amount of work Wb as it forces the piston to move by a differential amount ds. 3 The boundary work done during a process depends on the path followed as well as the end states.
The area under the process curve on a P-V
diagram is equal, in magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression process of a closed system. 4 Polytropic, Isothermal, and Isobaric processes Polytropic process: C, n (polytropic exponent) constants Polytropic process
Polytropic and for ideal gas
When n = 1 (isothermal process)
Constant pressure process
What is the boundary
work for a constant- volume process?
Schematic and P-V diagram for a polytropic process. 5 ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS Energy balance for any system undergoing any process
Energy balance in the rate form
The total quantities are related to the quantities per unit time is
Energy balance per
unit mass basis Energy balance in differential form
Energy balance for a cycle
6 Energy balance when sign convention is used: (i.e., heat input and work output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).
Various forms of the first-law relation
for closed systems when sign convention is used.
The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known to have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof. 7 Energy balance for a constant-pressure expansion or compression process General analysis for a closed system For a constant-pressure undergoing a quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression
U Wb H constant-pressure process. Q is to the process: system and W is from the system.
An example of constant-pressure process
8 9 SPECIFIC HEATS Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant. Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant.
Constant-volume and constant- pressure specific heats cv and cp (values are for helium gas). 10 True or False? cp is always greater than cv
• The equations in the figure are valid for
any substance undergoing any process. • cv and cp are properties. • cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in enthalpy. • A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg·°C or kJ/kg·K. Are these units identical? Formal definitions of cv and 11 c p. INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES
Joule showed Internal energy and using this For ideal gases, enthalpy change of experimental u, h, cv, and cp an ideal gas apparatus that vary with u=u(T) temperature only. 12 • At low pressures, all real gases approach • u and h data for a number of ideal-gas behavior, and therefore their gases have been tabulated. specific heats depend on temperature only. • These tables are obtained by • The specific heats of real gases at low choosing an arbitrary reference pressures are called ideal-gas specific point and performing the heats, or zero-pressure specific heats, and integrations by treating state 1 are often denoted cp0 and cv0. as the reference state.
Ideal-gas constant- pressure specific heats for some gases In the preparation of ideal-gas (see Table A– tables, 0 K is chosen as the 2c for cp reference temperature. equations). 13 Internal energy and enthalpy change when specific heat is taken constant at an average value
(kJ/kg)
14 Three ways of calculating u and h 1. By using the tabulated u and h data. This is the easiest and most accurate way when tables are readily available. 2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table A-2c) as a function of temperature and performing the integrations. This is very inconvenient for hand calculations but quite desirable for computerized calculations. The results obtained are very accurate. 3. By using average specific heats. This is very simple and certainly very Three ways of calculating u. convenient when property tables are not available. The results obtained are reasonably accurate if the temperature interval is not very large. 15 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases The relationship between cp, cv and R
dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis
Specific heat ratio
• The specific ratio varies with
temperature, but this variation is very mild. • For monatomic gases (helium, argon, etc.), its value is essentially constant at 1.667. • Many diatomic gases, including air, The cp of an ideal gas can be determined have a specific heat ratio of about from a knowledge of cv and R. 1.4 at room temperature. 16 INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume (or density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible substances.
17 Internal Energy Changes
Enthalpy Changes
The enthalpy of a compressed liquid Usually a more accurate relation than 18 Summary • Moving boundary work Wb for an isothermal process Wb for a constant-pressure process Wb for a polytropic process • Energy balance for closed systems Energy balance for a constant-pressure expansion or compression process • Specific heats Constant-pressure specific heat, cp Constant-volume specific heat, cv • Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases Specific heat relations of ideal gases • Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of incompressible substances (solids and liquids) 19
“Foundations to Flight: Mastering Physics from Curiosity to Confidence: Cipher 4”: “Foundations to Flight: Mastering Physics from Curiosity to Confidence, #4
“Foundations to Flight: Mastering Physics from Curiosity to Confidence: Cipher 4”: “Foundations to Flight: Mastering Physics from Curiosity to Confidence, #4
