Phi 103 104 For Students
Phi 103 104 For Students
- etymological
- real
Etymological Definition of
Philosophy - PHILOSOPHIA
Philia (Greek word) – meaning LOVE
Sophia (Greek word) – meaning WISDOM
John 21:15-17
Jesus and Peter
◦ Do you love me?
◦ Family/Brotherly love
PHILIA SOPHIA
THE LOVER OF WISDOM –
FRIENDSHIP OF WISDOM
Philosophers are lovers
of wisdom according
to Pythagoras
(Fremantle 1954, 13)
◦ Ancient Greek
Mathematical formula
(Pythagorean Theorem)
◦ Pythagoras preferred to
be called philosophers
rather than sophist (wise
man or one who knows)
SOPHIST - one who is wise
sophisticated - fancy
Group of intellectuals who taught oratory (art of public
speaking) for a fee to individuals aspiring to have a
successful career in politics. ELOQUENT SPEAKERS
The belief then was that a successful career in politics
wise.
Being characterized as love, the pursues of
develop certain
technology but do we
know how to use it
(wisdom) ex. weapon
The Nature of Philosophy
Philosophy as WISDOM
The desire to know is innate in man because of his
intellect (capacity to know truth – the meaning of life –
act in an upright way) and his happiness is closely
linked to wisdom.
The term “wise man” is usually applied to a person who
has certain and well founded knowledge of the deepest
truths, for wisdom, in general terms, is defined as a
certain knowledge of the deepest cause of everything.
It helps man the truth in the deepest causes and
reason of reality.
Differences of love of knowledge and love of wisdom
LEVELS OF WISDOM
Natural Wisdom – It is a level of wisdom
which acquired by reason alone. Natural
wisdom is classified as internal and external
senses.
accordingly
Real meaning of Philosophy refers to:
strategy.
Pilosopo is one engages in reasoning for the
DISCIPLINE or as a
QUEEN OF SCIENCES (natural and social)
The Nature of Philosophy
Philosophy as SCIENCE
It is a science in an eminent (well known) way
Which inquires into ultimate causes,
reasons and principles of all things in the
light of human reason alone.
WESTERN EASTERN
PHILOSOPHY PHILOSOPHY
◦ German Philosophy ◦ Indian Philosophy
◦ French Philosophy ◦ Chinese Philosophy
◦ Greek Philosophy ◦ Japanese Philosophy
◦ British Philosophy ◦ Filipino Philosophy
◦ American Philosophy
THE REGIONAL TYPES
It refers to philosophical activities that occurs
or flourish in a particular regions
Some attach to regional types of philosophies
St. Augustine
Boethius
John Duns Scotus
St. Thomas Aquinas
MODERN PHILOSOPHY
1450 – 1799
Grouped into 4 systems;
1. the renaissance
2. Subjectivism which includes rational and
empirical (gaining knowledge – direct or
indirect observation or experience)
subjectivism
3. The Enlightenment and the German
Idealism.
RENAISSANCE
Literally translated as re-birth
Period that opens its horizon to free
intellectual enterprise.
This period focused on the quest for the
Rousseau
Christian Wolff
German Idealism the view that mind is the ultimate
reality in the world . It opposed materialism , which views material
things are the basic reality from which mind emerges and to
which mind is reducible.
Johann Fitchte
Friedrich Schelling
Goerge Hegel
emerge
- The Dialectical
Materialism;
1. Ludwig Feuerbach
2. Karl Marx
3. Friedrich Engels
Marxism - communism
CONTEMPORARY
The Positivism
PHILOSOPHY
The positivist have no
knowledge of anything but
phenomena, and our knowledge
of phenomena is relative, not
absolute/complete
They know that not the essence,
Edward Husserl
Max Scheller
Paul Ricoer
Carl Rogers
PHENOMENOLOGY
Phenomenology, in Husserl's conception, is primarily
concerned with the systematic reflection on and
study of the structures of consciousness and the
phenomena that appear in acts of consciousness.
Phenomenology is a broad discipline and method of
inquiry in philosophy, developed largely by the
German philosophers Edmund Husserl and Martin
Heidegger, which is based on the premise that
reality consists of objects and events ("phenomena")
as they are perceived or understood in the human
consciousness.
CONTEMPORARY
PHILOSOPHY
Existentialism
Soren Kierkegard
Jean Paul Sartre
Martin Heidegger
Karl Jasphers
Maurice Merleau
Ponty
Gabriel Marcel
Martin Buber
EXISTENTIALISM
Existentialism is a philosophy that
emphasizes individual existence, freedom
and choice. It is the view that humans define
their own meaning in life, and try to make
rational decisions despite existing in an
irrational universe.
CONTEMPORARY
PHILOSOPHY
Analytic
Philosophy / Logical
Positivism
Bertrand Russell
Ludwig Wittgenstein
Alfred Ayer
Karl Popper
Analytic philosophy/
Logical Positivism
A broad philosophical tradition characterized
by an emphasis on clarity and argument
(often achieved via modern formal logic and
analysis of language) and a respect for the
natural sciences.
CONTEMPORARY
Is a method ofPHILOSOPHY
solving
various types of problems
such as; does God exist? or
is man’s will is free? By
looking at the practical
consequences by accepting
this or that answer.
The pragmatic method tries
to interpret each notion
or theory by tracing its
respective practical
consequences.
WILLIAM JAMES &
THE PRAGMATISM
JOHN DEWET
CONTEMPORARY
PHILOSOPHY
is a theoretical paradigm that
emphasizes that elements of
culture must be understood in
terms of their relationship to a
larger, structure.
Structuralism is "the belief that
phenomena of human life are
not intelligible except through
their interrelations. These
relations constitute a structure, and
behind local variations in the
surface phenomena there are
constant laws of abstract culture
PHILOSOPHY
OTHERS
CONTEMPORARY
PHILOSOPHY
is the philosophical
school that arose as a
legacy of the work and
thought of
Saint Thomas Aquinas
PHILOSOPHY
OTHERS
Philosophers
Eastern Philosophy
Buddhism
◦ India – based on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha-Enlightened
One)
Hinduism
◦ India - No founder (famous philosophers Mahatma, Mahatma Gandhi,
Romakrishna, Sarasvati and Vivekananda
Taoism
◦ Sometimes also written Daoism,Taoism is a philosophy which later also
developed into a religion. Tao literally means "path" or "way", although it
more often used as a meta-physical term that describes the flow of the
universe, or the force behind the natural order.
