TRANSMISSION LINES

LESSON NO. 2
 Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Know what a transmission line is and how transmission lines are used.
• Explain the electrical characteristics and theory of a transmission lines.
• Describe the different types of transmission lines.
• Define LUMPED CONSTANTS in relation to a transmission line.
• Define DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS in relation to a transmission line.
• Define CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE and explain how it affects the
transfer of energy along a transmission line.
• Identify the cause of and describe the characteristics of signal
reflections on a transmission line.
• Define the term STANDING WAVES as applied to a transmission line.
• Know how to use the Smith Chart in different transmission line
applications.
TRANSMISSION LINES - is a two conductor
wire system with the wires in close
proximity, providing relative impedance,
velocity and closed current return path to
the source.
 When does a T-line become a T-Line?
 Whether it is a bump
or a mountain
depends on the ratio
of its size (tline) to
the size of the
When do we need to
vehicle (signal
use transmission line
wavelength)
analysis techniques vs.
lumped circuit
analysis?
 Similarly, whether or
not a line is to be
considered as a
transmission line
depends on the ratio
of length of the line
(delay) to the
wavelength of the
applied frequency or
Wavelength/edge rate Tline the rise/fall edge of
the signal

Transmission Lines 4
TRANSMISSION LINES are devices for guiding electrical
energy from one point to another.
It is used, for example, to transfer the output RF energy of a transmitter to an
antenna.

Transmission media:
1. Metallic cable
2. Optical fiber
3. Radio transmission

Two types of metallic cable:

4. Parallel lines
5. Coaxial Cable
Transmission Lines
• Metallic
1. Parallel Wire Pair
• FM and TV antenna
2. Twisted Wire Pair
• Phone line
• 10BaseT Ethernet
3. Coaxial Cable
• RG58
4. Metallic Conduit
5. Planar Striplines
 Printed circuit
board
 Hybrid IC carrier
• Dielectric
– Fiber
• Glass
• Polymer
 Parallel Lines
• Parallel lines are typically
balanced lines, the
impedance to ground
from each of the wires
being equal.

• Balanced refers to the

signals being the same
level but opposite in
polarity.
 PARALLEL LINES
TWO-WIRE OPEN LINES are
parallel lines and have uses such
as power lines, rural telephone
lines, and telegraph lines.

This type of line has high

radiation losses and is subject to
noise pickup.

TWIN LEAD has parallel lines

and is most often used to
connect televisions to their
antennas.
A TWISTED PAIR consists of two
insulated wires twisted together. This line
has high insulation loss.

Network Cables
Cat 3, 4, 5, 5E, 6, ..
DSL wiring at home
Coaxial cable
 Coaxial Lines
• Two conductors are
concentric,
separated by an
insulating dielectric
• Coaxial cables are
unbalanced
because of their
lack of symmetry
with regard to
ground
 A SHIELDED PAIR 

has parallel conductors

separated by a solid dielectric
and surrounded by copper
braided tubing. The conductors
are balanced to ground.

RIGID COAXIAL LINE 

contains two concentric conductors

insulated from each other by spacers.
Some rigid coaxial lines are
pressurized with an inert gas to
prevent moisture from entering. High-
frequency losses are less than with
other lines.
FLEXIBLE COAXIAL
LINES consist of a flexible
inner conductor and a
concentric outer conductor of
metal braid. The two are
separated by a continuous
insulating material.
 Coaxial Cables
Attenuation in
Coax Velocity
db per 100 feet Description
Factor
(On 27MHz)
RG-8 1.15 dB .66 50 Ohm coax
RG-59 2.0 dB .66 75 Ohm coax
RG-8/U Foam 0.85 dB .80 50 Ohm coax, Foam Dielectric
RG-59/U Foam 1.5 dB .79 75 Ohm coax, Foam Dielectric
Belden 9913 0.7 dB .84 Premium 50 Ohm coax
1/2" Hardline 0.35 dB .81 Special coax, expensive!
RG-8X (Mini-8) 1.2 dB .78 Small 50 Ohm coax. Preferred
over RG-58. Recommended for
mobile installations.
RG-58 2.35 dB .66 50 Ohm coax
RG-213 1.35 dB .66 50 Ohm coax.
RG-11/U Foam 0.85 dB .80 75 Ohm coax.
RG-11/U 1.35 dB .66 75 Ohm coax

