INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS

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Dr. CHARLES S. DAVID
 What is
Economics?

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 A social science that studies and
influences human behavior
 Economics is the study of what
constitutes rational human behavior in
the endeavor to fulfill needs and wants.

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 Economics, Scarcity, and Choice
 A good definition of economics
 Study of choice under conditions of
scarcity
 Scarcity
 Situation in which the amount of something
available is insufficient to satisfy the desire
for it

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 Scarcity and Individual Choice
 There are an unlimited variety of scarcities,
however they are all based on two basic limitations
 Scarce time
 Scarce spending power
 Limitations force each of us to make choices
 Economists study choices we make as individuals,
and consequences of those choices
 Economists also study more subtle and indirect
effects of individual choice on our society

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 Scarcity and Social Choice
 The problem for society is a scarcity of resources
 Scarcity of Labor
• Time human beings spend producing goods and services
 Scarcity of Capital
• Something produced that is long-lasting, and used to make other things that we
value
 Human capital
 Capital stock(It is the total amount of physical capital at any particular moment in time).
 Scarcity of land
• Physical space on which production occurs, and the natural resources that
come with it
 Scarcity of entrepreneurship
• Ability and willingness to combine the other resources into a productive
enterprise
 As a society our resources—land, labor, and capital—are
insufficient to produce all the goods and services we might desire
 In other words, society faces a scarcity of resources

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 Scarcity and Economics
 The scarcity of resources—and the choices it
forces us to make—is the source of all of the
problems studied in economics
 Households allocate limited income among goods and
services
 Business firms choices of what to produce and how much
are limited by costs of production
 Government agencies work with limited budgets and
must carefully choose which goals to pursue
 Economists study these decisions to
 Explain how our economic system works
 Forecast the future of our economy
 Suggest ways to make that future even better

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 Microeconomics
 Micro
 Micro comes from Greek word mikros, meaning
“small”
 Microeconomics
 Study of behavior of individual households, firms,
and governments
• Choices they make
• Interaction in specific markets
 Focuses on individual parts of an economy,
rather than the whole

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 Macroeconomics
 Macro
 Macro comes from Greek word, makros,
meaning “large”
 Macroeconomics
 Study of the economy as a whole
 Focuses on big picture and ignores fine
details

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 Positive Economics
 Study of how economy works
 Statements about how the economy works
are positive statements, whether they are
true or not
 Accuracy of positive statements can be
tested by looking at the facts—and just the
facts

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 Normative Economics
 Study of what should be
 Used to make value judgments, identify
problems, and prescribe solutions
 Statements that suggest what we should do
about economic facts, are normative statements
• Based on values
 Normative statements cannot be proved or
disproved by the facts alone

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 Why Economists Disagree
 In some cases, the disagreement may be
positive in nature because
 Our knowledge of the economy is imperfect
 Certain facts are in dispute
 In most cases, the disagreement is
normative in nature because
 While the facts may not be in dispute
• Differing values of economists lead them to dissimilar
conclusions about what should be done

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 Why Study Economics
 To understand the world better
 You’ll begin to understand the cause of
many of the things that affect your life
 To gain self-confidence
 You’ll lose that feeling that mysterious,
inexplicable forces are shaping your life for
you

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 Why Study Economics
 To achieve social change
 You’ll gain tools to understand origins of social
problems and design more effective solutions
 To help prepare for other careers
 You’ll discover that a wide range of careers deal
with economic issues on many levels
 To become an economist
 You’ll begin to develop a body of knowledge that
could lead you to become an economist in the
future

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 The Methods of Economics
 Economics relies heavily on modeling
 Economic theories must have a well-constructed
model
 While most models are physical constructs
 Economists use words, diagrams, and
mathematical statements
 What is a model?
 Abstract representation of reality

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 The Art of Building Economic Models
 Guiding principle of economic model building
 Should be as simple as possible to accomplish
its purpose
 Level of detail that would be just right for one
purpose will usually be too much or too little
for another
 Even complex models are built around a
simple framework