Islam
◦ Established by Mohammed. He did not claim to be the savior nor messiah, but
a prophet of Allah ,Koran / Qur’an – Islam Bible and other religious writings
Confucianism
◦ China, Japan and Korea – This school was developed from the teachings of the
sage Confucius (551 - 478 B.C.)
Chinese Philosophers
FILIPINO PHILOSOPHER
FR. Roque J. Ferriols, S.J.
Promoting the study of philosophy "In six years, one comes to
in Filipino, translate, edit, and know that, for human
write various books. Among those
thinking, North
published are Mga Sinaunang
Griyego, a translation of selected Sampalokese is better than
texts from the Pre-Socratics to Plato's Greek." And this
Aristotle; Magpakatao, a collection seems to be the spirit that
he edited, containing translations has animated Ferriols all
of texts exploring the theme of these years--the desire to
being human; and his original propagate real thinking and
writings Pambungad sa Metapisika to do away with the
and Pilosopiya ng Relihiyon. These
misconception that thinking
four books earned him National
Book Awards from the Manila
is the ivory tower of the
Critics' Circle. In 1989, the Ateneo elite--a spirit that his
de Manila University conferred him students hope to keep alive.
with the Gawad Tanglaw ng Lahi.
FR. Roque J. Ferriols, S.J.
The Nature of
Philosophy
A Quest for an explanation
What, why and how of philosophy
Searching can be taken into 2
types
Searching or looking into taken slightly by
merely asking. To obtain answer to an
inquiry.
Intense search that the philosopher gets too
the searcher.
THE VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
THE CHANGE OF FUTILITY
PHILOSOPHY
Why we should philosophize or study
philosophy?
What good will philosophizing do considering
Body+Life+Senses+
Reason
Body+Life+Senses
Body+Life
Body
MAN – NATURAL LOGIC
Ability to think (intellect) – distinguish truths
from errors even without special training, it is
innate or native to him.
Child – early age always ask the question
attain.
Although it is simply the conformity of the
A SCIENCE
AN ART
LOGIC A SCIENCE
A SCIENCE: Logic is a demonstrated
knowledge , an organized body of knowledge
based on facts and principles.
knowledge.
It investigate, discovers, expresses,
of truth
B. by which we elaborate upon knowledge
previously possessed.
DAY DREAMING
Is not thinking because it is not directed
towards the attainable truth.
The operations which we merely make things
rules of definition.
OBJECTS OF LOGIC
All things without Not all things as they
exception are in themselves and
All things that the independently of our
human mind can knowledge, but things
know as reproduced in the
All that we can grasp mind, together with all
by simple attributes and
apprehension, relationships they get
judgment and as a result of mental
reasoning reproduction.
2. consequent
PARTS OF INFERENCE
Every STUDENT’S is a thinking being
Antecedent
Michelle Cidney is a STUDENT
Therefore, Michelle Cidney is a
Consequent
thinking being
◦ Deductive Logic
Is a system of reasoning whereby a person argues from
universal or general truth to particular (specific) by way
of middle term
◦ Inductive
Reasoning starts from sufficiently enumerated
individuals or specific cases or observations and
moves to the universal or general truth
TYPES OF REASONING
DEDUCTION/DEDUCTIVE LOGIC
is the type of reasoning wherein the mind
proceeds from more universal or general
truth to a less universal truth or particular
truth.
Sample:
All material beings are corruptible.
But all dogs are material beings.
Therefore , all dogs are corruptible.
TYPES OF REASONING
INDUCTION/INDUCTIVE LOGIC
is the type of reasoning wherein the mind
proceeds from sufficiently enumerated individual
instances to a universal or general truth.
Sample:
This mother (Maricris) is a female human beings;
Claire who is a mother is a fem human being;
Karen who is a mother, is a female human being;
This one (Mary), this (Stella), and this (Portia);
Therefore, all mothers are female human beings.
LOGIC AND THE OPERATIONS
OF THE INTELLECT
Man, as a rational being is composed of;
INTELLECT – the capacity to know the truth
WILL – the capacity to do good
JUDGEMENT
REASON ING
THE THIRD ACT OF THE MIND
Language
Is the ability to acquire and use complex
systems of communication, particularly the
human ability to do so
Music may be a language of the soul
Our verbal response to others (lovers, hates,
modern man
The Uses of Language
3 Fundamental Uses of Language
1. Informative
2. Expressive
3. Directive
INFORMATIVE
The most common function (attested to by
textbooks and all other books on history,
literature, philosophy, science)
In logic we see this function at work in
be done.
One cannot speak of each of these as either
true or false
◦ Sample:
Write me a letter when you reach California
Emy, please sing Nasaan ka Irog?
SIMPLE APPREHENSION,
IDEA/CONCEPT AND TERM
Simple Apprehension
An act of conceiving an object
A process through which the capacity of
Real meaning
◦ Mental image which is created by the process of
thinking on the process of conceiving/visualizing
an object.
◦ A representation of an object by the intellect
through which a student comprehend a thing
◦ It is attained through the process of abstraction
The Meaning of Concept or Idea
A concept or idea is the mental expression of an
essence (quiddity) of a thing.
It is the product that simple apprehension
“NOTHING
COMES INTO
THE MIND
WITHOUT
PASSING
THROUGH
ARISTOTLE
THE SENSES”
FORMATION OF IDEAS
immaterial intellect.
To become actually intelligible, the phantasm
◦ Sample
Angela and Monkey
They are both essence but
Angela is a rational animal
Monkey is a brute
COMPREHENSION
is the sum total of the intelligible elements
of the quiddity (whatness) signified by the
term or concept.
These intelligible elements are referred to as
Man has the following comprehension: The following are those deducible from
man:
MEMORY
After Phantasm and the idea have been
formed, they are then passed into a mental
storage called the memory.
Once in the memory, the idea stays
permanently.
That is why we can have recollections of
IDEA
ABSTRACTED
PERCEPT PHANTASM NATURE or
THING--- CONCEPT MEMORY
intelligible order.
This now actuates the possible intellect and
Subject Form
Concept based on
Substance and Accident
Substantia (Latin word)
The existence in itself without requiring
◦ Absolute concept
◦ Connotative concept
Absolute Concept
Denotes the meaning of a complete
substance endowed with its independent
reality.
