Meteo

WEATHER PHENOMENON
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
WIND
VISIBILITY
HUMIDITY
CLOUD
OTHERS Airart International

BRIEFING METEO
WEATHER DEPARTURE
WEATHER ENROUTE
WEATHER DESTINATION
( TERMINAL FORECAST )
WEATHER ALTERNATE DESTINATION

( ALTERNATE FORECAST )
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METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES
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WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT WEATHER
THE ATMOSPHERE
The mixture of
gases which
surrounds
the earth
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
Oxygen (O2) Other Gases 1%

21% Water Vapor (H2O)
Argon
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen
Nitrogen (N2) Neon
78% Helium (He)
Methane (CH4)
Earth's Atmosphere is
► A mixture of gases with some suspended solids
and liquids.
► Three common solids in atmosphere:
► Ice
► Dust
► Salt - from ocean spray
► Gas Composition of Earth's atmosphere:

Nitrogen -78% of atmosphere
► Oxygen - 21% of atmosphere
► Trace gases -1% - Neon, Helium, Hydrogen,
Methane,
Carbon Dioxide
► gases like carbon dioxide, water vapor, sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen were released from the
interior of the Earth from volcanoes and other
processes.
The concentrations of gases in the earth atmosphere is now known to be (ignoring water vapor,
which varies between near zero to a few percent),
variable gases IN THE ATMOSPHERE : H2O AND CO2
CONSTITUENT CHEMICAL SYMBOL MOLE PERCENT
Nitrogen N2 78.084
Oxygen O2 20.947
Argon Ar 0.934
Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.035
Neon Ne 0.00182
Helium He 0.00052
Methane CH4 0.00017
Krypton Kr 0.00011
Hydrogen H2 0.00005
Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.00003
Xenon Xe 0.00001
Ozone O3 trace to 0.00080

► Current Composition
 Even though water vapor and Carbon
Dioxide are a small percentage of the total
gas content they play a very important
role.
► Water Vapor
 Water vapor content changes dramatically
both vertically and horizontally.
 It is the variation in the water vapor
content that causes our weather.
► Water Vapor
 Near the poles Water Vapor content is
approximately 1% while at the equator it
comprises nearly 4% of a volume of air.
 This is important because in order to

change state, energy must added/released.
 The Wet air being much lighter than dry

air?.............
Atmospheric oxygen
Altitude O² pressure Max. exposure
► Interpolating from the
►
Sea .level 210 hPa — pressure gradient graph
above, oxygen partial
7000 feet 165 hPa —
pressure at selected
altitudes is shown below.
The decreasing partial
10 000 feet 150 hPa —
15 000 feet 120 hPa 30+ minutes pressure of oxygen as an

aircraft climbs past 10
18 000 feet 105 hPa 20–30 minutes 000 – 12 000 feet has
critical effects on aircrew;
25 000 feet 80 hPa 3–5 minutes
the maximum exposure
time for a fit person,
without inspiring
30 000 feet 65 hPa 1–3 minutes
35 000 feet 50 hPa 30–60 seconds supplemental oxygen, is

shown in the right hand
40 000 feet 30 hPa 10–20 seconds column. Exposure beyond
these times leads to
unconsciousness..
Structure of the Earth's atmosphere:
(From the ground out to space.)
► Troposphere- approx. ground to 10 kilometers ( approx 7 miles up)
 The closest layer to the Earth.
 Contains 75% of our atmospheres gases
 Weather clouds and smog occur in the troposphere
► Stratosphere - approximately 10 km - 45 km up (approx 7miles-30miles)

 The ozone layer is located here
 the jet stream is located here
 Little or no water vapor here
► Mesosphere - approximately 45 km -95 km up (30 - 50 miles up)
 the coldest part of the atmosphere
► Thermosphere - approximately 95 km -to 500 km (50 miles and up)

 Warmest layer of the atmosphere.
► lower layer of thermosphere is called the IONOSPHERE
► Ionosphere made of electronically charged particles.
► reflects radio waves
► In the daytime this layer interferes with radio waves since suns
energy charges the particles to much and causes problems a lot of
static.
► At night it is less charged. This is why it is easier to hear AM radio
late at night
► Exosphere - approximantly 500 kilometers and beyond
 Outer most layer of our atmosphere
 Very very few air molecules in this layer
 No clear boundary between this layer and space
ATMOSPHERE
Troposphere
16 km
11 km
52,000 ft
36,000 ft 8 km
TROPOPAUSE
26,000 ft TROPOSPHERE
EQUATOR POLE
The ICAO International Standard Atmosphere
► The International Civil Aviation Organisation's

International Standard Atmosphere [ ISA ] provides a
fixed standard atmospheric model used for many
purposes among which are the uniform assessment of
aircraft performance and the calibration of some aircraft
instruments. The model is akin to the average condition
in mid-latitudes but contains the following assumptions:
► dry air is assumed throughout the atmosphere with
density 1.225 kg/m3
► the mean sea level pressure = 1013.25 hPa
► the msl temperature = 15 °C [288 K]
► the tropopause is at 36 090 feet [11 km] and the
pressure at the tropopause = 226.3 hPa
► the temperature lapse rate to 36 090 feet = 6.5 °C per
km or nearly 2 °C per 1000 feet
► the temperature between 36 090 and 65 600 feet [20
km] remains constant at –56.5 °C.
Carbon Dioxide/CO 2 ---0.035
► gases like carbon dioxide, water vapor,

sulphur dioxide and nitrogen were
released from the interior of the Earth
from volcanoes and other processes.
► GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
► variable gases IN THE ATMOSPHERE :
H2O AND CO2
Atmospheric Ozone/O3-- trace to
0.00080
► Stratosphere--- The ozone layer is

located here ----TEMPERATURE
INCREASE
► ABSORB ……….ULTRA VIOLET
TEMPERATURE
AIR TEMPERATURE
The amount of heat in the air
Indicated in degrees Celcius (  c )

and in degrees Fahrenheit (  c )
° C = ( 5 / 9 ) x ( ° F - 32 )
°F = {( 9/5) x °C ) + 32 }
40,000
ALTITUDE - FEET
30,000
20,000
10,000
SEA LEVEL
-60 -40 -20 0 20
Airart International TEMPERATURE - C
AIR TEMPERATURE
Scale of Temperature
 Centigrade Scale
0° C = 273.16° K
0° K = - 273.16° C
 Fahrenheit Scale
Melting point of ice = + 32° F
Boiling point of water = 212° F
 Conversion
F = 9/5 x °C + 32°
C = 5/9 x (°F - 32°)
Temperature
Measurement methods
- Using a thermometer
- Pilot ------ be aware the temperature on aerodrome will often be higher than that
recorded ---
due todirect solar radiation (insolation) and radiation from runways.
Change temp. with height
-ISACondition – temp falls at constan rate of 1,98 oC / 1000 ft up to 36.000 ft

-To make easier – the fall in temp with gain in height (lapse rate) ft 2 oC / 1000 ft up to
36.000 ft (tropopouse), at which point the temp is assumed to be constan at – 57
oC
How to determine ISA temp. at any specified height.

As ISA Temp. at sea level is 15 oC, the temp. at 5000 Ft will be (15 oC – 10 oC)
= +5 oC
ISA Temp= ( +15 – (2x ft in thousands) oC
Example: What is ISA temp at 9,500 ft

(+ 15 – (2 x 9.5) = 15 -19 = -4 oC
► Thermometers found
inside the instrument
shelter are mounted
approximate 1.5 meters
above the ground
surface. The top
thermometer contains
alcohol and is used to
determine daily minimum
temperatures. The lower
thermometer uses
mercury to determine the
daily maximum
temperature.
ATMOSPHERIC HEATING
SOLAR RADIATION
1. RADIATION
TERRESTERIAL RADIATION
ABSORBING
REFLECTING
TRANSMITTING
2. CONDUCTION
ADVECTION
3. MASS TRANSFER
CONVECTION
Radiation
► Radiation allows heat to

be transfered through
wave energy. These waves
are called Electromagnetic
Waves, because the
energy travels in a
combination of electric and
magnetic waves.
► This energy is released
when these waves are
absorbed by an object. For
example, energy traveling
from the sun to your skin,
you can feel your skin
getting warmer as energy
is absorbed.
SOLAR RADIATION
THE MAIN SOURCE OF ENERGY ON EARTH IS THE SUN. OF THIS,HEAT ENERGY COMES TO
US IN THE FORM OF INFRA RED, ULTRA VIOLET, AND VISIBLE LIGHT…. THIS IS
SHORT-WAVE RADIATION.
SOLAR RADIATION PENETRATES THE EARTH΄S ATMOSPHERE AND ABSORBED BY THE

EARTH‘S SURFACE, CAUSING ITS TEMPERATURE TO INCREASE.
HOW MUCH THE SURFACE TEMP. RISES DEPEND UPON ITS NATURE – LAND SHOWING A
GREATER TEMP. RISES THAN WATER FOR THE SAME AMOUNT OF SOLAR ENERGY.
EVERY PHYSICAL PROCESS OF WEATHER IS ACCOMPANIED BY, OR IS THE RESULT OF, A

HEAT EXCHANGE.
SEASONAL VARIATION
► NATURE OF THE SURFACE

THE HEATING OF VARIOUS SURFACES AND THE TEMPERATURES
WHICH THEY REACH DEPENDS UPON A NUMBER OF FACTORS.
1. THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF THE SURFACE… WATER HAS A HIGHER

SPECIFIC HEAT THAN LAND.
2. THE REFLECTIVITY OF THE SURFACE/ ALBEDO… SNOW HAS
A HIGHER ALBEDO THANGRASS.
3. THE CONDUCTIVITY OF THE SURFACE…. THE SEA TO BE HEATED
TO A GREATER DEPTH THAN A LAND SURFACE.
► The reflectivity or albedo of the Earth's
surface varies with the type of material
that covers it. For example, fresh snow
can reflect up to 95 % of the insolation
that reaches it surface. Some other
surface type reflectivities are:
► Dry sand 35 to 45 %
► Broadleaf deciduous forest 5 to 10 %
► Needleleaf confierous forest 10 to 20 %
► Grass type vegetation 15 to 25 %
Specific Heat
► Water 1.00
► Air 0.24
► Granite 0.19
► Sand 0.19
► Iron 0.11
TERRESTERIAL RE RADIATION
EFFECT OF CLOUD COVER
CLOUD COVER….RESULTING IN REDUCED HEATING OF