http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/coax_chart.htm
WAVEGUIDES are hollow metal tubes used to transfer energy from one point to another. The
energy travels slower in a waveguide than in free space.
 Striplines
• Micro Stripline
• Embedded Stripline
• Coplanar Stripline

• Loss
– Metallic
• Skin depth
• Localized current flow
– Dielectric
• Loss tangent
– Surface roughness
Microstrip line
TRANSMISSION LINE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
& PARAMETERS
 LENGTH OF A TRANSMISSION LINE

• A transmission line is considered to be electrically short when its

physical length is short compared to a quarter-wavelength ¼  of the
energy it is to carry.

•A transmission line is electrically long when its physical length is long

compared to a quarter-wavelength of the energy it is to carry.

Example:

A line that has a physical length of 3 meters (approximately 10 feet) is

considered quite short electrically if it transmits a radio frequency of 30
KHz. On the other hand, the same transmission line is considered
electrically long if it transmits a frequency of 30,000 MHz.
 LENGTH OF A TRANSMISSION LINE

To show the difference in physical and electrical lengths of the lines

mentioned above, compute the wavelength of the two frequencies, taking the
30-kilohertz example first:
 LENGTH OF A TRANSMISSION LINE
Now, computing the wavelength for the line carrying 30,000 megahertz:

Thus, you can see that a 3-meter line is electrically very short for a frequency of 30
kilohertz. Also, the 3-meter line is electrically very long for a frequency of 30,000
megahertz.
 MODE OF PROPAGATION IN TRANSMISSION
LINES

TRANSVERSE ELECTROMAGNETIC (TEM)

The electric and magnetic field wave intensities

propagating in a transmission line are transverse to
the direction of wave propagation.

This is in the assumption of no loss in the

transmission lines.
TRANSMISSION LINE ELECTRICAL
MODEL

Transmission Lines 24
The transmission line model represents the transmission line as an
infinite series of two-port elementary components, each representing an
infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line:

1. The distributed resistance R of the conductors - series resistor

(expressed in ohms per unit length).
2. The distributed inductance L (due to the magnetic field around
the wires, self-inductance, etc.) - series inductor (henries per
unit length).
3. The capacitance C between the two conductors- shunt
capacitor C (farads per unit length).
4. The conductance G of the dielectric material separating the
two conductors - shunt resistor between the signal wire and
the return wire (siemens per unit length).
CONSTANTS are inductance, capacitance and resistance that are distributed along
the transmission line.
Conductance causes Leakage Current

 LEAKAGE CURRENT flows between the two wires due to the

dielectric, even air, is not a perfect insulator, a small current known
as.
 In effect, the insulator acts as a resistor, permitting current to pass
between the two wires.
 This property is called CONDUCTANCE (G) and is the opposite of
resistance.
 Conductance in transmission lines is expressed as the reciprocal of
resistance and is usually given in micromhos per unit length.
DRIVING AN INFINITE TRANSMISSION LINE.

Equivalent circuit showing stray capacitance between conductors.

Voltage applied between two conductors creates an electric field between those
conductors. Energy is stored in this electric field, and this storage of energy results in an
opposition to change in voltage.
Equivalent circuit showing stray capacitance and inductance.

Voltage charges capacitance, current charges inductance.

Uncharged transmission line.

Begin wave propagation.

Continue wave propagation.
Propagate at speed of light.

