations are used for heavier structures when great
depth is required for supporting the load.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity
Types of Footings
Spread footings and mat foundations are generally shallow foundations, whereas pile
and drilled shaft foundations are classified deep foundations.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity
H. Terzaghi’s bearing Capacity
Equations B. For circular footing
Considering the effects of unit weight of q u = 1.3𝑐 Nc + qNq + 0.30BN
soil, cohesion and surcharge
B = diameter of footing
1. General Shear Failure
 B N 2. For Local Shear Failure
q ult = cNc + qNq +
2 BN ′

where : qult = ultimate bearing q′ult = 𝑐 ′ Nc′ + qNq′ +
2
capacity of soil 2𝑐
′
Nc, Nq and N = bearing capacity c =
factors 3
 = unit weight of soil
q = effective surcharge
2 tan∅
tan∅′ =
c = cohesion = qu/2 3
qu = unfconfined compressive
strength A. Square footing
A. For square footing q′ult = 1.3𝑐 ′ Nc′ + qNq′ + 0.40BN′
q u = 1.3𝑐 Nc + q Nq + 0.40  BN
B. circular footing
B = width of footing q′ult = 1.3𝑐 ′ Nc′ + qNq′ + 0.30BN′
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity
3. Effect of Ground Water Table
Case I: If the groundwater table is located
at a distance D above the bottom of the
foundation, the magnitude q in the second
term of the bearing capacity should be
calculated as Case III: When the groundwater table is
at a depth D below the bottom of the
foundation, q = Df. The magnitude of  in
the third term of the bearing capacity
equations should be replaced by av.

Case II: If the groundwater table coincides

with the bottom of the foundation, the
magnitude of q is equal to Df. However, the
unit weight, , in the third term of the bearing
capacity equations should be replaced by
’.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

4. Allowable Bearing Capacity

qult
qallow =
F. S.

WDL + WF + Ws
qallow =
A
5. Net Allowable Bearing Capacity

q = Df (vertical stress at the foundation)

qult − q
qallow net =
F. S.

6. Allowable Bearing Capacity for friction angle ∅d

BN
qallow = Cd Nc + qNq +
2

where : Nc, Nq and N are bearing capacity factors for

friction ∅d
tan∅
𝑡an∅d = ; ∅d = developed angle of friction soil
F. S.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

7. Ultimate Bearing capacity of Actual Footing using results of field load test

For clays
qu(footing) = qu(plate)

For sandy soils

qu(plate) Bfooting
qu(footing) =
Bplate
8. Settlement of footing

For clays
S plate B footing
S footing =
B plate
For sandy soil
2
S plate 2B footing
S footing = 2
B footing + B plate

Note: Load carried by a footing of area A and perimeter P that rests on a cohesive soil
for a given settlement.
Q = Aq + Ps
where : Q = load carried by footing
A = area of footing
q = compression stress below the footing
Ps = unit shear stress at the perimeter
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

9. Bearing capacity factors ( If no table is given).

Ressner Equation
∅
Nq = etan∅ tan2 45o +
2
Prandt Equation
Nc = Nq − 1 cot∅
Caquot and Kerisel equation
N = 2 Nq + 1 tan∅

10. Terzaghi’s Equation

3 ∅
e
2
4
− tan∅
2
a) Nq = 2 o ∅
2cos 45 +
2
3 ∅
cot∅ e
2
 −
4 2
tan∅
−1
b) Nc = +∅
2cos2
4 2
c)
kp − 1 tan∅
N =
2cos2

d) kpy = passive pressure coefficient

XII. Soil Bearing Capacity
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

Sample Problems:

1. A square footing for a multinational building has its bottom 2.5 m

below the ground surface. It has a dimension of 1.2 m x 1.2 m. angle
of friction of soil is 28°. Unit weight of soil is 16 kN/m3 with a cohesion of
22 kPa. It has a saturated unit weight of 18 kN/m3. Use F.S. of 3.
a) Compute the bearing capacity factor N.
b) Compute the net allowable bearing capacity of the soil if there is a
water table at the bottom side of the footing.
c) Compute the net allowable load that the footing could carry if there is
a water table at a depth of 0.80 m from the bottom of the footing.

2. A square footing shown has a dimension of 1m x1m has its bottom 2.5
m below the ground surface .Angle of friction of the soil foundation is 30°.
Unit weight of soil is 18.1 kN/m3 with a cohesion of 15.7 kN/m2. saturated
unit weight of soil is 19.3 kN/m3. Factor of safety is 3.0.
a) Compute the value of the bearing capacity factor Nq.
b) Compute the net allowable load that the footing could carry if the
ground water table is located 0.20 m below the foundation footing.
c) Compute the net allowable load that the footing could carry if the
ground water table is located 1.2 m below the ground surface.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

Sample Problems:

3. A 1.5 m x 1.5 m square footing shown carries a concentric column load

of 223 kN. Unit weight of soil is 18.9 kN/m3 and that of concrete is 23.6
kN/m3. The cohesive soil has an unconfined compressive strength of 144
kPa. Df = 1.2m ; t = 0.3m ; B = 1.5m ; column dimensions = 0.45 x 0.45m.
a) Compute the cohesion of soil.
b) Compute the soil contact pressure.
c) Compute the factor of safety against bearing capacity failure.
Use Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors chart. Ø = 0o
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