THE EARTH AND LOWER TEMP. ON CLOUDY DAYS
COMPARED WITH SUNNY DAYS
BY NIGHT ..CLOUD COVERAGE CAUSES THE OPPOSITE

EFFECT AND PREVENTS SOME OF THE HEAT ENERGY
ESCAPING FROM THE EARTH‘S SURFACE
SO CLOUDY NIGHTS WILL NOT BE AS COLD AS CLEAR
NIGHTS
EFFECT OF CLOUD COVER
CONDUCTION
► Conduction is the transfer of
heat within a substance,
molecule by molecule. If you
put one end of a metal rod
over a fire, that end will
absorb the energy from the
flame (this is radiation
transferring energy). The
molecules at this end of the
rod will gain energy and begin
to vibrate faster. As they do
their temperature increases
and they begin to bump into
the molecules next to them.
The heat is being transfered
from the warm end to the cold
end.
MASS TRANSFER
► Advection
► is the transfer of heat in the
horizontal
(north/east/south/west)
direction. In meteorology, the
wind transports heat by
advection. This happens all the
time on Earth, heat is
transported in many ways. For
example, wind blowing over a
body of water will pick up
evaporated water molecules
and carry them elsewhere,
when the air with these water
molecules cools, the water will
condense and release latent
heat. The heat is being
transfered by the wind.
Advection is very similar to
Convection, however, it is in
the horizontal and not vertical
Convection
► Convection is heat transfer by the
mass movement of a fluid in the
vertical (up/down) direction. This type
of heat transfer takes place in liquids
and gases. This occurs naturally in our
atmosphere.
► Warm air is less dense than cold air,
making cold air heavier than warm air.
On a sunny day, the surface of the
Earth is heated by radiation from the
Sun. The thin layer of molecules
touching the surface are heated by
conduction. We know air is a poor
conductor of heat, so this warm mass
of air near the surface can not
immediately transfer its heat away
from the surface by conduction. This
warm air mass is buoyant and wants
to rise upward because it is less dense,
the heavy cold air takes the place of
the warm bubble. This rising warm
light air is called a thermal in
meteorology.
► it cools at a rate of 9.8°C/km as it

rises.
DIURNAL VARIATION
► Theearth’surface will change from day to
night
AIR TEMPERATURE
Seasonal Variation
SPRING SUMMER FALL W INTER

22 Jun
Tropic Of Cancer
23 Sep
Equator
21 Mar
Tropic Of Capricorn
22 Des
FALL W INTER SPRING SUMMER
VARIATION WITH LATITUDE
► Equatorial regions,
therefore, receive
the most radiant
energy and are
warmest. Slanting
rays of the sun at
higher latitudes
deliver less energy
over a given area
with the least
being received at
the poles. Thus,
temperature
varies with
latitude from the
warm Equator to
the cold poles
The effects of temperature changes on
an aircraft's altitude:
 When air is warmer than average the airplane

will be higher than the altimeter indicates
 When air is colder than average the airplane
will be lower than the altimeter indicates
 When temperature lowers en route, the airplane
is lower than the altimeter indicates
 When temperature rises en route, the airplane is
higher than the altimeter indicates
When the air is warmer than the standard, the altimeter reads lower
than the airplane's true altitude.
When the air is colder than the standard, the altimeter reads higher
than the airplane's true altitude.
AIR DENSITY
The weight of air per unit

of its volume
The weight per unit volume expressed
in pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3)
Variation of density with
height
The force of gravity
attracs the air molecules
to the surface of the
earth, and compresses
them close togheter. As
we gain height, and air
pressure decreases, the
number of molecules in
the cubic metre
decreases, i. e. the air
becomes less dense, and
at 20.000 ft the density is
aproximately half its sea
level value.
Atmospheric density
► The average density of dry air in temperate climates is about 1.225 kg/m³ at mean sea
level, decreasing with altitude.
There are several gas laws and equations which relate the temperature, pressure,
density and volume of a gas. However the equation most pertinent to aeronautical needs
is the equation of state:
r = P/RT where:
r (the Greek letter rho) = density in kg/m³
P = the static air pressure in hectopascals
R = the gas constant = 2.87
T = the temperature in Kelvin units = °C + 273
► We can calculate the ISA standard sea level air density, knowing that standard sea level
pressure = 1013 hPa and temperature = 15 °C or 288 K
i.e. Air density = 1013 / (2.87 × 288) = 1.225 kg/m³
However if the air temperature happened to be 30 °C or 303 K at the same pressure
then density would = 1013 / (2.87 × 303) = 1.165 kg/m³ or a 5% reduction.
By restating the equation of state: P = RrT it can be seen that if density remains
constant, pressure increases if temperature increases.
Air Density decreases:
►With Air Temperature Increase

►With Altitude Increase
►With Humidity Increase
►With Barometric Pressure
Decrease
With lower air density:
The engine develops less power.

The propeller produces less thrust.
The wings produce less lift.
This results in:

Longer takeoff run
Poorer climb performance
Longer landing distance
PentingnyaBerat
tekanan
►
atmosfir
1 inci persegi dari atmosfir
adalah 14.7 lbs
► Di permukaan laut, lapisan atmosfir
memberikan tekanan pada bumi
sebesar14,7 pounds per inci persegi.
Artinya, sepetak udara seluas 1 inci persegi,
mulai dari permukaan sampai ke batas
atmosfir yang paling tinggi, mempunyai
berat 14,7 pound. Seorang yang berdiri di
ketinggian permukaan laut juga akan
merasakan tekanan yang sama dari
atmosfir. Tapi sebenarnya tekanan ini tidak
berupa tekanan dari atas ke bawah, tapi
akan dirasakan pada seluruh permukaan
kulitnya.
► Tekanan sebenarnya di sebuah tempat dan
pada satu waktu akan berbeda tergantung
pada ketinggian, suhu dan kerapatan udara
(air density). Kondisi ini juga berpengaruh
pada kinerja pesawat, terutama yang
berhubungan dengan lepas landas, rate of
climb (kemampuan mendaki) dan
mendarat.
Air Pressure
► Air pressure is the force exerted on you by the weight of tiny
particles of air (air molecules). Although air molecules are
invisible, they still have weight and take up space. Since
there's a lot of "empty" space between air molecules, air can
be compressed to fit in a smaller volume.
► Air Pressure:
At sea level, the air pressure is about 14.7 pounds per square
inch. As your altitude increases (for example, if you climb a
mountain), the air pressure decreases. At an altitude of
10,000 feet, the air pressure is 10 pound per square inch (and
there is less oxygen to breathe).
► The rate of decrease of pressure is about 1 hpa/mb per 30 ft
PRESSURE
Air Pressure
Pressure is measured in term of force acting upon a unit area
PRESSURE
Measurement
Inches of Mercury “Hg

Atmospheres atm
Kilopascals kPa
Milibars mb
299.92 “Hg = 1.0 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1013.25 mb

Measurement of air pressure:
Millibar
► 1013.25mb = is the average sea

level air pressure.
► 34 millibars = 1 inch of mercury.
► 1 millibar = 1/1000 of a bar
► 1 bar = 100,000 newtons
Measurement of Pressure
The atmospheric pressure is a measure of the weight (force) of the air above the
surface of the earth in the unit area
Measure with - aneroid barometer …continuous record on a chart.

- mercury barometer
Unit of atmospheric pressure

 at surface – a pressure of about 100.000 newton per square metre
 To be more sensibly the unit chosen in the: hecto pascal (hPa) = 100 newton
(1 newton = 1 pascal = mb)
inches of mercury are still use as a unit of pressure
ISA pressure of 1013.2 h Pa = 29.92 inches high Volumn of mercury
 Change of pressure with height.
for practical purpose that up to about 5000 ft above sea level, the pressure falls by 1 hPa per
30 ft.
So in ISA conditions pressure at 5000 ft approximately 845 hPa.
Above this height the rate of change of pressure decreasses with altitude.
Presure system
To help in the forecasting of weather conditions, by joining places of equal pressure with lines
known as isobar.
► Values of Average Sea Level
Pressure1 ATM (atmosphere)
1013.25 millibars (mb)
14.7 pounds per square inch (lb/in2)
760 millimeters of mercury (mm)
29.92 inches of mercury (") or (in)
1013.25 hectopascals (hPa)
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Swiss Scientist
Daniel Bernoulli : 1700 - 1782
“As the air velocity increases,

the pressure decreases; and
as the velocity decreases,
the pressure increases”
800 400 800
mb mb mb
SLOW FAST SLOW
THE VENTURI EFFECT