When it signifies something to the mind,
it is drafted
PROPERTIES OF IDEA
OR
TERM
KINDS OF EXTENTION
includes the subjects
signified by the term
ABSOLUTE EXTENTION
the sum total of the subjects of the actual
subjects as well as the possible subjects –
whose quiddity is signified by the term or
concept.
Sample:
Man is a social being
Every lilies is a flower
EXTENTION
FUNCTIONAL EXTENTION
includes only those subjects that are actually
set before the mind when is used in
discourse.
FUNCTIONAL EXTENTION
UNIVERSAL
If it sets before the mind each of the subject
whose nature it signifies.
e.g.
COMPREHENSION Man is rational being
(making definition)
EXTENSION Pedro, Teacher, etc.
These are the individual comprising the term or
classifying (making division)
ILLUSTRATION
EXTENSION
BODY
Corporeal substance Mineral Plant Brute
Man
ORGANISM
CORPOREAL INCORPOREAL
(BODY) (SPIRIT)
ORGANISM MINERAL
(ORGANIC) (INORGANIC)
contradictory
contrary
According to the
manner of relation privative
relative
FIRST ACT:
SIM PLE APPREHENSION
IDEA or CONCEPT
Properties:
Kinds:
CONCRETE (+)
COMPREHENSION
ABSTRACT (-)
TERM
SINGULAR (S)
EXTENSION PARTICULAR (P)
UNIVERSAL (U)
ACCORDING TO COMPREHENSION
1. CONCRETE
Is a term which pertains to the expressions of
a form and a subject
It can be perceived by the senses
ACCORDING TO COMPREHENSION
2. ABSTRACT
Is a term which pertains to the abstract
quality in form only, thus it cannot be
perceived by the senses.
ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
1. SINGULAR
if it stands for one individual or group and
designates that individual or group definitely.
ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
SINGULAR TERM – PROPER NAMES
are singular in their extension
e.g. Tallest
Most Handsome
That classroom
ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
SINGULAR TERM – PERSONAL PRONOUN
“I” is always singular.
e.g. I am a sebastinian
ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
SINGULAR TERM – COLLECTIVE NOUNS
(teams or group) are singular if they stand for a definite
group that they designate definitely.
Nouns that are grammatically plural are singular from
the point of view of logic if they definitely designate one
group.
e.g. a number of
few
many
most
several
A TERM IS PARTICULAR IF…
2. It uses the negative quantifier not all
(normally placed before the subject term)
ALL
EVERY
WITHOUT EXCEPTION
A Term is Universal if….
2. It uses the negative quantifier “NO”
(normally placed before the subject term)
UNIVOCAL TERM
Unus (Latin word) – infinite verb of Latin word
Vocare – to call (to call one)
A term with exactly the same or one meaning.
IMMEDIATE OPPOSED
if there is no middle ground between them and
if collectively they embrace the entire
extension of the genus to which they belong.
e.g. Blindness
is the lack of sight in subject that
ought to have it.
A Concept is privative if…
2. It expresses such a defect in the abstract.
e.g. Blind
a defect expressing the abstract
blindness.
◦ Formal Supposition
◦ Material Supposition
Formal Supposition
Word for its real meaning
◦ Sample
Manila is the capital city of the Philippines
Material Supposition
Supposition that uses a word for itself alone
◦ Sample
GC stands for Gordon College
Definition
Latin word of DEFINIRE (enclose within a limit)
Signifies an act of defining a term
2 kinds of definition
◦ Real
◦ Nominal
Real
Definitio rei (Latin word)
Definition of things
The nature of things that manifest structure
thing
◦ Sample
Man can drive automobile
Oxygen is a tasteless, odorless gas
Genetic Definition
Definition that pertains to the process of
origin or the production of a thing
◦ Sample
Dengue is a tropical transmitted by the mosquito,
causing fever and pain in the joins
Causal Definition
Definition that pertains to;
◦ Efficient and
◦ Final cause
ARISTOTLE’S
DIVISION OF CAUSES INTO FOUR KINDS
1. MATERIAL
2. FORMAL
3. FINAL
4. EFFICIENT
sample
KINDS OF CAUSES
◦ Sample
Wooden table in front of us and want to explain why?
1st qualities of table – wood = material
cause of the table
Material cause refers to composition
of something what a thing is made of.
KINDS OF CAUSES
◦ Sample
Wooden table in front of us and want to explain why?
2nd table is there because of wood that has been form or shape of
a table. For had this wood been shaped as a chair, there would
not be a table there.
This table form or shape is a formal cause
of the table
A formal cause refers to the design of form
of something that makes it what it is.
KINDS OF CAUSES
Sample
◦ 3rd the table is there because
someone needs it there, to put
his/her things on
To have something to put things on
is the final cause of the table.
Final cause refers to the purpose of
something.
Accident Definition
Refers to a thing that may be contingently
connected with its properties
◦ Sample
The table is made by wood
A good marriage is a product of Faithfulness and Love
for each other
KINDS OF TRUTH
CONTINGENT/CONDITIONAL TRUTH
Is not true in all possible situations
Empirical truth are contingent truth
◦ Sample
THE TABLE IS BROWN
Only true in a situation where there is a table that happens
to be brown in color - TRUE
Another situation where there is table that is black in color
- FALSE
Nominal Definition
Nominis (Latin word)
Definition of names
It denotes ownership
Nominal definition by Etymology
From the origin of the word in infinitive verb
Sample
◦ Philosophy
Philia
Sophia
Nominal definition by
Example
Denotes a definition by giving a term to be
defined;
It denotes its example
of defining terms
A definition most state what a thing is, not
◦ Sample
A preacher is the one who preaches
PART 2
THE SECOND ACT OF THE
MIND
JUDGMENT
Judgment
Refers to that act wherein the mind affirms or
denies anything about the subject.
falsehood.
Ideas are neither true or false.
black.
But when I start to compare the two and
Sample;
The mind compare ‘this pen and black’ and
SINGULAR (S)
SUBJECT (S)
MATTER - QUANTITY PARTICULAR (P)
AFFIRMATIVE (+)
COPULA (C) - FORM - QUALITY ( am, are is)
NEGATIVE (-)
propositions.