• The end result of these interactions is a constant current of limited magnitude

through the battery source.
• Since the wires are infinitely long, their distributed capacitance will never fully
charge to the source voltage, and their distributed inductance will never allow
unlimited charging current.
• This pair of wires will draw current from the source so long as the switch is closed,
behaving as a constant load.
• No longer are the wires merely conductors of electrical current and carriers of
voltage, but now constitute a circuit component in themselves, with unique
characteristics.
• No longer are the two wires merely a pair of conductors, but rather a transmission
line.
 Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit

• A transmission line is a distributed-

parameter network, where voltages and
currents can vary in magnitude and phase
over the length of the line.

Lumped Element Model for a Transmission Line

• A short segment Δz of transmission line can
be modeled as a lumped-element circuit.

33
 Equivalent electrical circuits
Instead of examining the EM field distribution within these transmission
lines, we will simplify our discussion by using a simple model consisting
of distributed inductors and capacitors.
LUMPED CONSTANTS are theoretical properties (inductance,
resistance, and capacitance) of a transmission line that are lumped
into a single component.
 The Lossy Transmission Line Model
• In the lossy transmission line model, the series resistance and
dielectric conductance are introduced into the equivalent circuit
model:
 The Lossless Transmission Line Model
• In the lossless transmission line model, only the distributed
capacitance (C) and inductance (L) of the interconnect is considered:
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN THE TRANSMISSION LINE

There are two kinds of fields;

one is associated with voltage
and the other with current.

 The field associated with

voltage is called the
ELECTRIC (E) FIELD. It
exerts a force on any
electric charge placed in it.
 The field associated with
current is called a
MAGNETIC (H) FIELD,
because it tends to exert a
force on any magnetic pole
placed in it.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS IN THE TRANSMISSION LINE

 The distributed constants of resistance, inductance, and

capacitance are basic properties common to all transmission
lines and exist whether or not any current flow exists.

 As soon as current flow and voltage exist in a transmission

line, another property becomes quite evident.

 This is the presence of an electromagnetic field, or lines of

force, about the wires of the transmission line.

 The lines of force themselves are not visible; however,

understanding the force that an electron experiences while in
the field of these lines is very important to your
understanding of energy transmission.
 Generalised TEM Transmission Lines
The primary constants R, L, G, and C are directly related to the
physical properties of the materials used in the transmission
line and remain unaffected by the application of the
transmission line.

For low-loss transmission line such as good quality coaxial cable:

VELOCITY OF WAVE PROPAGATION

• If a voltage is initially applied to the sending end of a line, that same voltage
will appear later some distance from the sending end. This is true regardless
of any change in voltage, whether the change is a jump from zero to some
value or a drop from some value to zero. The voltage change will be
conducted down the line at a constant rate. Recall that the inductance of a line
delays the charging of the line capacitance. The velocity of propagation is
therefore related to the values of L and C. If the inductance and capacitance
of the RF line are known, the time required for any waveform to travel the
length of the line can be determined. To see how this works, observe the
following relationship:
Q = IT
• This formula shows that the total charge or quantity is equal to the current
multiplied by the time the current flows.

Also: Q = CE
This formula shows that the total charge on a capacitor is equal to the capacitance
multiplied by the voltage across the capacitor.
DC applied to an equivalent transmission line.

If the switch in figure above is closed for a given time, the quantity (Q)
of electricity leaving the battery can be computed by using the
equation Q = IT. The electricity leaves the battery and goes into the
line, where a charge is built up on the capacitors.

The amount of this charge is computed by using the equation Q = CE.

Since none of the charge is lost, the total charge leaving the battery
during T is equal to the total charge on the line.