High Flow Velocity, Low Static Pressure
PRESSURE VARIATION
WITH ALTITUDE
► Not immediately
apparent from the ISA
table is that the
pressure lapse rate is
about one hPa per 30
feet up to the 850 hPa
level, then slowing to
40 feet per hPa at the
650 hPa level, 50 feet
at the 450 hPa level, 75
feet at the 300 hPa
level and so on,
however, this provides
a useful rule of thumb:
► Rule of Thumb #1
"An altitude change

of 30 feet per hPa can
be assumed for
operations below
10 000 feet."
PRESSURE VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE
► Three columns of air showing how

decrease of pressure with height
varies with temperature. Left
column is colder than average and
right column, warmer than
average. Pressure is equal at the
bottom of each column and equal at
the top of each column. Pressure
decreases most rapidly with height
in the cold air and least rapidly in
the warm air.
Sea Level Pressure
► pressure measured at a 5,000-foot station is 25 inches; pressure increases
about 1 inch for each 1,000 feet or a total of 5 inches.
► Sea level pressure is approximately 25 + 5 or 30 inches. We usually express
sea level pressure in millibars. Standard sea level pressure is 1013.2
millibars, 29.92 inches of mercury, 760 millimeters of mercury, or about
14.7 pounds per square inch
The pressure decrease is not linear
PRESSURE
Hi & Lo Pressure Area
Figure 1. Schematic view of spiraling winds and vertical motions in high and low pressure areas.
High and Low Pressure
Pressure Analyses
► We plot sea level pressures on a map and draw lines
connecting points of equal pressure. These lines of
equal pressure are isobars. LOW—a center of pressure
surrounded on all sides by higher pressure; also called
a cyclone. Cyclonic curvature is the curvature of
isobars to the left when you stand with lower pressure
to your left.
► HIGH—a center of pressure surrounded on all sides by
lower pressure, also called an anticyclone. Anticyclonic
curvature is the curvature of isobars to the right when
you stand with lower pressure to your left.
► TROUGH—an elongated area of low pressure with the
lowest pressure along a line marking maximum
cyclonic curvature.
► RIDGE—an elongated area of high pressure with the
highest pressure along a line marking maximum
anticyclonic curvature.
► COL—the neutral area between two highs and two
lows. It also is the intersection of a trough and a ridge.
The col on a pressure surface is analogous to a
mountain pass on a topographic surface.
Pressure Analyses
RIDGE
THROUGH
ISOBAR
Measuring Air Pressure
► Barometer
► A barometer is a device that measures air (barometric)
pressure. It measures the weight of the column of air that
extends from the instrument to the top of the atmosphere.
There are two types of barometers commonly used today,
mercury and aneroid (meaning "fluidless").
► The mercury barometer was invented by the Italian physicist
Evangelista Torricelli (1608 - 1647), a pupil of Galileo, in
1643. Torricelli inverted a glass tube filled with mercury into
another container of mercury; the mercury in the tube
"weighs" the air in the atmosphere above the tube. The
aneroid barometer (using a spring balance instead of a liquid)
was invented by the French scientist Lucien Vidie in 1843.
► 2 types of Barometers used

• Aneroid Barometer
• Toricelli Mercury Barometer
Aneroid Barometer
Toricelli Mercury Barometer
► The height that the mercury rises in the glass tube is directly related to the atmospheric
pressure. This pressure is usually measured in inches of mercury. A standard mercury
barometer has a glass column about 30 inches long. A measurement of 29.92 inches of
mercury is equivalent to 1013.25 millibars.
Tekanan di sebuah stasiun cuaca di konversi dan dilaporkan dalam bentuk
tekanan permukaan laut
► Karena stasiun pengamatan cuaca berada di seluruh penjuru bola dunia, maka bacaan tekanan
barometrik setempat di konversi ke tekanan permukaan laut untuk mendapatkan standar bagi
penyimpanan rekaman dan pelaporan. Untuk menghasilkan nilai ini, setiap stasiun akan
mengubah tekanan barometrik dengan menambahkan 1 inci air raksa setiap kali naik 1000 kaki.
Contohnya, sebuah stasiun di 5000 kaki di atas permukaan laut, dengan bacaan tekanan 24.92
inci air raksa akan melaporkan tekanan di permukaan laut 29.92 inci. Dengan menggunakan
bacaan permukaan laut dengan angka yang umum akan menjamin bahwa altimeter (alat
penunjuk ketinggian) di pesawat akan di setel dengan benar, berdasarkan pembacaan tekanan
pada saat itu.
► Dengan mengamati gejala tekanan barometrik pada cakupan daerah yang luas, peramal cuaca
akan bisa lebih akurat meramalkan pergerakan sistem tekanan dan cuaca yang berhubungan
dengannya. Contohnya, jika ada sebuah pola tekanan yang meningkat di sebuah stasiun
pengamatan cuaca biasanya menunjukkan bahwa cuaca yang baik akan terjadi sesaat
kemudian. Sebaliknya, penurunan tekanan atau jatuhnya tekanan secara cepat biasanya
menunjukkan bahwa cuaca buruk dan kemungkinan ada hujan atau badai akan terjadi.
EFEK KETINGGIAN PADA PENERBANGAN
► Jarak Take off bertambah seiring dengan peningkatan ketinggian
► Jika ketinggian meningkat maka tekanan akan berkurang, karena berat udara akan berkurang.
Sebagai rata-rata setiap kali ketinggian meningkat 1000 kaki maka tekanan atmosfir akan
berkurang 1 in.Hg. Pengurangan ini (peningkatan density altitude, ketinggian diukur dari kerapatan
udara) mempunyai pengaruh besar pada kinerja (performance) pesawat.
EFEK KETINGGIAN PADA PENERBANGAN
► Ketinggian mempengaruhi setiap aspek penerbangan dari pesawatnya

sendiri dan kinerja manusia. Do tempat yang tinggi, dimana tekanan
atmosfir berkurang, jarak untuk lepas landas dan mendarat akan
bertambah, begitu juga kemampuan untuk mendaki akan berkurang.
► Sewaktu pesawat lepas landas, gaya lift harus dikumpulkan dengan
aliran udara di sekitar sayap. Jika udaranya tipis, maka pesawat butuh
bergerak lebih cepat lagi untuk mendapatkan lift yang cukup untuk
terbang, maka pesawat butuh landasan yang lebih panjang. Sebuah
pesawat yang membutuhkan landasan sepanjang 1000 kaki di
ketinggian yang sama dengan permukaan laut, akan membutuhkan
hampir dua kali lipat pada landasan yang mempunyai ketinggian 5000
kaki. Juga pada ketinggian yang lebih tinggi, dikarenakan
berkurangnya kerapatan udara, maka efisiensi mesin pesawat dan
baling-baling akan berkurang. Ini akan mengakibatkan pengurangan
rate of climb (kemampuan mendaki) dan landasan yang lebih panjang
untuk lepas landas dan menghindari halangan (obstacle) yang ada di
darat.
ALTIMETRY
► ALTIMETER ADALAH BAROMETER

LOGAM. PADA BAROMETER LOGAM
SKALANYA ADALAH SKALA TEKANAN
UDARA SEDANG ALTIMETER SKALANYA
ADALAH SKALA TINGGI YANG SETARA
DNG NILAI TEKANAN DALAM ARAH
VERTIKAL MENURUT STANDARD
ATMOSFER. JADI ALTIMETER ADALAH
ALAT PENGUKUR KETINGGIAN YANG
BEKERJA BERDASARKAN PENURUNAN
TEKANAN UDARATRHADAP
BERTAMBAHNYA KETINGGIAN.
► The altimeter is essentially an
aneroid barometer. The
difference is the scale. The
altimeter is graduated to read
increments of height rather than
units of pressure
ALTITUDE
► Indicated altitude is the

reading on the altimeter!
► Absolute altitude is the height
of the aircraft above the terrain
over which it is flying. Also
referred to feet/metres Above
Ground Level (AGL).
► True altitude is the elevation
above mean sea level
► Indicated Altitude
Note that in the warm air, you
fly at an altitude higher than
indicated. In the cold air, you
are at an altitude lower than
indicated.
ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE
The actual distance the aircraft is above

the ground (over the terrain)
It is measured with radar altimeter
Terrain
Altimeter Setting
► HEIGHT and QFE
In general, HEIGHT is the vertical distance of an aircraft
above whatever SURFACE (buildings, mountains, a lake,
etc.). HEIGHT is expressed in feet AGL (Above Ground
Level).
By setting the QFE value of an airport, the pressure

altimeter will show the HEIGHT above that airport. On
the ground, the altimeter will show 0 (zero). The QFE is
the atmospheric pressure measured at the airport. The
higher the airport elevation, the lower the QFE.
Flight Level is the altitude (at standard QNH) in feet,

without the two zero's at the end (20.000 feet becomes
FL200)
Altimeter Setting
► ALTITUDE and QNH - ELEVATION
An ALTITUDE (ALT) is the vertical distance of an aircraft
above the MEAN SEA LEVEL (MSL). For objects and
obstacles on the surface of the earth, the word ELEVATION
(ELEV) is used instead of altitude. ALTITUDES and
ELEVATIONS are expressed in feet AMSL (Above Mean Sea
Level).
When a QNH is set on the aircraft's altimeter, the

word ALTITUDE is used. On the ground at an airport, the
altimeter will (approximately) show that airport ELEVATION
when the aerodrome QNH is set on the aircraft's altimeter.
QFE OR QNH
► Going back to our altimeter, if the altimeter sets the QFE, it will read zero
feet when it is on the runway; if the aircraft is flying, it will give the height
above the landing runway. This QFE is only accurate for the runway at that
airfield; for example, if our destination airfield is 300ft higher than our
departure airfield, its QFE will be about 10 millibars lower (1 millibar
equates to about 30ft and if the airfield is higher, there's less air above it so
the pressure is lower).
► This is all well and good when flying at airfields, but if you look at a map
and see that that hill over there is 2600ft above sea level and you want to
fly over it, how high should you fly? If our second airfield was 600ft above
sea level and we were on their QFE, we'd want to fly at 2100ft to fly 100ft
above it (2100ft above airfield = 2100+600ft above sea level), but if we
were flying on our first airfield's QFE, we would be 2100+300ft above sea
level - 200ft below the hill. To avoid this kind of mishap, when flying away
from airfields, you use a QNH. If you put a QNH on an altimeter, it will
read zero at sea level. The Met Office work it out using airfield pressures.
Then
 Airfield number 1 is 300ft above sea level, its QFE=1000 millibars;
 therefore its QNH is 1000+(300/30)=1010 millibars;
 remember more air above so the pressure increases.
► Now, if you fly on the QNH at 2700ft, you know you'll miss the hill.
Incidentally, Graham Hill, the racing driver, was killed when he flew into the
side of a hill in cloud; the investigation showed he had the wrong pressure
set.
Effect of temperature on altitude
► When air is warmer than
average, you are higher
than your altimeter
indicates. When
temperature is colder
than average, you are
lower than indicated.
When flying from warm
to cold air at a constant
indicated altitude, you are
losing true altitude.
Pressure Altitude
► Pressurealtitude is the altitude in the

standard atmosphere where pressure is the
same as where you are
► You can always determine pressure altitude
from your altimeter whether in flight or on
the ground. Simply set your altimeter at the
standard altimeter setting of 29.92 inches,
and your altimeter indicates pressure
altitude
PRESSURE ALTITUDE
That altitude in standard air that corresponds to

