Job Analysis & Design

What is Job Analysis?

• A purposeful, systematic process for collecting
information on the important work related
aspects of a job.
• Process of defining a job in terms of its
component tasks or duties and the knowledge
or skills required to perform them
• The procedure for determining the duties and
skill requirements of a job & the kind of person
who should be hired for it.
 Job Analysis provides answers to:
• How much time is taken to complete important
tasks?
• Which tasks are grouped together & considered
a job?
• How can a job be designed to enhance
employee’s performance?
• What kind be behavior are needed to perform
the job?
• What kind of a person is best suited for the job?
• How can information from Job analysis be used
in development of HRM programs?
It is necessary to success of human resource
functions.
Provides a legal foothold for organizations to
defend themselves against employment-
related litigation.
Job Analysis Information
 Job Analysis Information
Types of information collected via job analysis:
• Work activities: information about the job’s
actual work activities. The list may include how,
why & when a worker performs each activity.
• Human behavior: information about human
behavior like sensing, communicating, deciding
& writing. Also includes information regarding
job demands like lifting weights/ walking long
distances etc.
• Machines, Tools, Equipment & Work Aids: information
regarding tools used, material processed, knowledge
dealt with & service rendered.
• Performance Standards: information about jobs &
performance standards. The standards are used to
appraise employees.
• Job context: information about physical working
conditions, work schedule in the orgn. & social
context.
• Human requirements: job related skills or knowledge
(education, training, work experience) & required
personnel attributes (aptitudes, physical
characteristics, personality etc.)
Steps in Job Analysis Process
 Steps in Job Analysis Process
• Step 1: Examine the total orgn. & fit of each job
(using orgn. Chart & process charts)
• Step 2: Determine how Job analysis information
will be used
• Step 3: Select jobs to be analyzed
• Step 4: Analyze jobs by using acceptable job
analysis techniques
• Step 5: Verify the job analysis information
• Step 6: Prepare Job description & Job
specification
 Methods of Job Analysis

Who conducts Job Analysis & Who

are the sources of information?
 Methods of Job Analysis
Who conducts Job Analysis?
• Temporary job analyst
• Full time job analysis experts
• Supervisors & job incumbents
• OR combination of more than one of the
above
 Sources of Job Information
• SMEs (Subject Matter Experts)
– people who have in-depth knowledge of specific
job under analysis, job skills, and abilities
• Job incumbent
• Supervisors
• Job Analyst
Methods of Data Collection
 Methods for Data Collection
• Interviews
– Individual interviews
– Group interviews
• Structured Questionnaire / Inventory
• Direct Observation
• Logbooks / Work Diaries
• Critical Incident Method
 Interviews
• Most commonly used method
– very adaptable
• Usually conducted with
– job incumbents
– technical experts
– supervisors
• Questions like:
– what are your most typical duties?
– How long do they take?
– How do you do them?
• Con: people may misrepresent/exaggerate job
 Questionnaire/Inventory
• Lists of many job characteristics and activities
– rated in term of frequency and importance
• method is most useful for comparing jobs
• very commonly used (esp. with interviews)
 Observation
• Unobtrusive method (camera; video; audio)
• Useful in manual, standardized & Short job-cycle
activities
• Excellent for understanding and appreciating
conditions under which job is performed
• Allows analyst to experience aspects of job that
worker may not be aware of
• Not as good for understanding why behaviors
do/do not occur
 Logbook / Worker Diaries
• Worker makes systematic entries in book
outlining activities
• May be useful for jobs that are difficult to
observe
• But, not commonly used
– too much variance in writing skills
– can exaggerate tasks performed
• Prerequisites for effective data collection:
– Focus on Critical Information
– Some ‘Core information’ to be collected
irrespective of data collection method.
• Single or a combination of data collection
methods for job analysis are used for
developing & implementing various job
analysis approaches/techniques
Methods for Conducting Job Analysis
 Standard Methods for Conducting
Job Analysis
Standard methods generally take one of two
forms:
1. Job-Oriented
 Focus on describing various tasks that are
performed on the job
 Very specific task description
2. Worker-Oriented
 Examine broad human behaviors involved in
work activities
 Description of general facets of the job
Job-Oriented Approaches/Techniques