Therefore: Q = IT = CE
Coaxial & Parallel Lines

Transmission Lines 43
 Characteristic Impedance
• Impedance: Z=V/I for an infinite cable
• COAXIAL CABLE
2  0
C 
ln( D / d )
0
L  ln( D / d )
2
R  j L L 138
Z0    log( D / d )
G  j C C 
1
Vp 
LC


 
• Loss  f
– Frequency dependent
– Skin depth
– TEM mode
 Coaxial cable

er: dielectric constant (relative permittivity) of the

medium (if you don't know take 2.3, Polyethylene),
air = 1
e0: permittivity of free space: 8.8542.10-12 F/m
d : the diameter of the inner conductor
D : the diameter f the outer conductor
µ0: Permeability of a vacuum: 4xp×10-7 H/m
µr: relative permeability of the medium: air = 1
 Coaxial Cable

The unit series inductance L is:

 Coaxial Cable
Relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) εr and a relative
permeability μr if the conductors are considered to be
lossless as per our earlier approximation, the unit shunt
capacitance C is:
 Coaxial Cable
The unit series resistance R is related to the conductivity of the
conductors, and is frequency dependent by way of a phenomenon
known as skin effect. We begin by first defining a quantity known as the
depth of penetration:

Where σ is the conductivity of the material.

The current in a conductor will always concentrate on the surface that

is nearest the wave that creates the current , and in the case of coaxial
cable this is the electromagnetic field that exists between the inner
surface of the outer conductor and the inner conductor.
 Coaxial Cable
At high frequencies the skin effect causes the current to flow
only on the outer surface of the inner conductor and the
inner surface of the outer conductor, and this condition
persists as long as the thickness t of the outer conductor is
appreciably greater than the skin depth.

The surface resistance of the conducting material is:

Where σ is the conductivity of the material.

 Coaxial Cable

The unit shunt conductance is related to the resistivity of the

dielectric insulating material, due to a phenomenon known as
dielectric hysteresis, which is analagous to the magnetic hysteresis in
magnetic materials. It is convenient to describe the total losses of
the transmission line as the equivalent conductivity:

from which we can derive the loss tangent of the transmission line,
which is:
 Coaxial Cable

VELOCITY FACTOR OF THE CABLE

In general the relative permeability of most, if not all insulating

materials is close to unity, so (16) can be comfortably approximated
for coaxial cable as:
Parallel Lines

Transmission Lines 52
Twin lead (balanced wire)

Zo = 276 / √er . log (2 a/d) ()

L = µrµ0 / π . ln (2 a/d) (H/m)
C = πere0/ ln (2 a/d) (F/m)
 Formula constant values
e is electric permittivity

e = 8.85 X 10
0
-12 F/m (free space)

er = is relative dielectric constant

µ is magnetic permeability
µ0 = 4π X 10-7 H/m (free space)
µr = is relative permeability

Transmission Lines
 Example:

Evaluate the velocity of propagation and the characteristic impedance of an

air-filled coaxial cable with radii of the conductors of 3 mm and 6 mm.

The inductance and capacitance per unit length are:


ˆL  0 ln  b  4 107
 6
  ln   0.14H m
2  a  2  3
2  2  8.854 1012
Cˆ  0
  80 pF m
ln  b a  ln  6 3
The velocity of propagation is:
1 1
v   3 108 m s
ˆˆ
LC 0.14 106  80 1012
The characteristic impedance of the cable is:

Z c  Lˆ Cˆ  0.14 106 80 1012  42

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF A
TRANSMISSION LINE
Transmission Line Two-port Network
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE (Z0)

 Characteristic impedance is also known as natural

impedance, and it refers to the equivalent resistance of a
transmission line if it were infinitely long, owing to
distributed capacitance and inductance as the voltage and
current “waves” propagate along its length at a propagation
velocity equal to some large fraction of light speed.

 Z0, is the ratio of E to I at every point along the line.