the existing air pressure (the altitude above sea level)
Mean Sea Level
DENSITY ALTITUDE
► Density altitude simply is the altitude in the standard atmosphere where air
density is the same as where you are.
► Pressure, temperature, and humidity determine air density. On a hot day, the
air becomes “thinner” or lighter, and its density where you are is equivalent to
a higher altitude in the standard atmosphere—thus the term “high density
altitude.” On a cold day, the air becomes heavy; its density is the same as that
at an altitude in the standard atmosphere lower than your altitude—“low
density altitude.”
► High density altitude is a real hazard since it
reduces aircraft performance (1) It reduces power
because the engine takes in less air to support
combustion. (2) It reduces thrust because the
propeller gets less grip on the light air or a jet has
less mass of gases to spit out the exhaust. (3) It
reduces lift because the light air exerts less force
on the airfoils.
Here are some of the effects of density changes on
an aircraft's performance.
 High density altitude conditions reduce an airplane's performance
because:
 there are less molecules in the air, the lighter air exerts less force
on the wings which result in reduced lift;
 reduced thrust and lift means more runway length is needed for
takeoff and more clearance area at the end of the runway is
needed because of a reduced climb rate.
 Low-density altitude conditions increase an airplane's performance

because of:
 greater thrust than normal due to a greater number of molecules
in the air with which propellers and jet engines can interact;
 greater lift force as heavier air exerts more force on the wings;
 faster speed and faster climb rate as thrust and lift are increased.
Effect of density altitude on takeoff and climb. High density
altitude lengthens takeoff roll and reduces rate of climb.
► CONTOH
AERODROME
ELEVASI 5000 FT
TEMP 40 C SETELAH
DIHITUNG DENSITY
ALTITUDENYA 8800
FT INI ARTINYA
PESAWAT YANG
ADA DI
AERODROME TSB
HARUS DIBERI
TENAGA YANG
SETARA KALAU
BERADA DITEMPAT
YANG MEMPUNYAI
ELEVASI 8800FT
SUMMARY
► Pressure decreases with increasing altitude. The altimeter is an aneroid barometer graduated in
increments of altitude in the standard atmosphere instead of units of pressure. Temperature
greatly affects the rate of pressure decrease with height; therefore, it influences altimeter
readings. Temperature also determines the density of air at a given pressure (density altitude).
Density altitude is an index to aircraft performance. Always be alert for departures of pressure
and temperature from normals and compensate for these abnormalities.
► Beware of the low pressure-bad weather, high pressure-good weather rule of thumb. It
frequently fails. Always get the complete weather picture.
► When flying from high pressure to low pressure at constant indicated altitude and without
adjusting the altimeter, you are losing true altitude.
► When temperature is colder than standard, you are at an altitude lower than your altimeter
indicates. When temperature is warmer than standard, you are higher than your altimeter
indicates.
► When flying cross country, keep your altimeter setting current. This procedure assures more
positive altitude separation from other aircraft.
► When flying over high terrain in cold weather, compute your true altitude to ensure terrain
clearance.
► When your aircraft is heavily loaded, the temperature is abnormally warm, and/or the pressure is
abnormally low, compute density altitude. Then check your aircraft manual to ensure that you
can become airborne from the available runway. Check further to determine that your rate of
climb permits clearance of obstacles beyond the end of the runway. This procedure is advisable
for any airport regardless of altitude.
► When planning takeoff or landing at a high altitude airport regardless of load, determine density
altitude. The procedure is especially critical when temperature is abnormally warm or pressure
abnormally low. Make certain you have sufficient runway for takeoff or landing roll. Make sure
you can clear obstacles beyond the end of the runway after takeoff or in event of a go-around.
► Sometimes the altimeter setting is taken from an instrument of questionable reliability. However,
if the instrument can cause an error in altitude reading of more than 20 feet, it is removed from
service. When altimeter setting is estimated, be prepared for a possible 10- to 20-foot difference
between field elevation and your altimeter reading at touchdown.
The ICAO International Standard Atmosphere
► The International Civil Aviation Organisation's International Standard

Atmosphere [ ISA ] provides a fixed standard atmospheric model used
for many purposes among which are the uniform assessment of
aircraft performance and the calibration of some aircraft instruments.
The model is akin to the average condition in mid-latitudes but
contains the following assumptions:
► dry air is assumed throughout the atmosphere
► the mean sea level pressure = 1013.25 hPa
► the msl temperature = 15 °C [288 K]
► the tropopause is at 36 090 feet [11 km] and the pressure at the
tropopause = 226.3 hPa
► the temperature lapse rate to 36 090 feet = 6.5 °C per km or nearly 2
°C per 1000 feet
► the temperature between 36 090 and 65 600 feet [20 km] remains
constant at –56.5 °C.
TEMPERATURE LAPSE RATE AND INVERSION
STANDART LAPSE RATE

( 1.98 ° C / 1000 Feet )
ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE ( ELR )

( The actual measured Lapse Rate )
DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE ( DALR )

( 3 ° C / 1000 Feet )
SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE

( 1.5 ° C / 1000 Feet )
TEMPERATURE INVERSION
IN SOME LAYERS
OF ACTUAL
ATMOSPHERE,
HOWEVER,
TEMP. MAY
ACTUALLY
INCREASE
THROUGH A
RELATIVELY
SHALLOW
BAND OF
HEIGHT……….
IT IS
TEMPERATUE
INVERSION
TYPES OF INVERSION
The three most common forms of inversion are:
 Surface (radiation) inversion;
 Subsidence inversions; and
 Frontal or sea breeze inversions.
SURVACE INVERSION
A survace inversion is caused by radiation-

cooling of the ground. The ground radiates heat
to the atmosphere, and the lowest layers of air
immediately above the surface become cooled
by conduction to the ground. Becouse air is a
poor conductor, this cooling does not extend
through a deep layer. A strong surface inversion
can be as much as a few hundred feet thick,
and the cooling can be quite intense with a rise
in temperature of as much as 10 oC.
surface inversions tend to form on clear nights,
with a light wind, and are most noticeable
around sunrise.
Conditions recuired for surface inversion:
 Clear sky at night ( absence of cloud);
 Calm or light wind; and
 Suitable surface to promote radioation
cooling (land)
Characterristics of surface inversions:
 Very shallow, normally only a few
hundred feet thick;
 Ussualy very intense
 Small temperature rise through it
(about 10 oC).
INVERSI PERMUKAAN
SUBSIDENCE INVERSION
Subsidence inversions are characteristic of anticyclones ( or
areas of high pressure). As we will discuss later, subsidence of
air is part of the formation process of anticyclone. The air in the
top layers of the tropopouse tends to subside more, with greater
adiabatic warming, than the air in the lower levels. The result is
relatively warm air overlying the lower layer.
Typicaly, subsidence inversions occur at heights of 2 to 6,000 ft

in mid-latitudes, they are most pronoounced and lowest near the
centre of a high pressure system.
conditions required for subsidence inversion:
 The existence of an anticyclone.
Characteristic of a subsidence inversion:
 Lies between 2,000 ft and 6,000 ft above the surface;
 Is frequently quite strong 9up to 15 oC temperatures
rise);
 May be up to 500 ft deep.
Frontal and Sea Breeze Inversions

Frontal and sea breeze inversions can form at any height
above the surface, when a wedge of cool, relatively dense
air forms under warmer air such as when a cold front
advances. A sea breeze which is formed when colder air
over the sea moves inland over the warmer surface of the
ground, causing a mini-front. A frontal inversion always
forms well above the surface, and is variable in depth and
intensity.
FLAYING CONDITIONS IN INVERSIONS
The general flying conditions which can be experienced with inversions can
be summarized as follows
 Vertical windshear. There is nearly always a more-or-less sudden change in the
wind vector when climbing or descending through an inversion..
 Density Change. An inversion marks the boundary between layers of air having
sharply contrasting temperatures. This literally results in an aeroplane gaining
lift, thrust and power while descending into an inversion. The reserve happens
when climbing throught an inversion.
 Turbulence. Becouse of an existence of windshear and the density chnage., an
aircraft which flies in the vicinity of an inversion may expect to experience
turbulence of varying degrees. On occations, this turbulence may be quite
severe, and force the pilots to consider changing level to avoid it.
 Climb Performance. The sudden change the air density may be considered a
bonus to an aircraft descending into an inversion, but it could be a serious
problem to an aircraft climbing our in critical conditions. The sudden loss of lift,
thrust and power could cause an aeroplane to level out whilst climbing. If the
associated windshear results in picking up a tail wind as well, the result could be
truly disastrous if departing from an aerodrome in country confined by terrain or
costacles early in the morning.
 Cloud and visibility, visibility beneath as inversion is worse than that above it
STABLE AND UNSTABLE AIR
► In the above diagram, the moist air parcel is initially 7&degC at the surface. It is
initially unsaturated and cools according to the dry adiabatic lapse rate. At the LCL
it is saturated and cools according to the moist adiabatic lapse rate. The diagram
shows that the parcel is warmer than the surrounding air both above and below
the LCL; thus, the entire layer illustrated by this diagram is categorized as unstable.
As we have pointed out, in an unstable layer, the initial lifting force is only needed
to get to the parcel going upwards. Immediately after the lifting begins, the parcel
is buoyant and convection will continue on its own. Unstable environments are
common in the afternoons during the summer and are often responsible for
producing late afternoon thunderstorms. A typical set of conditions is depicted in
this diagram.
STABILITY AND INSTABILITY
► In each situation, the

balloon is filled at sea level
with air at 31° C, carried
manually to 5,000 feet, and
released. In each case, air
in the balloon expands and
cools to 16° C (at the dry
adiabatic rate of 3° C per
1,000 feet). But, the
temperature of the
surrounding air aloft in
each situation is different.
The balloon on the left will
rise.
CHANGES WITHIN UPWARD AND
DOWNWARD MOVING AIR
► air moves upward, it

expands because of
decreasing atmospheric
pressure Conversely,
downward moving air is
compressed by increasing
pressure. When air
expands, it cools; and
when compressed, it
warms. These changes are
adiabatic, meaning that
no heat is removed
from or added to the air
UNSATURATED AIR
► Unsaturated air
moving upward and
downward cools and
warms at about 3.0° C
per 1,000 feet. This
rate is the “dry
adiabatic rate of
temperature change”
► Adiabatic warming of
downward moving air
produces the warm
Chinook wind.
SATURATED AIR
► Condensation occurs
when saturated air
moves upward. Latent
heat released through
condensation
► thesaturated
adiabatic rate of
cooling is slower
than the dry
adiabatic rate
WIND
WIND
Horizontal movement of
the air and has a vector
quantity
because has SPEED and
DIRECTION
SPEED IN KNOT
( MIL / HOURS )
DIRECTION IN DEGREES
Beaufort Speed Speed Description Effects on the Environment
Code Miles Kilometers
per Hour per Hour
0 <1 <1 calm smoke rises vertically
1 2-3 1-5 light air smoke drifts slowly
2 4-7 6 - 11 light breeze leaves rustle, wind can be felt, wind vanes move
3 8 - 12 12 - 19 gentle breeze leaves and twigs on trees move
4 13 - 18 20 - 29 moderate breeze small tree branches move, dust is picked up from

the ground surface
5 19 - 24 30 - 38 fresh breeze small trees move
6 25 - 31 39 - 51 strong breeze large branches move, telephone and power overhead

wires whistle
7 32 - 38 51 - 61 near gale trees move, difficult to walk in the wind
8 39 - 46 62 - 74 gale twigs break off from trees
9 47 - 54 75 - 86 strong gale branches break off from trees, shingles blown off
roofs
10 55 - 63 87 - 101 whole gale trees become uprooted, structural damage on
buildings
11 64 - 74 102 - 120 storm widespread damage to buildings and trees
12 > 75 > 120 hurricane severe damage to buildings and trees