Propositions are limited only to DECLARATIVE
SENTENCES
English Grammar
4 kinds of sentences
Declarative or proposition
◦ It is one that states a fact. It asserts or denies something.
Logic is the science and act of correct thinking.
Imperative
◦ It is one that gives a command or one which makes a request
Please closed the door
Interrogative
◦ It is one that asks a question
When is your birthday
Exclamatory
◦ It is one that express a strong feeling
What an awesome God he has
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A
PROPOSITION
1. Subject idea 1. Subject term
2. Predicate idea 2. Predicate term
3. Mental 3. Copula
pronouncement of
the agreement or
disagreement
agreement disagreement
THE LOGICAL FORM OF THE
PROPOSITION
Presentation of the proposition
Every proposition may be transformed into its
logical form.
The Logical form of the proposition is
S - subject
C - copula
P - predicate
THE LOGICAL FORM OF THE
PROPOSITION
Not all propositions are presented in its
logical form, sometimes the copula is hidden,
meaning, not expressed.
However if it is a proposition, then it can be
Original Proposition
Miguel ate ice cream
PROPOSITION in the
FUTURE TENSE
Original Proposition
Logic student will past the course.
CLASSIFICATION OR
KIND OF PROPOSITION
Proposition can be classified from the
different points of view.
From the point of view of its quality, a
Sample;
Some students are prayerful.
QUALITY
NEGATIVE
When the subject is denied of its predicate or
are not.
Sample;
Some students are not prayerful.
QUANTITY or EXTENSION
SINGULAR
When the subject term of the proposition is a
singular term
Sample;
Dr. Ediric D. Gadia is the Dean of CEAS.
singular term
QUANTITY or EXTENSION
UNIVERSAL
When the subject term of the proposition is a
universal term.
Sample;
particular term.
Sample;
Some priests are holy.
particular term
SINGULAR PROPOSITION
For purposes of simplicity, however singular
proposition shall also be considered under
the category of the universal proposition,
E Universal Negative
I Particular Affirmative
O Particular Negative
The Letters A,E,I and O
Affirmo and Nego– Latin word
Affirmo - I affirm and
Nego - I deny or negate
Basis: A ff I rmo
nEgO
AFFIRMATIV NEGATIVE
E
Q
SINGULAR/
A E
U
A
N
T
UNIVERSAL
I
PARTICULAR
I O
T
Y
THE QUANTITY OR EXTENSION OF
THE PREDICATE TERM
Apart from the knowledge of the quality and quantity or
extension of the proposition, another necessary matter to
consider for the complete understanding of the
proposition is the determination of the quantity or
extension of the predicate term.
Such will be needed in leading us o the correct analysis of
a proposition.
As mentioned is the previous discussion, the quantity or
extension of both the subject and the proposition itself,
where the subject contained, is analyzed in the same way,
so that, if the subject term of the proposition is singular,
the proposition will also be considered as singular, In the
same manner with universal and particular.
THE QUANTITY OR EXTENSION OF
THE PREDICATE TERM
The predicate term though also one of the
elements of the proposition like the subject
term, is different from the latter, and is
analyzed separately and differently.
Venn Diagram – analyze and determine
the particular term of the proposition
A Every Filipino is honest
S P
P - predicate
S - subject
S P
s P
Only a part of the subject (Sebastinian) is shaded thus used
as particular. Also seen in the diagrams is the seperstion of
the said part of the subject (Sebastinian) from the whole of
the predicate (honest), thus we can see that the predicate
(honest) is used as universal.
RULES IN QUALITY AND QUANTITY
OF PREDICATE
We have seen that A and I propositions give a
particular predicate term.
While E and O propositions give a universal
predicate term.
Affirmative = Particular
PREDICATE
Negative = Universal
LOGICAL OPPOSITION
AND EQUIVALENT
The Laws of Thought
All truths are based on the three (3) Basic
Laws of Thought.
These are;
1. The Principle of Identity.
2. The Principle of Contradiction
3. The Principle of Excluded Middle
THE PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY
This principle can be stated variedly as:
1. “A thing is according to what it actually is.”
black.
Conversely, if a thing is not black, then it cannot
together.
1. “A thing either is or is not”
2. “Everything must either be or not be”
If one is true, its contradictory must be false and vice
versa.
It must be one or the other.
between.
Between is not there can be no middle ground.
THE PRINCIPLE OF
EXCLUDED MIDDLE
Identity tells us that whatever is, is.
It cannot be is not, as put forward by Contradiction.
And between is and is not, there is nothing in
between, as put forward by Excluded Middle.
These principles (Principles of Identity,
Contradiction and Excluded Middle) are the
fundamentals in correct thinking and truth.
To have them readily present in the mind will give
anyone ease in understanding the properties of
propositions when place in opposition to with each
other.
THE LOGICAL OPPOSITION
It refers to the relationship existing between
propositions with the same subject and
predicate terms but differ terms of quality or
quantity or both.
The propositions A, E, I and O differs in terms
A – E contrary
I – O subcontrary
A – I subaltern
E – O subaltern
THE SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
A E CONTRARIES
S S
U U
B B
A A
L CONTRADICTORIES L
T T
E E
R R
N N
S S
SUBCONTRARIES
IO
LAW OF SUB-ALTERNATION
“The truth of the universal involves the truth of
the particular, but the truth of the particular does
not involve the truth of the universal.”
U=T P=T
U=F P=?
P=T U=?
P=F U=F
LAW OF SUB-ALTERNATION
The relation of the universal to the particular
is similar to the relation of the whole to its
parts.
The truth about the whole involves or
T F
F T
LAW OF CONTRARIETY
Contrariety refers to the relation of universal
propositions that have same subject and
predicate terms, but differing in terms of quality.
Proposition involved herein are A and E
propositions.
They are, therefore, contrary to each other, or
simply, contraries.
F ?
LAW OF SUB-CONTRARIETY
Sub-contraries (or under the contraries) are those
in between the contraries.
A and E are contraries.
A refers to all, while E refers to none.
Between all and none may be (I = some – are; O =
some - are not).
Thus contraries have some thing in between and
they are the sub-contraries.
truth is had.
Among the 4 propositions, one at least, must be
true.
Thus, sub-contraries cannot be both false
together.
LAW OF SUB-CONTRARIETY
However, sub-contraries can be true together
(but not necessarily).