 For maximum transfer of electrical power, the

characteristic impedance and load impedance must be
matched.
 Characteristic Impedance
PARALLEL LINE

For a parallel-wire line with air insulation, the characteristic

impedance may be calculated as such:
 Characteristic Impedance of COAXIAL LINE
If the transmission line is coaxial in construction, the
characteristic impedance follows a different equation:
 TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS:

• The line voltage V(x) and the current I(x) can be expressed in the
frequency domain as

• When the elements R and G are negligibly small the transmission line is
considered as a lossless structure.
• For a lossless transmission line, the second order steady-state
Telegrapher's equations are:
• If R and G are not neglected, the equations become:

• Where:

• and the characteristic impedance is:

The solutions for V(x) and I(x) are:

The real and imaginary parts of γ can be computed as:

Where: and

Therefore: and
 Impedance on a Lossless Line
• The impedance on a lossless transmission line is
given by the formula:

Z L cos θ  jZ 0 sin θ
Z  Z0
Z 0 cos θ  jZ L sin θ

Where:
 Characteristic Impedance of a Line
• A terminated transmission line that is matched in its
characteristic impedance is called a matched line.
• The characteristic impedance depends upon the electrical
properties of the line, according to the formula:

R  jω L
Z0  G  jω C
Ω

Where: R = resistance (ohms)

L = inductive component
C = capacitive component
G = admittance
 Characteristic Impedance of a Lossless Line

Barring any dissipative effects such as dielectric “leakage”

and conductor resistance, the characteristic impedance of
a transmission to:
Transmission line Input, Output Impedances

INPUT IMPEDANCE is the ratio of voltage to current at the

input end of a transmission line.

OUTPUT IMPEDANCE is the ratio of voltage to current at

the output end of the line.
In the general case, the input impedance Zin = V( -l)/ I( -l)
becomes:

For lossless case we get:

The term ẞ is called the electrical length of the

transmission line.
Some special cases to consider:
Step and Pulse Response of Lines
In a line of infinite length, a stepped input signal
will surge forever because of the capacitance of
the line

The characteristic impedance of the line is also

know as the surge impedance

The impedance is a real number for a line with no

losses; for example, a 50-ohm line does not refer
to the resistance of the wire in the line, but the
voltage/current ratio as seen by the source
Problems (Set 1)

1. The Zo of the transmission line is 300 ohms and terminated by a load

impedance of (300-j300) ohms. What is the line transmission coefficient?

2. A generator of 50 ohms internal impedance and operating at 1 GHz feeds a 75

ohm load via a coaxial line of characteristic impedance of 50 ohms. Calculate
for the VSWR of the line.

3. A 50m ohms lossless transmission line is terminated in a 100 ohms load and is
excited by a 30 MHz source of internal resistance of 50 ohms. What should be
the length of a transmission line for maximum power transfer?

4. A quarter wave transformer made of air-filled coaxial line, matches two

transmission line of charactrestic impedance of 50 ohms and 72 ohms
respectively. If the inner conductor of the coaxial line is made 10 mm in
diameter, what should be the diameter of the approximate outer conductor?
5. A transmission line having air dielectric is operated at frequency of 110 MHz.
What is the phase shift constant of the line in degrees per inch?

Transmission Lines 71
 Set 2

1. A piece of RG-59B/U coaxial cable has a 75Ω characteristic

impedance Zo and nominal capacitance of 69 pF/m. What is its
inductance per meter? If the diameter of the inner conductor is
0.584 mm and the dielectric constant of the insulation is 2.23,
what is the outer conductor diameter?
2. What is the minimum value that the Zo of an air dielectric
parallel-wire line could have?
3. A coaxial cable having an inner diameter of 0.025 mm and using
an insulator with a dielectric constant of 2.56 is to have a Zo of
2000 Ω. What must be the outer conductor diameter?
4. It is required to match a 200 Ω load to a 300 Ω transmission line,
to reduce the SWR along the line to unity (1). What must be the
Zo of the quarter wavelength (λ/4) transformer used for this
purpose if it is connected directly to the load?