Wind:
What makes it blow?
► Wind is the movement of air from a region

of high pressure to a region of
lower pressure. These areas of high and low
pressure are created from temperature
differences caused by the sun heating the
earth, which in turn heats the
atmosphere.
Winds named for the direction they come
from
Factors Affecting Wind
• PRESSURE GRADIENT
• CORIOLIS FORCE
• FRICTION FORCE
PRESSURE GRADIENT
Differences of temperature cause differences in
pressure. A difference in pressure across
distances is called a pressure gradient, and this
drives the wind.
Similarly, when you blow up a balloon you
create a high pressure area because you
compress the air and increase its density within
the balloon. When the balloon is punctured the
air rushes outward to the lower pressure. In
both examples air moves from higher to lower
pressure, and the greater the difference the
faster the air travels.
Isobar spacing and the
magnitude of the pressure
gradient
The magnitude of the
pressure gradient can
be assessed by noting
the spacing of the
isobars....
if the isobars are close
together, the pressure
gradient is large
if the isobars are far
apart, the pressure
gradient is small
Pressure Gradient
Force
Air flows from high pressure

to low pressure
wind speed depends on

“steepness” of pressure
gradient
isobar spacing shows

steepness of pressure
gradient
Coriolis Effect
wind is deflected to the right

(Northern hemisphere)
Due to earth’s rotation
Effect greater with

greater wind speed
Effect greatest at poles,

decrease to zero at
equator
Coriolis effect
►. In the top diagram,
two forces are
assumed to be acting
on moving wind, a
pressure gradient force
(PGF) moving from
higher to lower
pressure states, and
the Coriolis force (CF)
in the northern
hemisphere. The
resultant curving path
is shown in green
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic winds
Airart International in northern hemisphere
FRICTION
► Near the Earth's surface,

friction of moving wind
accross terrain or open
water becomes a factor.
Here the resultant wind
direction is a vectorial sum
of the PGF, CF, and FF
(frictional force). At some
altitude, where friction is
nil, in this case a
geostrophic wind has
evolved
Surface Winds – Friction /effect of the friction layer on the surface wind
surface winds
experience friction force
friction force depends

on terrain
inflow (convergence)
around a Low
outflow (divergence)
around a High
TYPES OF WIND
GEOSTROPHIC WIND
GRADIENT WIND
LOCAL WIND
• Sea / Land Breeze
• Katabatic Wind
• Anabatic Wind
• Fohn Wind
• Gust and Squalls
Geostrophic winds
The horizontal air pressure gradient causes air parcels
to accelerate across isobars from areas of high
pressure toward areas of low pressure.
The Coriolis effect then deflects air parcels to the right

in the Northern Hemisphere. As the wind gains speed,
the Coriolis effect increases in magnitude until it
balances the pressure gradient force.
The result is an unaccelerated horizontal wind blowing

parallel to isobars that is called the geostrophic wind
Development of geostrophic wind flowing
along parallel isobars
The Geostrophic Wind
► special case in which
rising air reaches a
condition of balanced
forces such that the
wind flow becomes
parallel to an isobar
Buys ballot’s law
G
R
A
D
I
E
N
T
W
I
N
D
Curved Flow and the Gradient Wind
wind flow (Northern hemisphere):
clockwise around a High - anticyclone
counterclockwise around a Low - cyclone

summarize this concept for both hemispheres
LOCAL AND SMALL SCALE WINDS
► MOUNTAIN AND
VALLEY WINDS
SEA BREEZE- LAND BREEZE
Katabatic winds occur at night when cool air sinks
down mountain slopes and valleys.
Anabatic winds occur when sun-warmed air rises
and gently flows up mountain slopes and valleys.
FOHN WIND
Wind flow in mountain areas. Dangerous downdrafts
may be encountered on the lee side.
MOUNTAIN WAVE
Wind cause by convective heating
► Dust devil
► tornado
Tornadoes (Life Cycle)
1. Dust Whirl
Stage
2. Organizing
Stage
3. Mature Stage
4. Shrinking
Stage
5. Decay Stage
DUST STORM/ ULUR-ULUR
Winds at upper levels
SQUALLS
Kt GUSTY
Time / minutes
WIND SHEAR
WIND SHEAR
► Wind shear condition often
occur near ground surface
and can affect a landing or
taking off of an airplane
with sufficient turbulence
and downdraft to cause
the plane to veer off
course or drop too rapidly
for the pilot to maintain
control. Several major
airline disasters in recent
years are attributed to
wind shear.
isotach
THE CLOUD TYPE
• HIGH LEVEL CLOUD (CIRRIFORM CLOUD)
( Hemisphere Region : 10.000 – 25.000 ft , Temperate Region : 16.000 – 41.000 ft ,
Tropical region : 20.000 – 57.000 ft )
• MEDIUM LEVEL CLOUD (ALTO CLOUD)

( Hemisphere Region : 10.000 – 25.000 ft , Temperate Region : 16.000 – 41.000 ft ,
Tropical region : 20.000 – 57.000 ft )
•LOW LEVEL CLOUD

( From Ground up to 6.000 ft at all region )
High clouds
► CI Cirrus: (L.=curl) White
patches, banners or delicate
filaments.
► CS Cirrostratus:
Transparent, amorphous
whitish veil of fibrous or
smooth appearance over
much of the sky. Halos about
the sun or moon.
► CC Cirrocumulus: Thin
white patch, sheet or layer
with small regularly arranged
elements in the form of grains
or ripples. May merge into CS
and produced by turbulence
aloft, often associated with a
front or upper level
disturbance.
Medium level clouds
► AS Altostratus:
Greyish/bluish sheet,
possibly 8 oktas, of
uniform, often
striated or fibrous
► AC Altocumulus:
White/grey patch,
bands or sheet of
regularly arranged
globular elements NS
► Nimbostratus:
Dense grey/dark thick
layer, often with
ragged or diffused
base, with continuous
precipitation.
Low level clouds
► SC Stratocumulus:
Grey/whitish patch, sheet or
layer of separate or partly
merged globular masses or
rolls with dark shading and
generally irregular
appearance.
► ST Stratus: (L. = spread,

laid down) Grey uniform
layer with fairly even base
from which drizzle may
descend. Sun outline may be
visible.
► CU Cumulus: (L. =
heap) White heaped tops,
generally grey horizontal
bases. Usually sharp outline
but may be ragged. Vertical
development varies greatly
with atmospheric buoyancy
and bases can be at low or
medium levels. Formed by
convection or possibly
orographic ascent.
Vertically developed clouds
► CB
Cumulonimbus:
► Heavy, dense cloud

with massive vertical
development, bases at
low or medium levels
with tops possibly
reaching the
tropopause. Base
usually very dark with
lighter inflow areas,
heavy showers or
virga, frequently low
ragged turbulence
cloud mixed with it.
Produced by vigorous
convection. [Virga is
precipitation which
evaporates before
reaching the surface.]
CIRRUS / Ci
CIRRO CUMULUS / Cc
CIRRO STRATUS / Cs
ALTO CUMULUS / Ac
ALTO STRATUS /As
ALTOCUMULUS - LENTICULARIS
NIMBOSTRATUS / Ns
STRATO CUMULUS / Sc
CUMULUS / Cu
CUMULUNIMBUS / Cb
Cloud Amounts/Reporting of Cloud
► SKC – sky clear, no cloud.