If the extremes or the contraries are both
T ?
Equivalent Proposition
In the immediate equivalent inference, also
known as eduction, he 2 propositions speak
of the same truth, and either one is directly
inferred/indirect from the other
2 kinds of eduction
Formal Eduction
◦ Based on it’s validity on the quality of the
propositions and the quantity of terms
Material Eduction
◦ Based it’s validity on the meanings of terms or the
special character of their matter or thought content
FORMAL EDUCTION
Is the formulation of a new proposition by
either interchanging the subject and the
predicate terms of an original proposition
and/or by the use or removal of negative.
4 KINDS OF EDUCTION
1. CONVERSION
2. OBVERSION
3. CONTRAPOSITION
4. INVERSION
CONVERSION
Is the formulation of a new proposition by
interchanging the subject and the predicate
of an original proposition but leaving its
quality unchanged.
RULES IN SIMPLE
CONVERSION
E–E;I–I
sample: (E) All rabbits are not birds.
Su Pu
(convertend – original proposition)
1. Interchange the S and P birds rabbits
2. Retain the quality birds are not rabbits.
3. Maintain the quantity
All birds are not rabbits.
Su Pu
(converse – new proposition)
RULES IN SIMPLE
CONVERSION
E–E;I–I
sample: (I)Some students are lazy
Sp Pp
(convertend – original proposition)
conversion.
The original proposition is called
How to get?
1. obvert. (rules in obversion will be applied)
2. then, simple/partial convert the obverse. (applicable rules in
conversion will employed).
How to check?
3. the S is the contradictory of the original P
4. the quality is changed.
5. the P is the original S
Sample
A–E
◦ Obvert
◦ Simple Conversion
propositions
After the obversion, the next step in
to contraposition
RULES IN COMPLETE
CONTRAPOSITION
A – A; E – O; O–O
How to get?
1. obvert.
How to check?
4. the S is the contradictory of the original P
5. the quality is not changed
6. the P is the contradictory of the original S
Sample
A–A
◦ Obvert
◦ Simple Conversion
◦ Obvert
Sp Pu
Obvert Some endangered species are non-protected
Convert (Simple) Some non-protected are endangered species
Obvert
O= Some non-protected animals are not non-species (contraposit)
Sp Pu
INVERSION
Is the formulation of a new proposition whose
subject is the contradictory of the original
subject.
The original proposition is called inverted
E=I
E= No reckless man is prudent. (invertend)
Convert (partial) Some prudent are reckless man
Obvert Some prudent are not non-reckless man
Convert (simple)
I= Some non-reckless man are prudent person
(Inverse) Sp Pp
RULES IN COMPLETE INVERSION
A – I; E – O
loving persons
And the caring of mothers is the caring of
loving persons
Eduction by omitted determinant
This type of material eduction is attained by
formulating a new proposition in which a
modifier of the original predicate-term is
omitted
In effecting this care should be taken so as
Sample:
All material beings are corruptible.
But all dogs are material beings.
Therefore , all dogs are corruptible.
TYPES OF REASONING
INDUCTION
is the type of reasoning wherein the mind
proceeds from sufficiently enumerated individual
instances to a universal or general truth.
Sample:
This mother (Maricris) is a female human beings;
Claire who is a mother is a fem human being;
Karen who is a mother, is a female human being;
This one (Mary), this (Stella), and this (Portia);
Therefore, all mothers are female human beings.
MEDIATE INFERENCE
It derives the conclusion (consequent) from two
propositions (antecedent).
The inference is called mediate because of the
following reasons;
1. It connects or separates the conclusion’s
subject and predicate through the mediation of
the middle term in the categorical syllogism.
2. The major premise is the cause of the
conclusion through the mediation of the minor
premise in the hypothetical syllogism.
Sample of Hypothetical Syllogism
If HE IS HIRED, he is a Sebastinian.
Antecedent
But HE IS HIRED.
Therefore, he is a Sebastinian
Consequent
Sample of Categorical Syllogism
Every DOG is an animal Major Premise
But every poodle is a DOG. Minor Premise
Therefore, every poodle is an animal Conclusion
Review of the Inference
Is any process by which our mind proceeds
from one or more propositions (from one or
more statements, in which anything
whatsoever is affirmed or denied) to another
proposition, so related to original
propositions, that if they are true, it must be
also true.
A (old proposition) - B (new proposition)
2 PARTS OF INFERENCE OR
SYLLOGISM
ANTECEDENT – is that from which something
is inferred (secondary/indirect).
CONSEQUENT – is that which is inferred from
the antecedent.
MEDIATE INFERENCE
Sample:
So - I conclude that
OTHER SYMBOLS:
u Universal
p Particular
+ Affirmative
- Negative
Sample 2
Arranging the statement into a logical form
Some Filipinos are not overseas workers because
some dollar earners are Filipinos and all overseas
workers are dollar earner.
Mu e Tu
tp i Mp
tp o Tu
THE RULES OF THE TERMS
The Quantity or Extension of the Terms
RULE 4
The middle term must be universal, or
distributed, at least once.
No computer is useless.
but all ATM are computers.
therefore no ATM is useless.
THE RULES OF THE PROPOSITIONS
The Quality of the Proposition
RULE 7
If both premises are negative-and not
equivalently affirmative –there is no
conclusion at all.
No country is leaderless.
but, no ocean is a country.
therefore no ocean is leaderless. NO CONCLUSION
THE RULES OF THE
PROPOSITIONS
The Quantity of the
RULE 8 Proposition
At least one premise must be universal.
* U+U=U
* U+P= P
• P+P=No Conclusion
M T T M M T T M
t M t M M t M t
t T t T t T t T
General Nature
of the Figures and Moods
MOOD OF A CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
The mood is defined by the arrangement of the
kinds of propositions (according to the
quantity and quality combined)in the
categorical syllogism.