Transmission Lines 72
Transmission Line Propagation Parameters
Complex Propagation Constant – ϒ
Wave velocity or Phase velocity - V
Reflection Coefficient - Г

Transmission Lines 73
Complex Propagation Constant - ϒ
The wave velocity or phase velocity and wavelength are given by:

TEM waves always propagate with velocity:

For lossless transmission lines, we find:

REFLECTIONS ON A TRANSMISSION LINE
 Transmission line characteristics are based on an infinite
line. When a line is not terminated in Z0, the incident
energy is not absorbed but is returned along the only
path available - the transmission line.
 A line cannot always be terminated in its characteristic
impedance since it is sometimes operated as an OPEN-
ENDED line and other times as a SHORT-CIRCUIT at the
receiving end.
 If the line is open-ended, it has a terminating impedance
that is infinitely large. If a line is not terminated in
characteristic impedance, it is said to be finite.
- Sending-end impedance of various lengths and terminations.
When AC is applied to an OPEN-END line, voltage is always reflected back in phase
with the incident wave and current is reflected back out of phase.
When AC is applied to a SHORT-CIRCUITED line, voltage is reflected in
opposite phase, while current is reflected in phase.
A NONRESONANT line has NO STANDING
WAVES of current and voltage and is either
infinitely long or terminated in its characteristic
impedance.

A RESONANT line has STANDING WAVES of

current and voltage and is of finite length and is
not terminated in its characteristic impedance.
REFLECTIONS ON A TRANSMISSION LINE

TERMINATING A TRANSMISSION LINE

Since no reflections occur, all the energy traveling down the

line is absorbed by the load which terminates the line. Since
no standing waves are present, this type of line is sometimes
spoken of as a FLAT LINE.

In addition, because the load impedance of such a line is equal

to Z0, no special tuning devices are required to effect a
maximum power transfer; hence, the line is also called an
UNTUNED LINE.
REFLECTIONS ON A TRANSMISSION LINE

RESONANT LINES

The load impedance is different from the Z0 of the

line; therefore, the input impedance may not be
purely resistive but may have reactive components.

Tuning devices are used to eliminate the reactance

and to bring about maximum power transfer from
the source to the line. Therefore, a resonant line is
sometimes called a TUNED LINE.
REFLECTIONS ON A TRANSMISSION LINE

RESONANT LINES

 The line also may be used for a resonant or tuned

circuit. A resonant line is sometimes said to be
resonant at an applied frequency. This means that at
one frequency the line acts as a RESONANT CIRCUIT.

 It may act either as a high-resistive circuit (parallel

resonant) or as a low-resistive circuit (series resonant).
The line may be made to act in this manner by either
open- or short-circuiting it at the output end and
cutting it to some multiple of a quarter-wavelength.
REFLECTIONS ON A TRANSMISSION LINE

RESONANT LINES

 At the points of voltage maxima and minima on a short-

circuited or open-circuited line, the line impedance is
resistive.

 On a short-circuited line, each point at an odd number of

quarter-wavelengths from the receiving end has a high
impedance .

 If the frequency of the applied voltage to the line is varied,

this impedance decreases as the effective length of the line
changes. This variation is exactly the same as the change in
the impedance of a parallel-resonant circuit when the
applied frequency is varied.
On an open-ended resonant line,
and at all odd 1/4 λ points, the
voltage is minimum, the current is
maximum, and the impedance is
minimum.

At all even 1/4  λ  points, the voltage

is maximum, the current is minimum
and the impedance is maximum.
 VARIETY OF TERMINATIONS FOR RF LINES

Each termination has an effect on the standing waves on the line.

A transmission line can be terminated in its characteristic impedance as an open- or short-
circuit, or in capacitance or inductance.
Whenever the termination on a transmission line is NOT EQUAL TO Z0, there are reflections
on the line.