► FEW – few clouds, one to two oktas
cover.
► SCT – scattered, 3 – 4 oktas cover. Clear
intervals between clouds
predominate.
► BKN – broken, 5 – 7 oktas. Cloud
masses predominate.
► OVC – overcast, 8 oktas. Continuous, no
clear intervals.
T
H
E
C
L
O
U
D
C
O
V
E
R
SPECIAL REPORTS OF CB CLOUD COVER
ON TAFOR USED FORMAT :

FEW ; SCT ; BKN
( FEW 017 CB , SCT 018 CB )
ON ROFOR ( SIG WX CHARTS ) USED FORMAT :

ISOL ; FRQ ; OCNL ; EMBD
( ISOL CB , OCNL CB )
THE CAUSED OF CLOUD
• CONVECTION
• FRONTAL SYSTEM
• TURBULENCE AND MIXING
• OROGRAPHIC UPLIFT
• CONVERGENCE
Lifting sources
► There are four
main processes
which provide the
lifting source for
moist air to form
cloud:
► Convection
► Front
► Orographic
► convergence
Cold Front
Warm Front
Occluded Fronts
CLOUD DISSIPATION
SUBSIDENCE
PRECIPITATION
MIXING WITH DRIER AIR
( When relative humidity reaches almost 100%
and visibility is reduced to less than 1000m )
Fog is a surface based cloud
What Causes Fog
► Fog is a cloud that touches the ground.
It is simply a cloud of little water
droplets that is located at ground
level. Fog forms when the air at
ground level is cooled enough to reach
its saturation point. This is also known
as Relative Humidity that equals
100%.
Relative Humidity
► The amount of water vapor in the air at any given
time is usually less than that required to saturate
the air. The relative humidity is the percent of
saturation humidity. The saturation humidity is
when no further water can be held in a gaseous
state.
► 1) First, the warmer air is, the more water vapor it can
"hold."
► 2) Dew point is a measure of how much water vapor is
actually in the air.
► 3) Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water
in the air compared with the amount of water the air can
hold at the temperature it happens to be when you
measure it.
Types of Fog
► Radiation or Ground Fog
Radiation fog is relatively shallow fog. Radiation fog is also
known as ground fog. It is produced near the ground. It is
formed by the cooling of land after sunset by thermal
(infrared) radiation in calm conditions with a clear sky. The
cool ground produces condensation in the nearby air by
heat conduction.
Upslope fog
► Upslope fog forms when winds blow air up a
slope. This flow upwards causes the warm
air to cool as it rises, which causes the
moisture in it to condense and form fog.
Valley fog
► Valley fog forms in mountain valleys, often during the fall,
winter and early spring. It is the result of a temperature
inversion caused by heavier cold air settling into in a valley,
with warmer air passing over the mountains above. It is
essentially radiation fog confined by local topography, and can
last for several days in calm conditions.
Advection fog
► Advection fog is created when moist air passes over
a cool surface, and the air is cooled. As the air is
cooled it reaches its relative humidity saturation
point and fog is formed. This kind of fog is common
as a warm front passes over an area with significant
snow pack.
RADIATION FOG
► Radiation fog is relatively

shallow fog “Ground fog” is a
form of radiation fog
► Terrestrial radiation cools the
ground; in turn, the cool
ground cools the air in contact
with it. When the air is cooled
to its dew point, fog forms.
► Conditions favorable for
radiation fog are clear sky, little
or no wind, and small
temperature-dew point spread
(high relative humidity).
► Ground fog usually “burns off”
rather rapidly after sunrise
► illustrates ground fog
as seen from the air
RADIATION FOG
ADVECTION FOG
► Advection fog forms

when moist air moves
over colder ground or
water/sea
ADVECTION FOG
► Advection fog is
created when moist
air passes over a
cool surface
UPSLOPE FOG
► Upslope fog forms

when winds blow
air up a slope. This
flow upwards
causes the warm air
to cool as it rises,
which causes the
moisture in it to
condense and form
fog.
Valley fog
► Valley fog forms in
mountain valleys,
often during the
fall, winter and
early spring
HAZE AND SMOKE
► Haze is a concentration of
salt particles or other dry
particles
► horizontal visibility is good.
However, downward
visibility from above a haze
layer is poor, especially on
a slant
► illustrates smoke
trapped under a
temperature inversion.
PRECIPITATION
► Rain, drizzle, and snow are the forms of

precipitation which most commonly present
visibility problems
visibility
VISIBILITY
HORIZONTAL VISIBILITY
SLANT VISIBILITY
RVR
Slant visibility
Jarak Pandang
► Untuk pesawat yang tidak
otomatis, informasi jarak
pandang sangat diperlukan
dalam hal pendaratan, baik
jarak pandang vertikal
maupun horizontal.
► -Jarak pandang vertikal :
erat kaitannya dengan saat
pesawat akan melakukan
pendaratan saat masih di
udara, hal ini pentig untuk
mengetahui posisi dan sisa
runway landasan agar
pendaratan dapat dilakukan
dengan tepat-Jarak pandang
horizontal : erat kaitannya
dengan saat pesawat sudah
mulai mendarat di dekat
permukaan
►
►
VISIBILITY
► Jarak penglihatan mendatar suatu benda yang
masih dapat terlihat dengan jelas(yang dilaporkan
adalah jarak penglihatan mendatar yg terdekat),
kalau malam hari dengan cahaya lampu yang
dapat terlihat jelas
► VISIS REPORTED IN METRES UP TO 5000 M.

ABOVE THIS DISTANCE REPORTED IN Km
CAUSES OF REDUCED VISIBILITY
Precipitation Mist or Fog
Wind Blown Sea Spray
Smoke , Salt
Blown Snow
Dust or Stand
Pollutant
Visibility in cloud
► Vis in cloud varis with cloud type. In Cu or Cb …

be down to 10 m, exceeding 1000 m in cirrus
► Vis in precipitation ..varies with the size of the rain
drop and their density. Heavy rain in tropical …
50-500 m. heavy rain in midle latitude may give
less than 1000 m moderate rain … between 3 – 10
km, and light rain has litle effect. In drizzle
especially if fog is present. In moderate snow
1000 m or even less, heavy snow can be between
50 – 200 m. in general solid particles can be said
to reduce vis more than liquid water in the same
concentration.
Visibility in smoke
The incomplete cocombustion process in fire introduces solid

particles into the atmosphere. The larger and heavier of
these soon settle down again. When present they cause a
reduction in visibility which depends on the
– rate of introduction is likely to be the greatest in densely
populated or industrial areas
- rate of dipersal must be considered vertically and
horizontally. With convection and turbulence, vertical
dispersal will be helped. With an inversion the solids will be
trapped near surfaceand the visibility reduction greater.
The wind is the main factor in horizontal dispersal.
- distance from the source
Visibility in dust or sand
Dust or sand is raised into the atmosphere by

wind.where serious reduction of visibility
occurs.
Dust storm is readily available in the world’s
desert region. Speed of 35 knots or greater
reduction in visibility is common.
The depth of the dust or sand layer depends
to a large extent on the turbulence,
convection and stability of the atmosphere.
MOISTURE AND
PRECIPITATION
WATER VAPOR
► Water vapor is invisible just as oxygen and

other gases are invisible. However, we can
readily measure water vapor and express it
in different ways.
► Two commonly used terms are
(1) relative humidity, and
(2) dew point.
Water Vapour
► Current Composition
 Even though water vapor and Carbon Dioxide are a small percentage
of the total gas content they play a very important role.
► Water Vapor
 Water vapor content changes dramatically both vertically and
horizontally.
 It is the variation in the water vapor content that causes our weather
► Water Vapor
 Near the poles Water Vapor content is approximately 1% while at the
equator it comprises nearly 4% of a volume of air.
 This is important because in order to change state, energy must

added/released.
DEW POINT
. WARM AIR IS ABLE TO SUPPORT MORE WATER VAPOUR THAN COLD AIR. IF THE
TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR FALLS, IT IS CAPABLE OF HOLDING LES WATER
VAPOUR, AND SO WILL BE CLOSER TO BEING SATURATED, .. ITS RELATIVE
HUMIDITY WILL RISE. RELATIVE HUMIDITY INCREASE GREATLY WITH A
DECREASE IN TEMPERATURE.
THE TEMP. AT WHICH THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY REACHES 100%, AND THE EXCESS
WATER VAPOUR STARTS TO CONDENSE AS WATER DROPLETS, IS KNOWN AS THE
DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE./the temperature to which air must be cooled
to become saturated by the water vapor already present in the air
THE CONDENSATION PROCESS MAY BE DELAYED IF THERE ARE INSUFFICIENT

CONDENSATION NUCLEI IN THE AIR, OR CONVERSELY, CERTAIN TYPE OF
CONDENSATION NUCLEI MAY INDUCE CONDENSATION SHORTLY BEFORE 100%
RELATVE HUMIDITY IS REACHED.
TYPICAL CONDENSATION NUCLEI ARE SMALL PARTICLES OF HYGROSCOPIC (DUST,
SALT, ETC)
THE ACTUAL VALUE OF THE DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE FOR A PARTICULAR
PARCEL OF AIR VARIES, DEPENDING UPON THE AMOUNT OF WATER
VPOUR IT CONTAINS. IF THE AIR IS MOIST (FOR INSTANCE OVER A
TROPICAL OCEAN), THE DEWPOINT MAY BE QUITE HIGH, SAY 25* C, IF
THE AIR IS DRY , THE DEWPOINT TEMP. MAY BE QUITE LOW.
IF THE AIR TEMP FALLS TO A DEWPOINT TEMP WHICH IS ABOVE FREEZING ,

THE WATER VAPOUR WILL CONDENSE AS LIQUID WATER DROPLETS AND
E BECOME VISIBLE AS CLOUD, FOG, OR DEW, IF THE DEWPOINT TEMP IS
BELOW FREEZING, THE EXESS WATER VAPOUR MAY CHANGE TO ICE
CRISTAL.
IF THE AIR IN WHICH CLOUDS FORM IS UNABLE TO SUPPORT THE WATER

DROPLETS (IF THEY BECOME TO LARGE AND HEAVY), THEN THE DROPS
WILL FALL AS PRECIPITATION (RAIN, HAIL OR SNOW )
► Blue dots illustrate the
increased water vapor
capacity of warmer air.
At each temperature,
air can hold a specific
amount of water
vapor—no more
Relative Humidity
► The amount of water vapor in the air at any given
time is usually less than that required to saturate
the air. The relative humidity is the percent of
saturation humidity. The saturation humidity is
when no further water can be held in a gaseous
state.
► 1) First, the warmer air is, the more water vapor it can
"hold."
► 2) Dew point is a measure of how much water vapor is
actually in the air.
► 3) Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water
in the air compared with the amount of water the air can
hold at the temperature it happens to be when you
measure it.
relative humidity
► Relative humidity depends on
both temperature and water
vapor. In this figure, water
vapor is constant but
temperature varies. On the
left, relative humidity is 50%;
the warmer air could hold
twice as much water vapor as
is actually present. As the air
cools, center and right, relative
humidity increases. As the air
cools to 37°F, its capacity to
hold water vapor is reduced to
the amount actually present.
Relative humidity is 100% and
the air is now “saturated.”
Note that at 100% humidity,
temperature and dew point are
the same. The air cooled to
saturation, i.e., it cooled to the
dew point
CHANGE OF STATE
► LATENT HEAT
SUPERCOOLED WATER
► Water droplets colder than 0° C are

supercooled
► supercooled water can result in aircraft icing
► Supercooled water drops very often are in
clouds at temperatures between 0° C and
−15° C with decreasing amounts at colder
temperatures.
PRECIPITATION
► Precipitation means falling liquid or solid