It is based of propositions according to the
quantity and quality (A, E, I and O)
MOOD OF CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
16 FAIRS
Pair
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
#
Major
A A A A E E E E I I I I O O O O
Minor
A E I O A E I O A E I O A E I O
Conclusio
n A E I O E/ E O O I O I O O O O O
/ O
I
Invalid fairs
Violates rule # 7
6 8 14 16
E E O O
E O E O
Invalid fairs
Violates rule # 3
10
I
E
O
Invalid fairs
Violates rule # 8
11 12 15 16
I I O O
I O I O
The remaining valid combinations
but still violates the general rules
Pair
TH
Numbe
1 2 3 4 5 7 9 13
r
Major
Premise
A A A A E E I O
A E I O A I A A
Minor
Premise
THE SPECIAL RULES GOVERNING EACH
FIGURES
1st figure (sub-pre)
RULE 3 is violated by mood A-E and A-O
RULE 4 also invalidates the moods I-A
and O-A
(for this reason we have only four (4) moods
remaining)
4 MOODS remaining
A A E E
Major
Premise
A I A I
Minor
Premise
A I E O
Conclusion
SUB-PRE
1. M a T 2. M a t
t a M t i M
t a T t i T
3. M e T 4. M e t
t a M t i M
t e T t o T
Special rules of the first
figures
1. The major premise must be universal
(A or E)
2. The minor premise must be affirmative
(A or I)
THE SPECIAL RULES GOVERNING
EACH FIGURES
2nd figure (pre-pre)
RULE 4 is violated by moods A-A, A-I and I-A
RULE 3 also excludes the mood O-A
A A E E
Major
Premise
E O A I
Minor
Premise
E O E O
Conclusion
PRE-PRE
1. T a M 2. T a M
t e M t o M
t e T t o T
3. T e M 4. T e M
t a M t i M
t e T t o T
Special rules of the second figures
1. The major premise must be universal
(A or E)
2 One premise must be negative (E or O)
THE SPECIAL RULES GOVERNING
EACH FIGURES
3rd figure (sub-pre)
RULE 3 disqualifies the mood A-E and A-O
(for this reason, we have the six remaining
moods)
6 MOODS remaining
A A E E I O
Major
Premise
A I A I A A
Minor
Premise
A I O O I O
Conclusio
n
SUB-SUB
1. M a T 2. M a T 3. M e
T
M a t M i t M a t
t a T t i T t o T
4. M e T5. M i T 6. M o T
M i t M a t M a t
t o T t i T t o T
Special rules of the third figures
1. The minor premise must be affirmative
(A or I)
2. The conclusion must be particular (I or O)
THE SPECIAL RULES GOVERNING
EACH FIGURES
4rt
figure (pre-sub)
RULE 4 discards the moods A-I and A-O
RULE 3 also excludes the mood O-A
(for this reason, we have now the five
remaining moods)
5 MOODS remaining
A A E E I
Major
Premise
A E A I A
Minor
Premise
A E O O I
Conclusio
n
PRE-SUB
1. T a M 2. T a M 3. T e M
M a t M e t Ma t
t a T t e T t o T
4. T e M 5. T i M
M i t M a t
t o T t i T
Special rules of the fourth figures
1. It he major premise is affirmative (A or I),
the minor premise must be universal (A or
E)
Note: that the I-E combination has been
proven to violate Rule 3 is invalid.
2. If the minor premise is affirmative (A or I),
the conclusion must be particular (I or O)
3. If a premise is negative (E) the major
premise must be universal (A).
The Valid Moods of Each
Figure
There are 19 valid moods;
4 valid moods – 1st figure
4 valid moods – 2nd figure
6 valid moods – 3rd figure
5 valid moods – 4rt figure
The Valid Moods of Each
Figure
MNEMONIC VERSES (Latin hexameters)
M a T M e T M a T M e T
t a M t a M t i M t i M
t a T t e T t i T t o T
SECOND FIGURE (pre-pre)
Cesare Camestres Festino Baroco
T e M T a M T e M T a M
t a M t e M t i M t oM
t e T t e T t o T t o T
THIRD FIGURE (sub-sub)
Darapti Disamis Datisi
M a T M i T M a T
M a t M a t M i t
t i T t i T t i T
Fesapo Fresison
T e M T e M
M a t M i t
t o T t o T
KNOWING THE TRUTH
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
THE NATURE OF TRUTH
◦ Explain the nature of truth in terms of
A. being property of beliefs or statements
B. the consideration that have given rise to different kinds of truth
TRUTH AND KNOWLEDGE
◦ Distinguish between the different ways or methods for
knowing determining or establishing the truth of a statements
or beliefs
◦ Explain the conditions of knowledge and how disagreement s
about truth and knowledge can be resolve
REASONING AND FALLACIES
◦ Distinguish the kinds of reasoning used to arrive at or justify
truth and identify some common errors in reasoning.
THE NATURE OF TRUTH
TOPICS TO BE COVERED
1. THE BEARERS OF TRUTH
2. KINDS OF TRUTH
KEY CONCEPTS
Beliefs and statements are the bearer of truths
Empirical and rational truths
Universal and relative truths
Subjective and objective truths
Private and public truths
Necessary and contingent truths
A priori and a posteriori truths
Analytical and synthetic truths
Certain and probable truths
Religious, scientific, physical and psychological
truths
EXPECTED LEARNING
COMPETENCIES
Explain the nature of truth as a property of
beliefs and statements
Identify the different ways of distinguishing
of truths
THE BEARER OF TRUTHS
Traitsof a WISE PERSON
Aware of his/her ignorance
What is it that we know or do
not know?
◦TRUTH
THE BEARER OF TRUTHS
PHILOSOPHY
Love of Wisdom
Search for TRUTH
WHAT IS TRUTH?
How do we know it?
When can we say that what we know is
the truth?
What are the ways by which we can
BEARERS OF TRUTH
3 CANDIDATES
FOR THE BEARERS OF TRUTH
BELIEFS
STATEMENTS
SENTENCE
SENTENCE
◦ Not all sentences can be either true or false
◦ When we say that sentences can be true, what we
have in mind are the declarative sentence only.
◦ We do not say of a question, an exclamation or
essential that is either true or false.
◦ Declarative sentence
to issue command
Grammatical form of sentence – meaning is urgent
Sample;
Your mother tells you that the floor is dirty
Most likely your mother wants you to clean the floor
Not just to inform you that the floor is dirty
STATEMENTS
not sentences are properly speaking the bearer of truth
◦ Sample
THE TABLE IS BROWN
Only true in a situation where there is a table that happens
to be brown in color - TRUE
Another situation where there is table that is black in color
- FALSE
KINDS OF TRUTH
NECESSARY TRUTH
Rational truths are necessary truths
Always true
◦ Sample
A TRAINGLE HAS TREE SIDES
True in all possible situations in which it is said or
expressed
KINDS OF TRUTH
4.Truth of a belief or
statement can only be
known by the person who
has belief or makes the
statement.