• Technical conference method

• Task Inventory Approach
• Functional Job Analysis
 Technical Conference Method
• Job related information from experts, usually
supervisors
• Job incumbent not involved
• More & unbiased information
• Viewpoint of Job Incumbent is lacking
 Task Inventory Approach 􀂾
• Task statements generated by Subject
Matter Experts (SMEs)
(SMEs – Individuals who are incumbents or
experts regarding the target job)
• Incumbents then put a check next to
statements that describe their job
• Data provide a picture of the job
 Functional Job Analysis
• Obtain information about what tasks a person
performs and how those tasks are performed
• Uses task statements, but they are rated on the
following dimensions:
• Data – Extent to which cognitive resources are
needed to handle info, facts, ideas 􀂃
• People – extent to which interpersonal resources
are needed 􀂃
• Things – Extent to which physical resources are
needed (strength, speed etc) 􀂾
 Worker-Oriented Approaches
• Job Element Method
• Position Analysis Questionnaire
• Common Metric System
 Job Element Method 􀂾
• Identify the characteristics of superior workers
on a job
• Element here means – Knowledge, Skills,
Abilities, and Other characteristics (KSAOs)
necessary for effective performance
• Use SMEs to develop list of job elements
• SMEs provide work examples of elements
• Notice differences with Task Inventory
 Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) 􀂾
• Standardized instrument that focuses on general
work behaviors
• 194 items
• SMEs decide about whether the item pertains to their
job and evaluates it along a series of dimensions.
• Items fall into six Dimensions :
– Information input
– Mental processes
– Work output
– Relationship with other people
– Job context
– Other job characteristics
• Concerns:
– Not for white-collar jobs
– College reading level
– Too abstract, so many jobs look similar
– Too lengthy: needs time & patience
 PAQ Example of “Sources of Job
Information”
Rate the extent to which each is used by the worker as a source of information in
performing the job:

Extent of Use: N - Does not apply

1 - Very infrequent
2- Occasional
3 - Moderate
4 - Considerable
5 - Very substantial

1.___ Written materials (books, reports, articles).

2.___ Quantitative materials (graphs, tables of numbers)
3.___ Measuring devices (calipers, tire pressure gauges, thermometers)
4.___ Features of nature (landscapes, geological samples, cloud formations)
 Common Metric System 􀂾
• Newly developed instrument (Harvey)
• 2,077 items organized along 80 dimensions
• Takes 3 hours to complete on-line
• Items are more behaviorally specified than
PAQ items and has a lower reading level
• Relevant for both Managerial and Non-
Managerial jobs
 Uses of Job Analysis
• Recruitment & Selection
• Organization Audit
• Training & Development
• Performance Appraisal
• Promotion & Transfer
• Preventing Dissatisfaction
• Compensation management
• Health & Safety
• Induction
• Industrial Relations
• Career Planning
• Succession Planning
Products of job analysis
 Products of Job Analysis
• Job Description – Written statement/summary
about the job or what job holder actually does,
how, and why
 􀂾 Specifies the task requirements
• Job Specifications – a written explanation of the
knowledge, skills, abilities, traits & other
characteristics necessary for effective
performance of a given job
 􀂾 Specifies the people requirements
• Job Evaluation – Determine the worth of a job
 􀂾 Used to establish compensation rates
 Job Description
A Job Description is a written document that
identifies, defines and describes a job in terms
of:
• duties,
• responsibilities, and
• requirements.
The Job Description should contain the
"essential job functions" and should address
those factors which are commonly included in
a point-factor job evaluation system.
 Uses of Job Description
• As main source of information
• Define minimum requirements of a job
• Focus on essential functions and specific
knowledge, experience skills needed to
perform the job
 Sections on Job Description
• Job identification
– Job title
– Department
– Report to prepared by & date
– Approved by & date
• Job summary
– General nature of the job, Major functions or activities
• Relationships
– Reports to
– Supervises
– Works with etc
• Responsibilities & Duties
• standards of Performance & Working
Conditions
• Specifications
– Qualification
– Education & Experience
– Other Skills
 Job Specifications
• What human traits and experience is required
to do this job well?
• A written statement of minimum acceptable
qualifications, knowledge, skills, traits,
physical & mental characteristics that an
incumbent must possess to perform the job
successfully
 Specifications
• Physical specifications: height, vision,
health status etc
• Mental specifications: analytical ability,
decision making ability, data interpretation
ability etc
• Emotional, behavioral & Social
Specifications: flexible, adaptable, team
member, maintain interpersonal
relationships,ability to undertake research,
teaching ability, maturity etc
 Group Exercise
Working in groups of three students,
develop a Job description for ‘Head-
Retail Banking’ in respect of a fast
growing new generation private sector
bank operating in all major metros in
India. Based on that, use your analytical
skills & judgment to develop a Job
Specification.
 Job Design
• The organization of activities to create the
maximum level of performance
• Emphasis is on performance & satisfaction
• Uses information from Job analysis,
description & job specification
• Job Design theory requires that we address
the question of “how to get done what we
want to get done”.
 Elements of Job Design

• Task Analysis

• Worker Analysis

• Environmental Analysis
 Task Analysis Determines

– What tasks will be done

– How each task will be done
– How the tasks fit together to form a job

Worker Analysis Determines

– Capabilities the worker must possess

– Responsibilities the worker will have
 Environmental Analysis
Used to analyze physical environment
including:
– Location
– Lighting
– Temperature
– Noise
– Ventilation
 Approaches to Job Design
• Mechanistic approach or Scientific
Management approach
• Human Relations/Behavioral Approach
– Job rotation
– Job enlargement
– Job enrichment
• Job Characteristic Approach
• Socio-technical approach
 Scientific Management
• Job simplification and specialization

• There is one best way to perform any job

• Management’s responsibility is to determine

what that way is

• Time and Motion Studies

 Recommendation from Scientific
Management
• Work should be studied scientifically
• Work should be arranged so that workers are
efficient
• Employees selected for work should be
matched to the demands of the job
• Employees should be trained to perform the
job
• Monetary compensation should be tied
directly to performance
 Advantages

– Simplifies training
– High Productivity (enhanced organizational
performance)
– Low wage costs
– Economic benefits
 Disadvantages
• Difficult to motivate employees
• Repetitive, boring tasks
• Meaningless, monotonous work (no end
product)
• High job dissatisfaction
• No opportunity to develop and acquire new
skills
• Little social interaction
 Human Relations Approach
• Introduced ‘human touch’
• Scope for flexibility to be introduced in the jobs
• Need for social/ casual interactions identified
• Satisfying employee needs as a way of designing
jobs
Herzberg’s two factor theory: employees will be
motivated by jobs that enhance their feeling of
self-worth
 Job Rotation
Advantages
• Reduces Boredom
• Broadens experiences
• Gives broad understanding

Disadvantages
• Increased training costs
• Reduced productivity
• De-motivates specialists
 Job Enlargement
• A method of job design that increases the
number of activities in a job to overcome the
boredom of overspecialized work.
• Horizontal expansion
• No extra responsibility or authority in Decision
Making
• Increases scope but no challenge
 Job Enrichment
• Design jobs in ways that helps incumbents
satisfy their needs for growth, recognition &
responsibility
• Designing/redesigning jobs so as to increase
both the depth & scope
• Employees are given more responsibility ( a
part of supervisors responsibility)
• More autonomy to plan, organize & control.
• Lesser supervision & more self-evaluation
 Job Enrichment Techniques
• Incorporating more responsibility in the job
• Providing wider scope & increased pace of
work (vertical loading)
• Minimizing control & providing freedom to
work
• Freedom to set own targets
• Allowing them to monitor their own
performance by providing control information
• Encouraging employees to participate in
planning & innovating
• Introducing new, difficult & creative tasks
• Assigning specific projects to individuals or
groups to enhance their expertise
• Open feedback channels
 Job Characteristic Approach
• Employees work hard when they are rewarded for the
work they do and when the work gives them
satisfaction. (Hackman & Oldham)
• Therefore, motivation, satisfaction & productivity are
the three factors that should be integrated in a job
design
Job Characteristic Model:
• A framework for understanding person-job fit through
the interaction of core job dimensions with critical
psychological states within a person
 Job Characteristics Model
Critical
Critical
Core
Corejob
job Personal
Personaland
and
psychological
psychological
dimensions
dimensions work
workoutcomes
outcomes
states
states

Skill variety Experienced work’s High internal

Task identity work motivation
meaningfulness
Task significance High-quality
Experienced work performance
Autonomy responsibility High satisfaction
for work’s outcomes with the work
Feedback Knowledge of work Low absenteeism
activities’ results and turnover
Employee
growth,need,
strength
 Five Core Job Characteristics

Motivating Potential Score

Skill Task Task

+ +
variety identity significance
MPS = x [Autonomy] x [Feedback]
3
 Social Information Processing model
(SIP)
SIP Model - a model that suggests that the important
job factors depend in part on what others tell a
person about the job
Four premises:
• people provide cues to understanding the work
environment
• people help us judge our jobs
• people tell us how they see our jobs
• people’s positive & negative feedback help us
understand our feelings about our jobs
 Social Technical System
Both technical & social system is emphasized.

Job should be designed to take a holistic view

of both physical & social environments.
Features:

• Job should be reasonably demanding &

Challenging
• variety & novelty in the job
• Employee should be able to continue learning
on the job
• Employees need recognition in work place
• Employees need to relate what they produce
to their social life
 Current Trends in Job Design
• Flexi time
• Telecommuting
• Job sharing
• Condensed work
• Working from home
 Job Analysis in a “Jobless” World
• job : A set of closely related activities carried
out for pay
• Dejobbing: Broadening the responsibilities of
a company’s jobs, and encouraging employees
not to limit themselves to what’s on their job
description
• Changing trends:
– Rapid product & technological change
– Global competition
– Deregulation
– Political instability
– Demographic changes
– Shift to service industry
• Firms need to be:
– more responsive
– flexible
– competitive
 Methods contributing to Dejobbing
• Flatter organizations
• Work teams
• The boundryless organization
• Reengineering
• Shift from training (how) to education (why)
• The future of job descriptions
– Shift from traditional to performance based
(Acxiom Corporation: shift from ‘listing specific skills’ for
software developers to ‘self-directed learning’)
– More flexible & brief
 Challenge to HR:
• To find the right kind of people who can work
without the cue system of job descriptions
• Puts a premium on hiring people with skills &
values to handle empowered jobs