particles of water that reach the ground.
Virga is raindo not reach the ground
► Precipitation is an all inclusive term
denoting drizzle, rain, snow, ice pellets, hail,
and ice crystals. Precipitation occurs when
these particles grow in size and weight until
the atmosphere no longer can suspend
them and they fall
Precipitation Types (Rain)
 Precipitation is classified as rain when the
falling drop of liquid water has a diameter
that is equal to or larger than 0.5 mm. Large
droplets fall at about 9 m/s.
 Fine uniform drops of water whose
diameters are smaller than 0.5 mm are called
drizzle. Most drizzle falls from stratus
clouds.
 Virga is rain that does not reach the ground
due evaporation from low RH below the
cloud base.
Formation of ice hail
Sleet and Freezing Rain
 Consider a falling
snowflake, as it falls into
warmer air it begins to
melt.
 However, if there is a
subfreezing layer of air near
the surface, the partially
melted snowflake or cold
raindrop turns back into ice,
not as a snowflake, but as a
tiny ice pellet called sleet.
 If the cold surface layer is

too shallow to refreeze
raindrops as they fall, they
reach the surface as
supercooled liquid drops.
Upon striking objects at the
surface, they almost
immediately refreeze.
Vertical Profiles Forms Precipitation
Hail
 Hail is produced in a
cumulonimbus cloud when
graupel, large frozen
raindrops, or just about any
particles (even insects) act as
embryos that grow by
accumulating supercooled
liquid droplets (accretion).
 10 billion cloud droplets are
needed to form a golf ball
sized hailstone.
 Must remain in the cloud from
about 5 to 10 minutes.
 Pea size to golf ball or larger.
 Largest is 5.5” in diameter,
1.67 lbs!!!
PRECIPITATION
Precipitation Processes (Collision and Coalescence)
THUNDERSTORMS
STORM
Generally associated with the Thunderstorm
as the developmentof CB cloud
with unpleasant weather
The phenomenon of Thunderstorm usually

associated by :
Heavy Rain
Hail
Squall
Microburst
Windshear
Tornado
THUNDERSTORM
► BADAI GUNTUR ADALAH GUNTUR YANG TERJADI BERULANG-ULANG ,
FREKWENSI GUNTUR MENUNJUKKAN INTENSITAS DARI TS TERSEBUT DIKATAKAN
---RINGAN JIKA DALAM 1 MENIT GUNTUR TERJADI 1 KALI ATAU KURANG
---SEDANG GUNTUR TERJADI RATA-RATA 2 KALI TIAP MENIT
---HEBAT GUNTUR TERJADI RATA-RATA 3 KALI ATAU LEBIH PER MENIT
TS SERING DISERTAI ENDAPAN TETAPI ADAKALANYA TIDAK, ENDAPANNYA ADALAH

JENIS SHOWERS SERING DISERTAI HAIL. DALAM BERITA CUACA DIBERITAKAN
TSRA (KALAU DISERTAI HUJAN) DAN TS SAJA KALAU TIDAK ADA ENDAPAN.
SYARAT TERJADINYA TS HARUS ADA CUKUP UAP AIR, LABILITAS UDARA DAN GAYA
YANG MENGANGKAT UAP AIR (CONVECTIF, FRONT, KONVERGENSI DAN LERENG
PEGUNUNGAN).
MENURUT KENYATAAN THUNDERSTORM LOKAL MEMPUNYAI PERBEDAAN DENGAN
THUNDERSTORM HEBAT (SUPERCELL) YANG MENGHASILKAN HAIL/TORNADO, TS
HEBAT BIASANYA DIIKUTI TROUGH/FRONT.
PERTUMBUHAN AWAN THUNDERSTORM DAPAT MENCAPAI 90 KM PANJANGNYADAN
LEBAR 30 KM SEDANG TINGGINYA TERGANTUNG LINTANG TEMPAT DAN MUSIMNYA
(DI TROPIC LEBIH TINGGI DARI PADA DI LINTANG TINGGI, MUSIM PANAS JUGA
LEBIH TINGGI DARIPADA MUSIM DINGIN.
The Necessary Ingredients for
Thunderstorms
► All thunderstorms require three ingredients

for their formation:
► Moisture,
► Instability, and
► a lifting mechanism.
SIKLUS HIDUP THUNDERSTORM
1. FASE TUMBUH
GERAKAN UDARA DALAM SEL AWAN SELURUHNYA UP DRAFT, TURBULENSI DIDALAM
AWAN TERJADI KARENA KECEPATAN UP DRAFT YANG TIDAK SAMA, DIDALAM AWAN SUHU
LEBIH BESAR DARI SEKITARNYA. PERTUMBUHAN AWAN DAPAT MENCAPAI 3000 FT/MENIT.
FASE TUMBUH BASIS AWAN MASIH CUKUP TINGGI SEKITAR 2000 FT PUNCAKNYA MASIH
MENGGUMPAL-GUMPAL KETINGGIANNYA SEKITAR 25.000 FT DENGAN SUHU SEKITAR -20 C .
TUBUH AWAN DIBAWAH FREZING LEVEL SELURUHNYA TERDIRI DARI PARTIKEL-PARTIKEL AIR
DAN DIATAS FREZING LEVEL BERUPA CAMPURAN PARTIKEL AIR DAN PARTIKEL ES
2. FASE MASAK/DEWASA
DIDALAM AWAN SUDAH TERDAPAT UP DRAFT DAN DOWN DRAFT, KILAT,GUNTUR DAN
ENDAPAN. INTENSITAS TURBULENSI SEMAKIN HEBAT ,ADAKALANYA DISERTAI OLEH
FUNNEL CLOUD, WATER SPOUT ATAU TORNADO ATAU GUSTY.
PADA FASE INI BASIS AWAN SEMAKIN MERENDAH KARENA MEMBESARNYA PARTIKEL-
PARTIKEL AIR MENYEBABKAN SEMAKIN BERAT. SEBALIKNYA PUNCAK AWAN SEMAKIN
TINGGI SEKITAR 40.000 FT DI TROPIS DAPAT MENCAPAI 60.000 FT DENGAN SUHU
SEKITAR -40 C. DIBAWAH FREZZING LEVEL PADA DAERAH DOWN DRAFT PARTIKEL AIR
TELAH BERCAMPUR SALJU DIATAS FL DIATAS LAPIASAN -20C PARTIKEL SALJU MULAI
MEMBENTUK BUTIR-BUTIR ES (HAIL), DIATS LAPISAN -30 C HAMPIR SELURUH TUBUH
AWAN BERUPA BUTIR ES SEHINGGA TERLIHAT BERKILAU TERANG BILA TERKENA
SINAR MATAHARI.
3. FASE PUNAH
PADA FASE INI HAMPIR SEMUA BAGIAN AWAN TERDAPAT DOWN DRAFT, BASIS
AWAN SEMAKIN RENDAH , PUNCAK SUDAH MENCAPAI TINGGI MAXIMUM DAN PECAH
MENYEBAR SEPRTI PAYUNG APABILA ANGIN PADA LAPISAN TSB TENANG ATAU
MENJURAI KESUATU ARAH TERBAWA OLEH ANGIN. SUHU DIDALAM AWAN MULAI NAIK
KIRA-KIRA SAMA DENGAN SUHU SEKITARNYA AKHIRNYA AWAN BERANGSUR PUNAH’
SIKLUS HIDUP THUNDERSTORM
Hazards of flying in and around
Thunderstorm
► TURBULENCE
► SQUALLS AND MICROBURST
► ICING
► HAIL
► LIGHTNING
► the downward motion of the air until it hits ground level,
then spreads outward in all directions. The wind regime
in a microburst is completely opposite to a tornado.
►What is a
microburst?
► A microburst is a
severe downdraft from
a thunderstrorm..It is
conffined to a small
area,, less than 4km
(2..5miles) in diameter
from the initial point of
downdraft impact..
► The average
microburst lasts for ten
minutes..
Effects on aircraft
Squall line with dust, Onslow,
Western Australia.
SUPER CELL TS
THUNDERSTORM DARI ATAS
How far away is the Thunderstorm?
► Count the number of

seconds between a
flash
► of lightning and the
next clap of thunder.
► Divide this number by
5 to determine the
► distance to the
lightning in miles.
AVIATION METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS AND
FORECAST
► MET REPORT : METAR, SPECI, QAM

► FORECAST : TAF
METAR NZWN 162000Z 36016KT 9999 BKN025 16/12 Q1028 NOSIG
RMK KAUKAU 36033KT
Routine Meteorological Aerodrome Report for

METAR NZWN 162000Z Wellington aerodrome, at 2000 UTC on the
16th of the month.
36016KT Surface wind: 360 degrees true, 16 knots.
9999 Visibility: 10 kilometres or more.
Cloud: Broken cloud (5-7 oktas) with a base at

BKN025
2,500 feet above aerodrome level.
Temperature: 16 degrees Celsius Dew Point: 12

16/12
degrees Celsius.
Q1028 QNH: 1028 hectoPascals

No significant change to the reported conditions
NOSIG for the next two hours (ie until 2200 UTC on
the 16th of the month).
RMK KAUKAU 36033KT Wind at Mt Kaukau: 360 degrees true, 33 knots
SPECI NZAA 010000Z 03022G34KT 010V080 2000 R05/1300D –DZRA
FEW003 BKN006
22/21 Q0997 RERA WS RWY05
SPECI NZAASpecial Meteorological Aerodrome Report for Auckland

aerodrome, issued at 0000 UTC on the 1st of the month.
03022G34KT 010V080 Surface wind: 030 degrees true, 22 knots gusting
to 34 knots. Wind direction varying between 010 degrees true and 080
degrees true. 2000Visibility: 2000 metres. R05/1300DRunway Visual
Range: RVR on runway 05 is 1300 metres at the touchdown zone, with a
distinct downward tendency in the 10 minutes prior to the time of the
observation. Note: Runway Visual Range (RVR) is only reported at
Auckland Airport. -DZRAWeather: Light drizzle and rain at the time of the
observation. FEW003 BKN006Cloud: Few cloud (1-2 oktas) with a base at
300 feet above aerodrome level, and broken cloud (5–7 oktas) with a
base at 600 feet above aerodrome level. 22/21Temperature: 22 degrees
Celsius Dew Point: 21 degrees Celsius. Q0997QNH: 997 hectoPascals.
RERARecent weather: Moderate or heavy rain has been observed at the
aerodrome since the last routine report. WS RWY05Windshear:
Windshear reported by pilots or the control tower along the takeoff and/or
approach path to runway 05 between runway level and 1600 feet AGL.
METAR AUTO (provided by Automatic Weather Stations (AWS))
METAR NZNS 011400Z AUTO 35004KT 310V010 29KMNDV -SHRA OVC048/// 19/16
Q1021
Routine Meteorological Aerodrome Report for

Nelson aerodrome, issued at 1400 UTC on the 1st of
METAR NZNS 011400Z AUTO
the month. Observation made by an Automatic
Weather Station.
Surface wind: 350 degrees true, 4 knots. Wind
35004KT 310V010 direction varying between 310 degrees true and 010
degrees true.
Visibility: 29 kilometres, and no directional variation
29KMNDV
is reported.
-SHRA Weather: Light shower of rain.
Cloud: Overcast cloud (8 oktas) with a base at 4800
feet above aerodrome. The three strokes (///) indicate
OVC048///
that no TCU or CB cloud could be identified by the
Automatic Weather Station.
Temperature: 19 degrees Celsius, Dew Point: 16
19/16
degrees Celsius.
Q1021 QNH: 1021 hectoPascals.
YANG LAMA
► TAF
EGLL 152230Z 160606 13018KT 9999
BKN020 BECMG 0608 SCT013CB BKN020
TEMPO 0812 17025G45KT 3000 TSRA
BKN008CB BECMG 1214 20015KT FEW020
TEMPO 0306 4000 BR=
YANG BARU
► TAFEGLL 160505Z 1606/1712 13018KT
9999 BKN020 BECMG 1606/1608 SCT013CB
BKN020
TEMPO 1608/1612 17025G45KT 3000 TSRA
BKN008CB BECMG 1612/1614 20015KT
FEW020
TEMPO 1703/1706 4000 BR TEMPO
1709/1712 BKN012=
Changes to the Aerodrome
Forecast (TAF) Format
► TAF YABC 302255Z 0100/0206 01015KT 9000 RA SCT015
► BKN100 TX17/0106Z TN08/0119Z INTER 0100/0107
23018KT
► 6000 SH BKN030 PROB30 0117/0201 0400 FG
► TAF AMD YABC 302255Z

► 0100/0206 01015KT CAVOK FM011000 22015KT
8000 SHRA BKN100 RMK
► FM010000 MOD TURB BLW
► 5000FT TL010600
► TAF YABC 302255Z 0118/0224
► 01005KT 9999 NSW SCT050
► TX27/0205Z TN08/0119Z
► BECMG 0122/0124 24015KT
► 8000 SHRA BKN050
► TAF COR YABC 302255Z

► 0118/0224
► 01005KT 9999 NSW SCT050
► BECMG 0122/0124 24015KT
► 9999 SHRA BKN050
METAR
► NFFN 300600Z 30003KT 50KM SCT028TCU SCT045 BKN120 27/25 Q1007NOSIG RMK RR NIL
► SHWRS FM FAR W=
► NFFN 300600Z 30003KT 50KM SCT028TCU SCT045 BKN120 27/25 Q1007 NOSIG RMK RR NIL
► SHWRS FM FAR W=
► NSTU 300552Z 28005KT 10SM −SHRA SCT018TCU BKN110 OVC250 28/25 A2975 RMK SHRAB45
► TCU VC NE−E AND W SLP076 60017 8/271 T02810249 10317 20280 53010=
► NTAA 300600Z VRB03KT 9999 FEW023 SCT300 28/23 Q1012 NOSIG=
► NZAA 300600Z 20010KT 9999 BKN036 18/11 Q1024 NOSIG=
► NZCH 300600Z 06008KT 9999 OVC041 15/08 Q1025 NOSIG RMK SUGARLOAF 07009KT=
► NZWN 300600Z 23010KT 200V260 9999 FEW008 BKN012 16/13 Q1024 BECMG SCT012 RMK
► KAUKAU 20007KT=
► YBAS 300600Z 18007KT CAVOK 36/M01 Q1012=
► YBBN 300600Z 18008KT 9999 VCSH FEW035 SCT040 24/18 Q1011 INTER 0600/0900 3000
► SHRA BKN010=
► YBBN 300600Z 18008KT 9999 VCSH FEW035 SCT040 24/18 Q1011INTER 0600/0900 3000
► SHRA BKN010=
► YBCS 300600Z 13013KT 9999 FEW028 SCT060 29/18 Q1010=
► YBCS 300600Z 13013KT 9999 FEW028 SCT060 29/18 Q1010 NOSIG=
► YMML 300600Z 18012KT CAVOK 21/11 Q1023 NOSIG=
► YMML 300600Z 18012KT CAVOK 21/11 Q1023RMK FUNOSIG=
► YMML 300600Z 18012KT CAVOK 21/11 Q1023 RMK FU NOSIG=
► YPAD 300600Z 12014KT CAVOK 30/01 Q1018 NOSIG=
► YPAD 300600Z 12014KT CAVOK 30/01 Q1018NOSIG=
► YSSY 300600Z 14015KT 9999 SCT028 BKN210 24/17 Q1022 NOSIG=
► YSSY 300600Z 14015KT 9999 SCT028 BKN210 24/17 Q1022NOSIG=
TAF
► NFFN 300453Z 3006/3106 VRB03KT 9999 −RA FEW006 SCT030 BKN100
► TEMPO 3006/3102 34015G25KT 5000 TSRA BKN012 FEW018CB
► BECMG 3104/3106 VRB03KT=
► TAF NSTU 300535Z 3006/3106 34005KT P6SM VCSH SCT025=
► TAF NTAA 300500Z 3006/3112 VRB02KT 9999 SCT020
► BECMG 3018/3019 20010KT
► TEMPO 3018/3104 05015KT PROB30
► TEMPO 3018/3104 05015G25KT 3000 SHRA FEW016CB SCT018 BKN040
► BECMG 3104/3105 VRB02KT=
► TAF NZAA 300501Z 3006/3106 23010KT 9999 BKN030
► BECMG 3008/3010 VRB02KT
► BECMG 3020/3022 22010KT=
► TAF NZCH 300501Z 3006/3106 06008KT 9999 BKN040
► FM301300 20010KT 9999 −RA BKN020
► TEMPO 3013/3024 6000 RA BKN014=
► TAF NZWN 300501Z 3006/3106 20010KT 9999 FEW025
► TEMPO 3010/3016 BKN009
► BECMG 3016/3018 18020G30KT
► TEMPO 3016/3020 6000 RADZ BKN009=
► TAF YBAS 300425Z 3006/3106 22008KT CAVOK=
► TAF YBBN 300427Z 3006/3112 17014KT 9999 −SHRA SCT030 SCT050
► FM301000 20009KT 9999 −SHRA SCT020 BKN045
► FM310000 15014KT 9999 −SHRA SCT030 BKN050
► INTER 3006/3112 3000 SHRA BKN010=
► TAF YBCS 300526Z 3006/3106 12012KT 9999 FEW030
► FM300900 16008KT 9999 FEW022 SCT040
► FM310000 08010KT 9999 FEW030=
► TAF YMML 300444Z 3006/3112 17012KT 8000 HZ NSC
► FM301800 30005KT 8000 HZ BKN010
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER VAPOUR

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WEATHER PHENOMENON

OTHERS Airart International

WEATHER ALTERNATE DESTINATION

Oxygen (O2) Other Gases 1%

► Gas Composition of Earth's atmosphere:

CONSTITUENT CHEMICAL SYMBOL MOLE PERCENT

Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.035

Methane CH4 0.00017

Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.00003

Ozone O3 trace to 0.00080

 This is important because in order to

 The Wet air being much lighter than dry

15 000 feet 120 hPa 30+ minutes pressure of oxygen as an

35 000 feet 50 hPa 30–60 seconds supplemental oxygen, is

► Stratosphere - approximately 10 km - 45 km up (approx 7miles-30miles)

► Thermosphere - approximately 95 km -to 500 km (50 miles and up)

► The International Civil Aviation Organisation's

► gases like carbon dioxide, water vapor,

► Stratosphere--- The ozone layer is

Indicated in degrees Celcius (  c )

Change temp. with height

-ISACondition – temp falls at constan rate of 1,98 oC / 1000 ft up to 36.000 ft

How to determine ISA temp. at any specified height.

Example: What is ISA temp at 9,500 ft

► Radiation allows heat to

SOLAR RADIATION PENETRATES THE EARTH΄S ATMOSPHERE AND ABSORBED BY THE

EVERY PHYSICAL PROCESS OF WEATHER IS ACCOMPANIED BY, OR IS THE RESULT OF, A

► NATURE OF THE SURFACE

1. THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF THE SURFACE… WATER HAS A HIGHER

CLOUD COVER….RESULTING IN REDUCED HEATING OF

BY NIGHT ..CLOUD COVERAGE CAUSES THE OPPOSITE

► it cools at a rate of 9.8°C/km as it

SPRING SUMMER FALL W INTER

 When air is warmer than average the airplane

The weight of air per unit

►With Air Temperature Increase

The engine develops less power.

This results in:

Pressure is measured in term of force acting upon a unit area

Inches of Mercury “Hg

299.92 “Hg = 1.0 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1013.25 mb

► 1013.25mb = is the average sea

Measure with - aneroid barometer …continuous record on a chart.

Unit of atmospheric pressure

“As the air velocity increases,

SLOW FAST SLOW

THE VENTURI EFFECT

"An altitude change

► Three columns of air showing how

► 2 types of Barometers used

► Jarak Take off bertambah seiring dengan peningkatan ketinggian

► Ketinggian mempengaruhi setiap aspek penerbangan dari pesawatnya

► ALTIMETER ADALAH BAROMETER

► Indicated altitude is the

The actual distance the aircraft is above

By setting the QFE value of an airport, the pressure

Flight Level is the altitude (at standard QNH) in feet,

When a QNH is set on the aircraft's altimeter, the

► Pressurealtitude is the altitude in the