KINDS OF TRUTH
PRIVATE TRUTH
Can only be known by the person who has the
belief or makes the statement considered to be
true.
The truth of psychological statements or
statements about one’s own mental states.
Empirical and rational truths are both private
truths
◦ Sample
MY SKIN IS CUT AND BLEEDING – public truth
I feel great pain , I can directly know that I am in great pain -
result of private truth
Everyone in principle that my skin is cut and bleeding
KINDS OF TRUTH
PUBLIC TRUTH
The principle be known by everyone (by in
principle we mean that occurrence or
presence of the necessary conditions like the
knowing person is a normal adult)
KIND OF TRUTH
5.The truth of a belief or
statement is dependent on;
◦Attitudes
◦Preference
◦Interest of a person or a
group of person.
KIND OF TRUTH
SUBJECTIVE TRUTH
Dependent on the attitudes, preferences or
interests of a person or a group of persons
Value judgment – aesthetic judgment
◦ Sample
THE ROCK MUSIC IS THE BEST KIND OF MUSIC
Subjective –depend on one’s musical preferences
There are others;
Pop
Rap
KINDS OF TRUTH
OBJECTIVE TRUTH
Based on value judgment – factual/accurate
judgment
◦ Sample;
ROCK MUSIC IS ONE OF THE MAJOR KINDS OF MUSIC
Objective for whether one likes rock music or not the
statement.
Rock music is one of the major kinds of music remains to
be true.
Day 7
KIND OF TRUTH
6.Question of whether a
belief or statement is
acknowledged to be
true by everyone or
only by some people.
KINDS OF TRUTH
UNIVERSAL TRUTH
Universally true if its true is
acknowledge by everyone.
Objective truths are
universal truth
KINDS OF TRUTH
RELATIVE TRUTH
Relatively true if its truth
acknowledge only be
some people.
Subjective truth are
relative truth
KINDS OF TRUTH
The truth of a belief is
7.
PEDRO IS MORTAL
Inferred from the truth of statement that
ALL HUMANS ARE MORTAL
KINDS OF TRUTH
PROBABLE TRUTH
The truth arrived at through the process of
inductive reasoning is merely probable.
◦ Sample
MOST FILIPINOS ARE HOSPITABLE
JUAN IS HOSPITABLE
Correspondence of Knowledge of
truth acquaintance
Practical knowledge
Coherence of truth
Propositional knowledge
Pragmatic of truth
Justified true belief
Internal observation
Disagreement
External observation
Disagreement in belief
Reasoning
Disagreement in attitude
Intuition
Merely verbal
Authority disagreement
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain the differences among the correspondence, coherence
and pragmatic theories or methods of truth
Distinguish and explain the particular methods of observation,
reasoning, intuitions, mystical experience and the appeal to
authority
Distinguish between knowledge by acquaintance, practical
knowledge and propositional knowledge
Explain the nature of knowledge as justified true belief
Explain the conditions of beliefs, truth and justification of
knowledge
Distinguish between knowledge and forms of non knowledge
(opinion and guess)
Distinguish between disagreements in belief, attitude and
merely verbal .
CULTIVATING
KNOWLEDGE AND
SKILLS
WAYS OF KNOWING
Determining the truths of a
given statement or belief
METHODS OF TRUTH
◦ . Correspondence
◦ Coherence
◦ Pragmatic theories
Theories of truth are actually ways of
explaining the truth or what makes the
statement or belief true
PARTICULAR METHODS OF TRUTH
Refers to a specific ways of applying of the
general methods of truth
These are the
◦ Observation
◦ Reasoning
◦ Intuition
◦ Mystical experience
◦ The appeal to authority
GENERAL METHOD OF
CORRESPONDENCE
To know the truthfulness of a statement/belief
◦ Examines whether the statement/belief
Corresponds to
Represent a fact in the world
If the statement/belief does correspond to a fact then the
statement is true
If the statement/beliefs does not correspond to the
statement, then it is false
Sample;
THE SKY IS BLUE – TRUE represents or correspond to the
fact that the sky is blue
WATER IS NOT WET – FALSE it does not correspond to a
fact that there is no form of water that it is not wet.
GENERAL METHOD OF COHERENCE
To know the truthfulness of the
statement/belief
◦ Examining whether the statement/beliefs
coheres with the rules of the relevant system.
If the statement/belief coheres with these rules – TRUE
If does not - FALSE
Sample
THREE AND THREE ARE SIX – TRUE it coheres with the
rules of the mathematical system
BACHELORS ARE MARRIED MALES – FALSE it violates the
rules of language
GENERAL METHOD OF
PRAGMATISM
The truthfulness of a statement/belief
◦ Examining the consequences of holding or
accepting the statement/belief to be true
Holding of the statement/belief to be true result of
beneficial consequences – TRUE
If does not – FALSE
The statement/belief which we hold to be true though
there are no objective (universal) means to verify their
truth.
Sample
Some people think that there are ghost or vampires base their
belief in the fact that they find it useful to hold such a belief –
like explaining unusual phenomena and dealing with fears
TRUTHFULNESS OF
STATEMENT/BELIEF
Generally examine whether or
not;
◦ They correspond to fact
◦ Coherence with the rules of a
system
◦ Result of beneficial
consequence
THE TRUTH AMONG THE
3 GENERAL METHODS
Depending on which is appropriate given the
kind of statement/belief that we are
considering.
◦ Sample
Believe in VAMPIRES
They believe because they think that there are vampires in the
world
These people, what makes their belief about vampires is true
that correspond to or represents actual creatures in the world
They justify by some kind of experience that they had or
accounts by some people.
QUESTION ABOUT THE GENERAL
METHOD OF TRUTH
How does one know whether a
statement/belief does;
◦ Correspond to the fact
◦ Coherence with the rules of a system
◦ Result in beneficial consequence
We shall briefly examine the particular methods of
Observation
Reasoning
Intuition
Mystical experience
Appeal to authority
OBSERVATION
The method used if an
empirical statement
A statement an observable
psychological statements
Statements about the mental
or conscious states
OBSERVATION – EXTERNAL
Observation of things outside our mind or
consciousness
The physical objects using the five organs of
sense
Done with or without the aid of sensory
objects
REASONING
The process of knowing or establishing truth
by means of our reason.