Sample Problems:

4. A circular footing with a 1.5 m diameter is to be constructed 1.22 m

below the ground surface. The subsoil consists of a uniform deposit of
dense soil having the following strength parameters.
Angle of internal friction = 25o , Nc = 24.1 ; Nq =13.1 ; N = 9.1
Unconfined compressive strength = 96 kN/m2
Unit weight of soil = 20.12 kN/m3
The ground water table is at great depth and its effect can be ignored.
Df = 1.22m ; B = 1.5m .
a) Compute the Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil.
b) Compute the gross allowable bearing capacity of the soil using a
factor of safety of 3.
c) Compute the total allowable load the footing could carry.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity
11. Modified General Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

qu = c λcs λcd λci N + q λqs λqd λqi Nq + (1/2) ( λys λyd λyi y B Ny )

Where: λcs, λqs and λys = shape factors D. Depth factors for Df /B > 1
λcd, λqd and λyd = depth factors
λci, λqi and λyi = inclination factors λqd = 1 + 2 tan ∅ ( 1 – sin ∅ )2 tan-1 ( Df / B )

A. Shape factors for rectangular footing λcd = λqd - ( 1 – λqd )

Nq tan ∅
B = width of footings λyd = 1
L = length of footings
E. Depth factor for ∅ = 0; when ( Df /B ) < 1
λcs = 1 + ( B/L ) ( Nq / Nc )
λqs = 1 + ( B/L ) tan ∅
λys = 1 – 0.4 ( B/L ) λcd = 1 + 0.4 tan-1 ( Df / B )

B. Shape factors for square and circular footing F. Depth factor for ∅ = 1; when ( Df /B ) > 1

λcs = 1 + ( Nq / Nc ) λcd = 1 + 0.4 tan-1 ( Df / B )

λqs = 1 + tan ∅
λys = 0.60
G. Inclination factors
C. Depth factors for Df /B < 1
λci = ( 1 – θ/90o )2
λqd = 1 + 2 tan ∅ ( 1 – sin ∅ ) 2 ( Df / B ) λqi = ( 1 – θ/90o )2
λcd = λqd - 1 - λqd λyi = ( 1 – θ/90o )2
Nq tan ∅
λyd = 1
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

Note: The soil bearing capacity equation for a strip

footing can be modified for general use by
incorporating the following factors:

1. Depth factor: to account for the shearing

resistance developed along the failure
surface in soil above the base of the
footing.
2. Shape factor: to determine the bearing
capacity of rectangular and circular
footings.
3. Inclination factor: to determine the bearing
capacity of a footing on which the
direction of load application is inclined at
a certain angle to the vertical.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

I. The bearing capacity of foundation depends on several factors:

1. Subsoil stratification
2. Shear strength parameters of the subsoil
3. Location of the ground water table
4. Environmental factors
5. Building size and weight
6. Depth of excavation
7. Type of structure
Hence, the allowable bearing capacity at a given site must be
determined on the basis of the findings of soil exploration at the site,
past experience of foundation construction and fundamentals of
geotechnical engineering theories for bearing capacity.
Excessive settlement usually causes the building to crack, which may
ultimately lead to structural failure. Uniform settlement of a structure
does not produce cracking; on the other hand, differential settlement
may produce cracks and damage to building.
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

PLATE NO.2
1. A square footing 2m x 2m has its bottom 1.2 m below the ground surface.
Ground water table is at a depth of 1.8 m below the ground surface.
Unit weight of soil is 18.08 kN/m3 with no cohesion. Angle of internal
friction = 32o . Nc = 35.49 ; Nq =23.18 ; N = 30.22.
The saturated unit weight of soil below the ground water table is 21.07
kN/m3.
a) Compute the Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil considering the
shape factors and depth factors.
b) Compute the gross allowable bearing capacity of the soil using a
factor of safety of 4.
c) Compute the safe gross load that the footing can carry.

2. For a certain soil the cohesion c is 50 kN/m2, the unit weight is 19.2
kN/m3. Angle of friction is 10o. Use N’c = 7.5 ; N’q = 1.8 ; N’ = 0.48
a) Assuming local shear failure, calculate the net ultimate bearing
capacity in kPa for a strip footing of width = 1.25m at a depth of 3m.
b) Considering general shear failure only, calculate the safe load in kN of
a rectangular footing 6m long by 1.25m wide at a depth of 3m using a
factor of safety of 2.5. Use Nc = 9 ; Nq = 2.5 ; N = 1.2
𝑞𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑡
Use 𝑞𝑠 = + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 (𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝐹𝑆
 XII. Soil Bearing Capacity

PLATE NO.2

3. For a certain soil the cohesion c is 50 kN/m2, the unit weight is 19.2
kN/m3. Angle of friction is 10o. Use N’c = 7.5 ; N’q = 1.8 ; N’ = 0.48
a) Assuming local shear failure, calculate the net ultimate bearing
capacity in kPa for a rectangular footing 6m long by 1.25m wide at a
depth of 4.5m.
b) Considering general shear failure only, calculate the safe load in kN of
a square footing 2.5m x 2.5m wide at a depth of 4.5m using a factor of
safety of 2.5. Use Nc = 9 ; Nq = 2.5 ; N = 1.2
𝑞𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑡
Use 𝑞𝑠 = + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 (𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝐹𝑆