CSC 336

Data Communications
and
Networking
Lecture 7d: Interconnecting LAN

Dr. Cheer-Sun Yang

Spring 2001
 Interconnecting LANs
• Layer 1 connection – repeaters
• Layer 2 connection - bridges
 Repeaters
• Layer 1 connections
• Used to expand physical length of a cable
when it exceeds the distance limit and
attenuation can occur.
 Bridges
• Ability to expand beyond single LAN
• Provide interconnection to other LANs/WANs
• Use Bridge or router
• Bridge is simpler
– Connects similar but different types of LANs
– Identical protocols for physical and link layers
– Minimal processing
• Router more general purpose
– Interconnect various LANs and WANs
– see later
 Why Bridge?
• Eliminate unnecessary traffic
• Different department cannot access
information in another LAN
• Security
 Functions of a Bridge
• Read all frames transmitted on one LAN
and accept those address to any station on
the other LAN
• Using MAC protocol for second LAN,
retransmit each frame
• Do the same the other way round
Bridging Similar Types of LANs
• Read all frames transmitted on one LAN
and accept those address to any station on
the other LAN
• Using MAC protocol for second LAN,
retransmit each frame
• Do the same the other way round
Bridge Operation
 Bridge Design Aspects
• No modification to content or format of frame
• No encapsulation
• Exact bitwise copy of frame
• Minimal buffering to meet peak demand
• Contains routing and address intelligence
– Must be able to tell which frames to pass
– May be more than one bridge to cross
• May connect more than two LANs
• Bridging is transparent to stations
– Appears to all stations on multiple LANs as if they are on one
single LAN
Connection of Two LANs
 Bridge Different Types of LANs
• If one LAN has higher bit rates, a bridge must buffer data
frames
• If collision occurs when forwarding a data frame: a bridge
must handle binary exponential backoff, if it is Ethernet
• If it is Token Ring (a contension free protocol), a bridge
must wait for a token to arrive
• If one LAN supports priority, the bridge must assign a
default priority.
• If maximum frame size is different in two LANs, the
bridge must fragment the data frame.
 Types of Bridges
• Fixed Routing Bridge: using a fixed routing
table to Transparent bridge: Spanning tree
algoroithm
• Source routing bridges
 Bridge Operations
• How does a bridge know when to forward
and when to throw away data frames?
• How does a bridge know where to forward
a data frame to? What if a host moves?
 Bridge Types
• Fixed Routing Bridge: using a fixed routing
table to determine “next hop” destination
• Transparent bridge: the routing decision is
transparent to a host.
– spanning tree algoroithm is used to find the “next
hop”
• Source routing bridges: the source decides
the path to the destination
 Fixed Route Bridges
• Fixed Routing Bridge: using a fixed routing
table to determine “next hop” destination
• How does a routing table look like?
• Try “netstat -rn” on taz.cs.wcupa.edu
 Transparent Bridges
• Complex large LANs need alternative routes
– Load balancing
– Fault tolerance
• Bridge(NOT the source) must decide whether to forward
frame
• Bridge must decide which LAN to forward frame on
• Routing selected for each source-destination pair of LANs
– Done in configuration
– Usually least hop route
– Only changed when topology changes
Route Learning
 Flooding
Sends every frame to every LAN to which
it is connected except the one on which the
frame arrived.
WATER!!!
Frame Propagation Problem
 Spanning Tree Algorithm
• Address learning works for tree layout
– i.e. no closed loops
• For any connected graph there is a spanning
tree that maintains connectivity but contains
no closed loops
• Each bridge assigned unique identifier
• Exchange between bridges to establish
spanning tree
Loop of Bridges
 Spanning Tree
• Bridge automatically develops routing table
• Automatically update in response to
changes
• Frame forwarding
• Address learning
• Loop resolution
 Frame Forwarding
• Maintain forwarding database for each port
– List station addresses reached through each port
• For a frame arriving on port X:
– Search forwarding database to see if MAC address is
listed for any port except X
– If address not found, forward to all ports except X
– If address listed for port Y, check port Y for blocking
or forwarding state
• Blocking prevents port from receiving or transmitting
– If not blocked, transmit frame through port Y
 Address Learning
• Can preload forwarding database
• Can be learned
• When frame arrives at port X, it has come form
the LAN attached to port X
• Use the source address to update forwarding
database for port X to include that address
• Timer on each entry in database
• Each time frame arrives, source address checked
against forwarding database
 Spanning Tree Algorithm
• A cost is assigned to each bridge-to-LAN
connection, or bridge-port.
• Derive a graph representation of the network
(Figure 6.32).
• Find the spanning tree which covers every node
without any loop.
• The last step determines a designated bridge for
each LAN. This is the bridge that eventually
forwards frames from that LAN.
L3
 Generate a Graph
• Associate a cost with each bridge-to-LAN
connection, or bridge port.
• The cost of sending a frame from one LAN to
another is the sum of costs of bridge ports. For
example, the cost of sending a frame from L1 to L4
via bridges B1 and B2 is 6.
• Visualize the network as a graph.
• Use Spanning Tree Algorithm to determine a set of
edges that connect all the LAN nodes of Figure
6.32.
 Spanning Tree
• Use Spanning Tree Algorithm to determine a set
of edges that connect all the LAN nodes of Figure
6.32.
– Elect one of their own to be a root bridge. It is the one
with the lowest ID
– Determine a root port
– Determine a designated bridge for each LAN
 Root Bridge Election
• During the process, the cost to the root bridge is
also determined.
• Every bridge records the cost to the root bridge
through each of its ports, and then selects the
cheapest one. Figure 6.33 shows the root port
(designated by an arrow) and paths to the root
bridge.
 cost=6
cost =3

cost=2

cost=8
cost=6
 Designated Bridge Election
• L1’s designated bridge is B1
• L2’s designated bridge is B1
• L3’s designated bridge is B3
• L4 can use B2, B4, ir B6 as its designated bridge
 I gave
up!!

I am the
designated I gave
node for L4. up
 Final Results
• L1’s designated bridge is B1
• L2’s designated bridge is B1
• L3’s designated bridge is B3
• L4 ‘s designated bridge is B2.
• Every LAN is connected to its designated bridge
and every bridge can communicate with the root
bridge via its root port.
• (There is an error in Fig. 6.35: the cost from B1 to
L2 is 2.)
 Source Routing Bridges
• Although source routing bridges can be used with
any type of LAN segment, they are used primarily
for the interconnection of token ring LAN
segments.
• The spanning tree bridges perform the routing in a
way that is transparent to the end stations.
Conversely, with source routing, the end stations
perform the routing function.
• The necessary information must be included in a
frame.
Source Route Bridges
All-Routes Broadcast
 Comparison of LAN Bridges
• See Table 6.8
 Reading
• Chapter 6: 6.5
• HW#4: Chapter 6 problem 18, problem 21