Varity of ways;
aspects of reality
Forms of truth that cannot be accessed or
◦ KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUINTANCE
To mean acquaintance or familiarity with a place or
person
Expressing familiarity with the person or things
◦ PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE
Asserting their knowledge of skills
SAMPLE OF
KNOWLEDGE OF ACQUAINTANCE
I know this place, this is the National
Museum.
I know this person, he is Ms. Tina our
a proposition of statement
◦ Sample
I know that the clinic closes at 5:00 in the afternoon
I know that you like to eat spicy food
PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
To determine whether indeed KNOWLEDGE
and not AN OPINION OR A GUESS
Specify the conditions for knowledge
PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
JUSTIFIED TRUE BELIEF
◦ We can only correctly say that X, if only if
1. we believe that X to be true
2. X is indeed true
3. we are justified in believing X to be true
Problem;
Supposed Jose claims that he knows that Manila is the
capital city of the Philippines.
For Jose to really know that Manila is the Capital City of
the Philippines
The following conditions should occur:
PROPOSITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
JUSTIFIED TRUE BELIEF
1. Jose believes that Manila is the capital of
the Philippines
2. It is true That Manila is the Capital of the
Philippines
3. Jose is justified in believing that Manila is
BELIEF
TRUTH
JUSTIFICATION
ANALYSIS OF THE PROPOSITIONS
1ST If Jose does not believe that Manila is the
capital of the Philippines
Either Jose doubts it or he has other reasons
for saying that he knows it
If Jose doubts that Manila is the capital of the
Philippines then he does not really know
whether Manila is the capital of the Philippines
If he has other reasons for saying that he
knows it, like to express a joke or to deceive
his listeners
ANALYSIS OF THE PROPOSITIONS
2ND Suppose what Jose claims instead is that he
knows that Quezon City is the capital of the
Philippines
That he is convinced of the truth of what he
claims to know
But we know that what Jose claims to know is
false (for Manila is the capital of the Philippines)
Jose is mistaken in believing the Quezon city is
the capital of the Philippines
And because Jose is mistaken in his belief then he
does not really know what he claims to know
ANALYSIS OF THE PROPOSITIONS
3 rd Maintaining that Jose claims that Manila is the capital
of the Philippines, and that he believes it, which happens
to be true
Is it enough to say that Jose knows that his evidence for
knowledge
What I know to be true is true
agreements?
How does this type of
Disagreement
DISAGREEMENTS IN BELIEF
Disagreement about the facts which are
properly resolved by verifying the facts at
issue.
The verification of fact can be done either by;
◦ directly observing the facts
◦ Examining relevant documents
◦ Appealing to appropriate authorities
SAMPLE
Disagreement of this kind is the one over whether a
certain politician stole money form the government.
DISAGREEMENT IN ATTITUDE
Disagreement over preferences
They usually resolve by persuasion if not by
compromise
Persuasion done either
◦ logically one’s arguments are consistent with the
valid rules of deduction
◦ Illogically one’s arguments commit the informal
fallacies
Sample
Disagreement of this kind of issue of divorce and same
sex marriage should be legalized in our country
MERELY VERBAL DISAGREEMENT
Disagreement that arise out of the
misunderstanding of the meanings of our
linguistic expressions
Properly resolved by clarifying the meanings
Arguments,
like men,
are often
pretenders
.
FALLACIES
Fallacyis an erroneous
reasoning that comes
from false premises or
irrelevant conclusion
which seems to be
correct.
FALLACY
FALLERE (Latin)
To deceive or to lead astray.
This is a form of deception coming from an
PRESUMPTION
FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY
It is committed when the meaning of words
or phrases created a different meaning in
the conclusion.
This may happened, if the words that are
Iscommitted when
reasoning is circular in
that the conclusion is
already assumed in
the premises
FALLACY OF ACCIDENT
Committed when one applies
a general rule to individual
cases, which because of their
special or accidental nature
The general rules does not
properly apply
FALLACY OF HASTY
GENERALIZATION
Iscommitted when one makes a
generalization from a special or
accident case or simply from
insufficient number of cases.
Converse accident is a case of
MAN as
◦ Rational
◦ Emotional (emotion can dominate reason)
CONVICTION
* it is an aspect of argumentation whereby the debater direct
his words to the reasoning faculty of man
* it makes the truth clear and makes it more interesting
* Opinion leads one to embrace the truth
The Four Process of
Argumentation
Invention
◦ Determining ideas whose truth the arguer or debater
whishes his listener to believe
Selection
◦ `gathering of data and information needed to serve as a
proof
Arrangement
◦ The materials are supposed to be arranged according to
a pre established plan which can clearly, effectively and
forcefully presented as proof
Presentation
◦ To communicate ideas, invented, selected and arranged
The Subject of Argumentation: The
Proposition
The proposition in a debate enables the
debater to understand the issues and how to
discuss them
It prevents using his time and effort uselessly
generalizations
The proposition must be in the form of
assertion/allegation
The proposition must result in only one act of judgment
The proposition must be so worded in a manner that the
◦ Potential issues
◦ Admitted issues
◦ Stock issues
Evidence, Proof and
Argument
Evidence
◦ Anything that tends to prove or disprove something. It
must pass the parameter of acceptability in regard to
conviction and opinion
Proof
◦ To convince the mind of truth or falsity of any
proposition (presentation of evidence/fact that sought
to be proved –principal fact “factum probandum”)
Argument
◦ The arguer infers the existence of other facts from
knowing the existence of one or more facts in order to
establish the reality of a point
Outline of Debate
Title
Preliminary introduction
Main introduction
Statement of the issues
Brief of the argument
conclusion
Rules
The brief must be presented in the form of heading
and sub headings
The brief must be partitioned into 3 parts
(introduction, discussion and conclusion)
Each heading and sub-heading must be shown in the
form of a complete sentence
Each heading and sub-heading must embody only
one sentence except when it includes a lifted but
properly acknowledge quotation
Every series of sentences must follow the principles
of rhetoric/public speaking
All sources of materials and other information should
be properly acknowledged, stating the bibliographic
information
The 1st part of the introduction must embody
all the information needed for a clear
comprehension of the discussion
The last portion of the introduction must