The amount of voltage reflected may be found by using the equation:

When the termination on a transmission line EQUALS Z0, there is NO reflected

voltage.
The Transmission-line Geometry:

Voltage Reflection Coefficient (at the load) is defined as the

ratio of reflected voltage to incident voltage, which can in
general be complex:
VOLTAGE REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

Some special cases to remember are:

Using the load reflection coefficient gives:

REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

Generalized reflection coefficient along the line:

So the magnitude of Гdoes not change as we move

along the line; only the phase changes.
The measurement of standing waves on a transmission line
yields information about operating conditions.

If there are NO standing waves, the termination for that line

is correct and maximum power transfer takes place.

STANDING WAVE RATIO  is the measurement of maximum

voltage (current) to minimum voltage (current) on a
transmission line and measures the perfection of the
termination of the line.

A ratio of 1:1 describes a line terminated in its characteristic

impedance.
STANDING WAVES ON A TRANSMISSION LINE

There is a large variety of terminations for RF lines. Each type of

termination has a characteristic effect on the standing waves on
the line. From the nature of the standing waves, you can
determine the type of termination that produces the waves.

TERMINATION IN Z0

Termination in Z0 (characteristic impedance) will cause a

constant reading on an AC meter when it is moved along the
length of the line.
Effects of various terminations on standing waves.

As illustrated in the figure (next slide), view A, the curve, provided there are
no losses in the line, will be a straight line. If there are losses in the line, the
amplitude of the voltage and current will diminish as they move down the line
(view B). The losses are due to dc resistance in the line itself.
Effects of various terminations on standing waves.

In an open-circuited RF line (figure view C), the voltage is maximum at the

end, but the current is minimum.
TERMINATION IN AN OPEN CIRCUIT
• In an open-circuited RF line (figure view C), the voltage is maximum
at the end, but the current is minimum.
• The distance between two adjacent zero current points is ½ , and
the distance between alternate zero current points is 1 .
• The voltage is zero at a distance of ¼  from the end of the line.
• This is true at any frequency. A voltage peak occurs at the end of
the line, at ½  from the end, and at each ½  thereafter.
Effects of various terminations on standing waves
 Standing Waves
• The combination of forward and reverse travelling waves
produce a standing-wave, which is so-called because the
positions of maximum and minimum signal do not vary
with time.
• The actual shape of this standing wave is a function of
the load impedance.
• We define a STANDING WAVE RATIO as:

Note: Other text use the beta symbol for reflection coefficient.
 VSWR
VSWR: The ratio of the high voltage points to the low voltage
points is called the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). 

SWR: The ratio of the high current points to low current

points is known as current standing ratio or simply as the
standing wave ratio (SWR).
 Reflection and Transmission
• Reflection

Refer to
slide 55

• Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) can also be

expressed in terms of the reflection coefficient:
Effect of mismatch

The perfect condition of no reflection occurs only when the load is purely
resistive and equal to Zo.  Such a condition is called a flat line and indicates a
VSWR of 1.    If the load is a known value of pure resistance, the VSWR can be
determined by the following equation:

Power loss

If reflection occurs because of mismatch, the full generator power does

not reach the load.

The existence of reflections (and re-reflections) increases the power

loss in the form of  I2R heating.
Example:

A transmitter operating with 4-W output is connected via a 10m of RG-8A/U

50-Ohm coaxial cable to an antenna that has an input resistance of 300-
Ohm.  Determine (a)   the VSWR, (b)  the amount of transmitter's 4-W output
absorbed by the antenna.

Solution:

a)

b)

The reflected voltage is r times the incident voltage.  Since power is

proportional to the square of the voltage, the reflected power,
Prefl is (5/7)2 x 4 W = 2.04 W
and the Power to the Antenna = 4 W  - Prefl = 1.96 W
Problem:

To match a resistive load, ZLoad, to a line with characteristic impedance ZO, a

l/4 section of line (L2) with characteristic impedance Zm should be placed
between them. Refer to the diagram below. What should be the The
required l/4 section to match the 50-Ohm line to the 300-Ohm resistive
load ?

 
Remember that l/4 matching sections are only effective working into a
resistive load.
End of Lesson 1