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 Assumptions and Conclusions
 Types of assumptions in an economic model
 Simplifying assumptions
• Way of making a model simpler without affecting any
of its important conclusions
 Critical assumptions
• Affect conclusions of a model in important ways
• If critical assumptions are wrong model will be wrong
 All economic models have one or more
critical assumptions

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 Two Fundamental Assumptions
 The economy is complex
 Economists make sense of all this activity in two steps
 First, the decision makers in the economy are divided into three broad groups:
• Households
• Business
• Government agencies
 In Microeconomic models
• Individual households
• firms
• Government agencies
 In Macroeconomic models
• Household sector
• Business sector
• Government sector
• Foreign sector
 The next step in understanding the economy is to make two critical
assumptions about decision makers

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 First Fundamental Assumption
 Every economic decision maker tries to make the best out of
any situation
 Typically, making the best out of a situation means maximizing some
quantity
 While economists often have spirited disagreements about what is
being maximized, there is virtually unanimous agreement that any
economic model should begin with the assumption that someone is
maximizing something
 The first fundamental assumption seems to imply that we are all
engaged in a relentless, conscious pursuit of narrow goals
• An implication contradicted by much of human behavior
• In truth, we only rarely make decisions with conscious, hard calculations
• Why, then, do economists assume that people make decisions
consciously, when, in reality, they often don’t?

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 First Fundamental Assumption
 This is an important question
• Economists answer it this way
 The ultimate purpose of building an economic model is to
understand and predict behavior
 The behavior of households, firms, government, and the overall
economy
 As long as people behave as if they are maximizing something, then
we can build a good model by assuming that they are
 One last thought about the assumption that people
maximize something
• It does not imply that people are selfish or that economists think
they are
 Economics also recognizes that people often care about
their friends, their neighbors, and the broader society in
which whey live

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 Second Fundamental Assumption
 Every economic decision maker faces constraints
 Society’s overall scarcity of resources constrains each of
us individually in much the same way as the overall
scarcity of space in a crowded elevator limits each rider’s
freedom of movement
 Together, the two fundamental assumptions help define
the approach economists take in answering questions
about the world
• Economists always begin with the same three questions
 1. Who are the individual decision makers?
 2. What are they maximizing?
 3. What constraints do they face?
• This approach is used so heavily by economists that it is one of
the basic principles of economics you will learn in this book

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 Math, Jargon, and Other Concerns…
 What is economic jargon?
 Special words that allow economists to more
precisely express themselves
 What about math?
 Basic economics only requires high school level
algebra and geometry
 Appendix at end of this chapter covers some of
the basic concepts that you will need

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 The Basic Principles of Economics
 In this book, you will learn eight basic principles of economics
 A “key” symbol will appear each time one of them is introduced for the first
time
 Then, each time the principle is used in the text you’ll be alerted with the
same key symbol, in the margin
 The Eight Basic Principles of Economics
 Basic Principle #1: Maximization Subject to Constraints
 Basic Principle #2: Opportunity Cost
 Basic Principle #3: Specialization and Exchange
 Basic Principle #4: Markets and Equilibrium
 Basic Principle #5: Policy Tradeoffs
 Basic Principle #6: Marginal Decision Making
 Basic Principle #7: Short-Run versus Long-Run Outcomes
 Basic Principle #8: The Importance of Real Values
 You may want to flip back to this list from time to time, especially when
you see the “key” symbol in the margin and need to refresh your
memory about the principle that it refers to

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 How to Study Economics
 Following alone in class and learning are two
different things
 Economics must be studied actively, not passively
 What does active studying mean?
 Closing the book periodically and reproducing what you
have learned
 Reading with a pencil in your hand and a blank sheet of
paper in front of you
 Listing the steps in each logical argument
 Retracing the cause-and-effect steps in each model
 Drawing the graphs that represent the model
 Thinking about the basic principles of economics and
how they relate to what you are learning

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